NUMERICAL CONTROL AND
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
1. Numerical Control
2. Industrial Robotics
Numerical Control
A form of programmable automation in which
the mechanical actions of a piece of equipment
are controlled by a program containing coded
alphanumeric data
The data represent relative positions between
a workhead and a workpart
⚫ Workhead = tool or other processing
element
⚫ Workpart = object being processed
NC operating principle is to control the motion
of the workhead relative to the workpart and to
control the sequence of motions
Components of a NC System
1. Part program - detailed set of commands to be
followed by the processing equipment
2. Machine control unit (MCU) - microcomputer that
stores and executes the program by converting
each command into actions by the processing
equipment, one command at a time
3. Processing equipment - accomplishes the
sequence of processing steps to transform
starting workpart into completed part
NC Coordinate System
Consists of three linear axes (x, y, z) of Cartesian
coordinate system, plus three rotational axes (a,
b, c)
⚫ Rotational axes are used to orient workpart or
workhead to access different surfaces for
machining
⚫ Most NC systems do not require all six axes
NC Coordinate Systems
Figure 39.2 Coordinate systems used in numerical control: (a)
for flat and prismatic work.
NC Coordinate Systems
Figure 39.2 Coordinate systems used in numerical control:
(b) for rotational work.
NC Motion Control Systems
Two types:
1. Point-to-point
2. Continuous path
Point-to-Point (PTP) System
Workhead (or workpiece) is moved to a
programmed location with no regard for path
taken to get to that location
When the move is completed, some processing
action is performed by the workhead
⚫ Examples: drilling or punching a hole
Thus, the part program consists of a series of
point locations at which operations are performed
Also called positioning systems
Continuous Path (CP) System
Continuous simultaneous control of more than
one axis, thus controlling path followed by tool
relative to part
Permits tool to perform a process while axes are
moving, enabling system to generate angular
surfaces, two-dimensional curves, or 3-D contours
in the workpart
⚫ Examples: many milling and turning
operations, flame cutting
Also called contouring in machining operations
Two Types of Positioning
Absolute positioning
⚫ Locations are always defined with respect to
origin of axis system
Incremental positioning
⚫ Next location is defined relative to present
location
Absolute vs. Incremental Positioning
Figure 39.3 The workhead is presently at point (2,3) and is to be
moved to point (6,8). In absolute positioning, the move is specified
by x = 6, y = 8; while in incremental positioning, the move is
specified by x = 4, y = 5.
NC Positioning System
Figure 39.4 Motor and leadscrew arrangement in a NC positioning
system.
NC Positioning System
Converts the coordinates specified in the NC
part program into relative positions and
velocities between tool and workpart
⚫ Leadscrew pitch p - table is moved a
distance equal to the pitch for each
revolution
⚫ Table velocity (e.g., feed rate in machining)
is set by the RPM of leadscrew
To provide x-y capability, a single-axis system
is piggybacked on top of a second
perpendicular axis
Two Basic Types of Control in NC
Open loop system
⚫ Operates without verifying that the actual
position is equal to the specified position
Closed loop control system
⚫ Uses feedback measurement to verify that the
actual position is equal to the specified location
Precision in Positioning
Three critical measures of precision in
positioning:
1. Control resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability
Control Resolution (CR)
Defined as the distance separating two adjacent
control points in the axis movement
Control points are locations along the axis to
which the worktable can be directed to go
CR depends on:
⚫ Electromechanical components of positioning
system
⚫ Number of bits used by controller to define axis
coordinate location
Control Points along Linear Axis
Figure 39.7 A portion of a linear positioning system axis, indicating
control resolution, accuracy, and repeatability.
