The most recent pattern of
ice ages began about 40 Ma,[56] and then intensified during
the Pleistocene about 3 Ma.[57] High- and middle-latitude regions have since undergone repeated
cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every 21,000, 41,000 and 100,000 years. [58] The Last
Glacial Period, colloquially called the "last ice age", covered large parts of the continents, up to the
middle latitudes, in ice and ended about 11,700 years ago. [59]
Origin of life and evolution
Life timeline
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Main articles: Origin of Life and Evolutionary history of life
Chemical reactions led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion
years later, the last common ancestor of all current life arose.[60] The evolution
of photosynthesis allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The
resultant molecular oxygen (O
2) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a
protective ozone layer (O
3) in the upper atmosphere.[61] The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in
the development of complex cells called eukaryotes.[62] True multicellular organisms formed as cells
within colonies became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet
radiation by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface. [63] Among the earliest fossil evidence
for life is microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia,
[64]
biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland,
[65]
and remains of biotic material found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. [66]
[67]
The earliest direct evidence of life on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old Australian rocks
showing fossils of microorganisms.[68][69]
During the Neoproterozoic, 1000 to 541 Ma, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This
hypothesis has been termed "Snowball Earth", and it is of particular interest because it preceded
the Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity. [70]
[71]
Following the Cambrian explosion, 535 Ma, there have been at least five major mass
extinctions and many minor ones.[72][73] Apart from the proposed current Holocene extinction event,
the most recent was 66 Ma, when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of the non-
avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but largely spared small animals such
as insects, mammals, lizards and birds. Mammalian life has diversified over the past 66 Mys, and
several million years ago an African ape gained the ability to stand upright. [74] This facilitated tool use
and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain,
which led to the evolution of humans. The development of agriculture, and then civilization, led to
humans having an influence on Earth and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues
to this day.[75] Over 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct.[76][77]
Future
Main article: Future of Earth
See also: Global catastrophic risk
Because carbon dioxide (CO
2) has a long life time in the atmosphere, moderate human CO
2 emissions may postpone the next glacial inception by 100,000 years. [78] Earth's expected long-term
future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next 1.1 billion years, solar luminosity will increase by 10%,
and over the next 3.5 billion years by 40%.[79] Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate
the inorganic carbon cycle, reducing CO
2 concentration to levels lethally low for plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis) in approximately 100–
900 million years.[80][81] The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere,
making animal life impossible.[82] Due to the increased luminosity, Earth's mean tempearture may
reach 100 °C (212 °F) in 1.5 billion years, and all ocean water will evaporate and be lost to space
within an estimated 1.6 to 3 billion years.[83] Even if the Sun were stable, a fraction of the water in the
modern oceans will descend to the mantle, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges. [83][84]
The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about 5 billion years. Models predict that the Sun will
expand to roughly 1 AU (150 million km; 93 million mi), about 250 times its present radius.[79]
[85]
Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal
effects, Earth will move to an orbit 1.7 AU (250 million km; 160 million mi) from the Sun when the
star reaches its maximum radius.[79]
Physical characteristics
