Definition of Science

Science is the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and
behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.

Branches of Science

 Agriology – comparative study of  Audiology – study of hearing

primitive peoples
 Agrobiology – study of plant nutrition;  Autecology – study of ecology of one
soil yields species

 Agrology – study of agricultural soils  Autology – scientific study of oneself

 Agronomics – study of productivity of  Biology – study of life

land
 Biochemistry – study of chemical
 Agrostology – science or study of processes within and relating to living
grasses organism
 Alethiology – study of truth  Biometrics – study of biological
measurement for security purposes
 Algedonics – science of pleasure and
pain
 Carpology – study of fruit
 Algology – study of algae or the study of
pain  Cartography – science of making maps
and globes
 Anaesthesiology – study of anaesthetics
 Cartophily – hobby of collecting cigarette
 Aristology – science or art of dining cards

 Aromachology – study of smell and odor  Castrametation – art of designing a

camp
 Arthrology – study of joints
 Catacoustics – science of echoes or
 Arthropodology – study of arthropods reflected sounds
like insects and arachnids
 Catalactics – science of commercial
 Astacology – science of crayfish exchange
 Astheniology – study of diseases of  Catechectics – art of teaching by
weakening and aging question and answer
 Astrobotany – study of plants in space  Cell Biology – study of the different
structures and functions of both eukaryote
 Astrogeology – study of extraterrestrial and prokaryote cells
geology
 Chiropody – medical science of feet
 Astronomy – study of celestial bodies
 Chorology – science of the geographic
 Astrophysics – study of behaviour of description of anything
interstellar matter
 Chrematistics – study of wealth; political
 Astroseismology – study of star economy
oscillations
 Chronobiology – study of biological
 Atmology – the science of aqueous rhythms
vapor
 Chrysology – study of precious metals  Forestry – study of the creation,
management, use, conservation, and repair
 Ciselure – art of chasing metal of forests and associated resources
 Climatology – study of climate  Futurology – study of future
 Clinology – study of aging or individual
decline after maturity  Garbology – study of garbage

 Codicology – study of manuscripts  Gastroenterology – study of stomach;

intestines
 Coleopterology – study of beetles and
weevils  Gastronomy – study of fine dining

 Cometology – study of comets  Gemmology – study of gems and jewels

 Conchology – study of shells  Gender Studies – study of gender

 Coprology – study of feces  Genealogy – study of descent of families

 Cosmetology – study of cosmetics  Genesiology – study of reproduction and

heredity
 Cosmology – study of the universe
 Genethlialogy – art of casting
 Craniology – study of the skull horoscopes

 Criminology – study of crime; criminals  Geochemistry – study of chemistry of

the earth's crust
 Cryobiology – study of life under cold
conditions  Geochronology – study of measuring
geological time
 Embryology – study of embryos
 Geography – study of surface of the
 Emetology – study of vomiting earth and its inhabitants

 Emmenology – study of menstruation  Geology – study of the rocks of a planet

 Endemiology – study of local diseases  Geomorphogeny – study of the origins

of land forms
 Endocrinology – study of glands
 Geoponics – study of agriculture
 Energetics – study of energy under
transformation  Geotechnics – study of increasing
habitability of the earth
 Engineering Studies – study of
engineering  Geratology – study of decadence and
decay
 Enigmatology – study of enigmas
 Gerocomy – study of old age
 Entomology – study of insects
 Gerontology – study of the elderly; aging
 Entozoology – study of parasites that
live inside larger organisms  Helminthology – study of worms
 Enzymology – study of enzymes  Hematology – study of blood
 Ephebiatrics – branch of medicine  Hepatology – study of liver
dealing with adolescence
 Heredity – study of passing of traits from
 Epidemiology – study of diseases; parents to offspring
epidemics
 Heresiology – study of heresies  Mastology – study of mammals

 Herpetology – study of reptiles and  Mathematics – study of magnitude,

amphibians number, and forms

 Hierology – science of sacred matters  Mazology – mammalogy; study of

mammals
 Hippiatrics – study of diseases of horses
 Mechanics – study of action of force on
 Hippology – study of horses bodies
 Histology – study of the tissues of  Meconology – study of or treatise
organisms concerning opium
 Histopathology – study of changes in  Media studies – study of mass media
tissue due to disease

