Week 6

The Nervous System

Week 6
Learning Outcomes - You should now be able to:

• Describe the composition and function of Nervous System

• Distinguish the types of Nervous systems and their functions
• Identify the disorders of the Nervous system
 Nervous System
• The nervous system integrates and coordinates all the body’s varied activities

• Its two primary divisions are:

(1) the central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord; and
(2) the peripheral system, consisting of all the nervous tissue in the body outside the brain and spinal cord

• Both these major divisions of the nervous system are composed of two types of specialized cells

• Neurons (nerve cells) are excitable cells that generate and transmit messages.

• Outnumbering the neurons by about 10 to 1, neuroglial cells (also called glial cells) support and protect neurons
 Neuroglial cells
• The nervous system has several types of glial cells, each with a different role

• Some glial cells provide structural support for the neurons of the brain and spinal cord

• Glial cells also provide a steady supply of chemicals, called nerve growth factors, that stimulate nerve growth

• Without nerve growth factors, neurons die

• Other glial cells form insulating sheaths around axons that, as described shortly, are the long projections
extending from certain neurons

• This sheath, called the myelin sheath, has several important functions

• Scientists now know that glial cells can communicate with one another and with neurons.
 Neurons
• The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron, or nerve cell

• Neurons, which are responsible for an amazing variety of functions, can be grouped into the three general
categories :

Sensory (or afferent) neurons conduct information toward the brain and spinal cord. These neurons generally extend
from sensory receptors, which are structures specialized to gather information about the conditions within and
around our bodies

Motor (or efferent) neurons carry information away from the brain and spinal cord to an effector—either a muscle,
which will contract, or a gland, which will secrete its product, as a response to information from a sensory or
interneuron

Association neurons, commonly called interneurons, are located between sensory and motor neurons. They are
found only within the brain and spinal cord, where they integrate and interpret the sensory signals, thereby
“deciding” on the appropriate response.

Interneurons are by far the most numerous nerve cells in the body; they account for more than 99% of the body’s
neurons.
Types of Neurons in action
Structure of
a Neuron
 CNS

The central nervous system includes

the brain and spinal cord, which are
made up of many closely packed
neurons

PNS

The nerves and ganglia of the PNS carry

information between the CNS and the
rest of the body. The PNS consists of
spinal nerves and cranial nerves.
 How is the Brain protected?
• The brain and spinal cord are protected by bony cases (the skull and vertebral column),
membranes (the meninges), and a fluid cushion (cerebrospinal fluid).

Meninges include three protective connective tissue coverings of the brain and spinal
cord:

The outermost layer, the dura mater, is tough and leathery.

Beneath the dura mater is the arachnoid (Latin, meaning “like a cobweb”)

The arachnoid is anchored to the next-lower layer of meninges by thin, threadlike

extensions that resemble a spider’s web (hence the name of the layer)

The innermost layer, the pia mater, is molded around the brain. Fitting like a leotard, the
pia mater dips into every indentation on the brain’s surface.
 Meningitis
• Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges.

• All cases of meningitis must be taken seriously because the infection can spread to the underlying nervous tissue and
cause encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), which can be deadly.

• Many types of bacteria and certain viruses can cause meningitis.

• If bacteria are the cause, the person is treated with antibiotics. If a virus is the cause, treatment includes medicines to
alleviate pain and fever while the body’s immune system fights the virus.

• Freshmen college students housed in dormitories are at increased risk of getting bacterial meningitis because of their
close living quarters.

• Part of the reason is the means by which the bacteria are spread. People can carry the bacteria in their throat without
having any symptoms of illness and can spread the infection through coughing, sneezing,
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
• The cerebrospinal fluid fills the space between layers of the meninges as well as the internal cavities of the brain, called
ventricles, and the cavity within the spinal cord, called the central canal.

• This fluid is formed in the ventricles and circulates from them through the central canal.

• Eventually, cerebrospinal fluid is reabsorbed into the blood.

• Cerebrospinal fluid has several important functions:

-Shock absorption: Just as an air bag protects the driver of a car by preventing impact with the steering wheel, the
cerebrospinal fluid protects the brain by cushioning its impact with the skull during blows or other head trauma

-Support: Because the brain floats in the cerebrospinal fluid, it is not crushed under its own weight

-Nourishment and waste removal: The cerebrospinal fluid delivers nutrients and chemical messengers and removes waste
products. The brain is, indeed, protected by the skull, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.
 The Blood brain barrier
• The CNS is also protected by the blood–brain barrier, a mechanism that selects the substances permitted to enter the
cerebrospinal fluid from the blood.

• This barrier is formed by the tight junctions between the cells of the capillary walls that supply blood to the brain and spinal
cord.

• Because the cells are held together much more tightly than are cells in capillaries in the rest of the body, substances in the
blood are forced to pass through the cells of the capillaries instead of between the cells.

• Thus, the membranes of the capillary cells filter and adjust the composition of the filtrate by selecting the substances that
can leave the blood.

• The plasma membranes of the capillary walls are largely lipid. So, lipid-soluble substances, including oxygen and carbon
dioxide, can pass through easily.