Statistical Distribution of Mechanical
Errors
When a positioning system is directed to
move to a given control point, the movement
to that point is limited by mechanical errors
⚫ Errors are due to various inaccuracies and
imperfections, such as gear backlash, play
between leadscrew and worktable, and deflection
of machine components
It is assumed that the errors form a normal
distribution with mean = 0 and standard
deviation constant over axis range
Accuracy in a Positioning System
Maximum possible error that can occur between
desired target point and actual position taken by
system
For one axis:
Accuracy = 0.5 CR + 3
where CR = control resolution; and = standard
deviation of the error distribution
Repeatability
Capability of a positioning system to return to a
given control point that has been previously
programmed
Repeatability of any given axis of a positioning
system can be defined as the range of
mechanical errors associated with the axis
Repeatability = 3
NC Part Programming Techniques
1. Manual part programming
2. Computer-assisted part programming
3. CAD/CAM- assisted part programming
4. Manual data input
Common features:
⚫ Points, lines, and surfaces of workpart must
be defined relative to NC axis system
⚫ Movement of cutting tool must be defined
relative to these part features
Manual Part Programming
Uses basic numerical data and special
alphanumeric codes to define the steps in the
process
Suited to simple point-to-point machining jobs,
such as drilling operations
Manual Part Programming: Example
Example command for drilling operation:
n010 x70.0 y85.5 f175 s500
where n-word (n010) = a sequence number; x- and y-words
= x and y coordinate positions (x = 70.0 mm and y = 85.5
mm), and f-word and s-word = feed rate and spindle speed
(feed rate = 175 mm/min, spindle speed = 500 rev/min)
Complete part program consists of a sequence of
commands
Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Uses high-level programming language
⚫ Suited to programming of more complex
parts
⚫ First NC part programming language was
APT = Automatically Programmed
Tooling
⚫ In APT, part programming is divided into
two basic steps:
1. Definition of part geometry
2. Specification of tool path and
operation sequence
APT Geometry Statements
Part programmer defines geometry of workpart by
constructing it of basic geometric elements such
as points, lines, planes, and circles
⚫ Examples:
P1 = POINT/25.0, 150.0
L1 = LINE/P1, P2
where P1 is a point located at x = 25 and y = 150,
and L1 is a line through points P1 and P2
Similar statements are used to define circles,
cylinders, and other geometry elements
APT Motion Statements: PTP
Specification of tool path accomplished with APT
motion statements
⚫ Example for point-to-point operation:
GOTO/P1
⚫ Moves from current location to location P1
⚫ P1 has been defined by a previous APT
geometry statement
APT Motion Statements (CP)
Previously defined geometry elements such as
lines, circles, and planes are used to direct tool
⚫ Example for contouring operation:
GORGT/L3, PAST, L4
Directs tool to go right (GORGT) along line L3
until it is positioned just past line L4
⚫ L4 must be a line that intersects L3
CAD/CAM-Assisted Part Programming
In computer-assisted part programming, the part
program is written and then entered into the
computer for processing
⚫ Programming errors may not be detected until
computer processing
With CAD/CAM, programmer receives visual
verification as each statement is entered
⚫ Errors can be corrected immediately rather
than after entire program has been written
If part design prepared on CAD, then CAD model
can be used for part programming, making
geometric definition unnecessary
Manual Data Input (MDI)
Machine operator enters part program at machine
Involves use of a CRT display with graphics
capability at machine tool controls
⚫ NC part programming statements are entered
using a menu-driven procedure that requires
minimum training of machine tool operator
Because MDI does not require a staff of NC part
programmers, MDI is feasible for small machine
shops to implement NC
Applications of Numerical Control
Operating principle of NC applies to many
operations
⚫ Many industrial operations require the
position of a workhead to be controlled
relative to the part or product being
processed
Two categories of NC applications:
1. Machine tool applications
2. Non- machine tool applications
Machine Tool Applications
NC widely used for machining operations such as
turning, drilling, and milling
NC has motivated development of machining
centers, which change their own cutting tools to
perform a variety of machining operations
Other NC machine tools:
⚫ Grinding machines
⚫ Sheet metal pressworking machines
⚫ Tube bending machines
⚫ Thermal cutting processes
NC Horizontal Machining Center
Non-Machine Tool Applications
Tape laying machines and filament winding