• Certain drugs, including caffeine and alcohol, are lipid soluble, explaining why they can have a rapid effect on the brain.
However, the blood–brain barrier prevents many potentially life-saving, infection-fighting, or tumor-suppressing drugs that
are not lipid soluble from reaching brain tissue, which frustrates physicians.
The Cerebral cortex
 The Cerbellum
• It is the part of the brain responsible for sensory–motor coordination. It acts as an automatic pilot that produces smooth,
well-timed voluntary movements and controls equilibrium and posture.

• Sensory information concerning the position of joints and the degree of tension in muscles and tendons is sent to the
cerebellum from all parts of the body.

• By integrating this information with input from the eyes and the equilibrium receptors in the ears, the cerebellum knows the
body’s position and direction of movement at any given instant.

• The coordination of sensory input and motor output by the cerebellum involves two important processes: comparison and
prediction.

• During every move you make, the cerebellum continuously compares the actual position of each part of the body with
where it ought to be at that moment (in relation to the intended movement) and makes the necessary corrections.

• Try to touch the tips of your two index fingers together above your head. You probably missed on the first attempt. However,
the cerebellum makes the necessary corrections, and you will likely succeed on the next attempt.

• At the same time, the cerebellum calculates future positions of a body part during a movement. Then, just before that part
reaches the intended position, the cerebellum sends messages to stop the movement at a specific point.
Brain Stem
• The brain stem consists of the medulla oblongata, the
midbrain, and the pons.

• The medulla oblongata is often called simply the

medulla

• This marvelous inch of nervous tissue contains reflex

centers for some of life’s most vital physiological
functions—including the pace of the basic breathing
rhythm, the force and rate of heart contraction, and
blood pressure

• The medulla connects the spinal cord to the rest of the

brain
 Autonomic Nervous System

• As part of the body’s system of homeostasis, the autonomic nervous system automatically adjusts the functioning of
our body organs so that the proper internal conditions are maintained and the body is able to meet the demands of
the world around it.

• The somatic nervous system sends information about conditions within the body to the autonomic nervous system.

• The autonomic nervous system then makes the appropriate adjustments.

• Its activities alter digestive activity, open or close blood vessels to shunt blood to areas that need it most, and alter
heart rate and breathing rate.

• Recall that the autonomic nervous system consists of two branches: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic
nervous systems.
 Disorders of the Nervous system

• It may vary tremendously in severity and impact on the body

• Some disorders, such as a mild headache, are often more of a nuisance than a
health problem

• Others, such as insufficient sleep, can cause more problems than a person might
expect

• Still other disorders, such as stroke, coma, and spinal cord injury, can have
devastating effects on a person’s well-being
 Headaches
• Headaches can occur for almost any reason: they can be caused
by stress or by relaxation, by hunger or by eating the wrong food, or
by too much or too little sleep

• The most common type of headache is a tension headache,

affecting some 60% to 80% of people who suffer from frequent
headaches

• In response to stress, most of us unconsciously contract the

muscles of our head, face, and neck

• Therefore, the pain of a tension headache is usually a dull, steady

ache, often described as feeling like a tight band around

(Image credit: [Link])

 Migraine Headaches

• These type of headaches are usually confined to one side of the

head, often centered behind one eye.

• A migraine headache typically causes a throbbing pain that increases

with each beat of the heart

• It is sometimes called a sick headache because it may cause nausea

and vomiting

• Some migraine sufferers experience an aura, a group of sensory

symptoms, different for different people, that occurs just before an
attack.

• The aura may include visual disturbances (a blind spot, zigzag lines,
flashing lights), auditory hallucinations, or numbness

(Image credit: [Link])

 Stroke
• A stroke, also called a cerebrovascular accident, is the death of
nerve cells caused by an interruption of blood flow to a region of
the brain.

• Neurons have a high demand for both oxygen and glucose

• Therefore, when the blood supply to a portion of the brain is

shut off, the affected neurons begin to die within minutes

• The extent and location of the mental or physical impairment

caused by a stroke depend on the region of the brain involved

• If the left side of the brain is affected, the person may lose
sensations in or the ability to move parts of the right side of his
or her body because motor nerve pathways cross from one side
of the brain to the other in the lower brain
(Image credit: [Link])
 Stroke
• Because the language centers are usually in the left hemisphere, the person may also have
difficulty speaking

• When the stroke damages the right rear of the brain, some people show what is called the
neglect syndrome and behave as if the left side of things, even their own bodies, does not exist

• The person may comb only the hair on the right side of the head or eat only the food on the right
side of the plate.

• Common causes of strokes include blood clots blocking a vessel, hemorrhage from the rupture of
a blood vessel in one of the meninges, or the formation of fatty deposits that block a vessel

• High blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes, smoking, obesity, and excessive alcohol intake
increase the risk of stroke
 Coma
• Although a comatose person seems to be asleep—with eyes
closed and no recognizable speech—a coma is not deep sleep

• A person in a coma is totally unresponsive to all sensory input

and cannot be awakened

• Although the cerebral cortex is most directly responsible for

consciousness, damage to the cerebrum is rarely the cause of
coma

• Instead, coma is caused by trauma to neurons in regions of the

brain responsible for stimulating the cerebrum, particularly
those in the reticular activating system or thalamus

• Coma can be caused by mechanical shock— as might be caused

by a blow to the head—tumors, infections, drug overdose, or
failure of the liver or kidney

(Image credit: [Link])