machines for composites
Welding machines, both arc welding and
resistance welding
Component insertion machines in electronics
assembly
Drafting machines (x-y plotters)
Coordinate measuring machines for inspection
Benefits of NC
Reduced non-productive time
⚫ Results in shorter cycle times
Lower manufacturing lead times
Simpler fixtures
Greater manufacturing flexibility
Improved accuracy
Reduced human error
Industrial Robotics
An industrial robot is a general purpose
programmable machine that possesses certain
anthropomorphic features
The most apparent anthropomorphic feature is
the robot’s mechanical arm, or manipulator
Robots can perform a variety of tasks such as
⚫ Loading and unloading machine tools
⚫ Spot welding automobile bodies
⚫ Spray painting
Robots are typically used as substitutes for
human workers in these tasks
Robot Anatomy
An industrial robot consists of
⚫ Mechanical manipulator
Consists of joints and links to position and orient
the end of the manipulator relative to its base
⚫ Controller
Operates the joints in a coordinated fashion to
execute a programmed work cycle
Figure 39.8 The
manipulator of an
industrial robot
Manipulator Joints and Links
A robot joint is similar to a human body joint
⚫ It provides relative movement between two
parts of the body
Typical industrial robots have five or six joints
⚫ Manipulator joints - classified as linear or
rotating
⚫ Each joint moves its output link relative to its
input link
⚫ Coordinated movement of joints enables robot
to move, position, and orient objects
Manipulator Design
Robot manipulators can usually be divided into
two sections:
⚫ Arm-and-body assembly - function is to position an
object or tool
Three joints typical for arm-and-body
⚫ Wrist assembly - function is to properly orient the
object or tool
Two or three joints associated with wrist
Five Basic Arm-and-Body
Configurations
1. Polar
2. Cylindrical
3. Cartesian coordinate
4. Jointed-arm
5. SCARA (Selectively Compliant Assembly Robot Arm)
Polar Configuration
Figure 39.9 Five common
anatomies of industrial
robots: (a) Polar
Cylindrical Configuration
Figure 39.9 Five common
anatomies of industrial robots:
(b) cylindrical
Cartesian Coordinate Configuration
Figure 39.9 Five common
anatomies of industrial
robots: (c) Cartesian
coordinate
Jointed-Arm Configuration
Figure 39.9 Five
common anatomies of
industrial robots: (d)
jointed-arm
SCARA Configuration
Figure 39.9 Five common anatomies
of industrial robots: (d) SCARA, or
Selectively Compliant Assembly
Robot Arm
Manipulator Wrist
The wrist is assembled to the last link of the
arm-and-body
The SCARA is sometimes an exception because
it is almost always used for simple handling and
assembly tasks involving vertical motions
⚫ A wrist is not usually present at the end of its
manipulator
⚫ Substituting for the wrist on the SCARA is
usually a gripper to grasp components for
movement and/or assembly
End Effectors
Special tooling that connects to the robot's wrist
to perform the specific task
1. Tools - used for a processing operation
⚫ Applications: spot welding guns, spray
painting nozzles, rotating spindles, heating
torches, assembly tools
2. Grippers - designed to grasp and move objects
(usually parts)
⚫ Applications: part placement, machine
loading and unloading, and palletizing
Gripper End Effector
Figure 39.10 A robot gripper: (a) open and (b) closed to
grasp a workpart.
Robot Programming
Robots execute a stored program of instructions
that define the sequence of motions and positions
in the work cycle
⚫ Much like a NC part program
In addition to motion instructions, the program
may include commands for other functions:
⚫ Interacting with external equipment
⚫ Responding to sensors
⚫ Processing data
Two Basic Robot Programming
Methods
1. Leadthrough programming –
⚫ Teaching-by-showing - manipulator is moved
through sequence of positions in the work
cycle and the controller records each position
in memory for subsequent playback
2. Computer programming languages
⚫ Robot program is prepared at least partially
off-line for subsequent downloading to robot
controller
Where Should Robots be Used?
Work environment is hazardous for humans
Work cycle is repetitive
The work is performed at a stationary location
Part or tool handling is difficult for humans
Multi-shift operation
Long production runs and infrequent changeovers
Part positioning and orientation are established at
the beginning of work cycle, since most robots
cannot see
Applications of Industrial Robots
Three basic categories:
1. Material handling
− Moving materials or parts (e.g., machine
loading and unloading)
2. Processing operations
− Manipulating a tool (e.g., spot welding,
spray painting)
3. Assembly and inspection
− May involve moving parts or tools
Robotic Spot Welding Application
Automatic spot
welding operation
performed by
industrial robot
(photo courtesy of
Daimler-Chrysler
Corp.)