 Historiography – study of writing history  Nephrology – study of the kidneys

 Hydrography – study of investigating  Neurobiology – study of anatomy of the

bodies of water nervous system

 Hydrokinetics – study of motion of fluids  Neurology – study of nervous system

 Hydrology – study of water resources  Neuropsychology – study of relation

between brain and behaviour
 Hydrometeorology – study of
atmospheric moisture  Neurypnology – study of hypnotism

 Hydropathy – study of treating diseases  Numerology – pseudoscientific study of

with water numbers

 Hyetology – science of rainfall  Numismatics – study of coins

 Nymphology – study of nymphs

 Idiopsychology – study of the
psychology of one's own mind  Nanotechnology – study of nanite

 Immunogenetics – study of genetic

 Onomasiology – study of nomenclature
characteristics of immunity
 Onomastics – study of proper names
 Immunology – study of immunity
 Ontology – science of pure being; the
 Immunopathology – study of immunity to
nature of things
disease
 Oology – study of eggs
 Insectology – study of insects
 Ophiology – study of snakes
 Irenology – study of peace
 Ophthalmology – study of eye diseases
 Kinesiology – study of human movement
and posture  Paroemiology – study of proverbs
 Kinetics – study of forces producing or  Parthenology – study of virgins
changing motion
 Pataphysics – science of imaginary
 Mariology – study of the Virgin Mary solutions

 Marine Biology– study of the ocean's  Pathology – study of disease

ecosystem
 Patrology – study of early Christianity
 Potamology – study of rivers  Sitology – dietetics

 Praxeology – study of practical or  Sociobiology – study of biological basis

efficient activity; science of efficient action of human behaviour

 Primatology – study of primates  Sociology – study of society

 Psychognosy – study of mentality,  Somatology – science of substances

personality or character
 Sophiology – science of ideas
 Psychology – study of mind
 Soteriology – study of theological
salvation
 Rheumatology – study of rheumatism
 Spectrology – study of ghosts
 Rhinology – study of the nose
 Spectroscopy – study of spectra
 Rhochrematics – science of inventory
management and the movement of products  Speleology – study and exploration of
caves
 Selenodesy – study of the shape and
features of the moon  Spermology – study of seeds

 Selenology – study of the moon  Sphagnology – study of peat moss

 Semantics – study of meaning  Sphragistics – study of seals and

signets
 Semantology – science of meanings of
words  Sphygmology – study of the pulse

 Semasiology – study of meaning;  Splanchnology – study of the entrails or

semantics viscera

 Semiology – study of signs and signals  Spongology – study of sponges

 Semiotics – study of signs and symbols  Stasiology – study of political parties

 Serology – study of serums  Statics – study of bodies and forces in

equilibrium
 Sexology – study of sexual behaviour
 Stellar Astronomy – study of stars, their
 Siderography – art of engraving on steel origins, and their evolution.

 Siderology – study of iron and its alloys,  Stemmatology – study of relationships

including steel between text

 Sigillography – study of seals  Stoichiology – science of elements of

animal tissues
 Significs – science of meaning
 Stomatology – study of the mouth
 Silvics – study of tree's life
 Storiology – study of folk tales
 Sindonology – study of the shroud of
Turin  Stratigraphy – study of geological layers
or strata
 Sinology – study of China

History of Science

The history of science is the study of the development of science, including both the natural and social
sciences (the history of the arts and humanities is termed history of scholarship). Science is a body
of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by scientists who
emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real-world phenomena. Historiography of
science, in contrast, studies the methods employed by historians of science.

The English word scientist is relatively recent, first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century.
Before that, investigators of nature called themselves "natural philosophers". While observations of the
natural world have been described since classical antiquity (for example, by Thales and Aristotle), and
the scientific method has been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al-
Haytham and Roger Bacon), modern science began to develop in the early modern period, and in
particular in the scientific revolution of 16th- and 17th-century Europe. Traditionally, historians of science
have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those earlier inquiries.

From the 18th through the late 20th century, the history of science, especially of the physical and
biological sciences, was often presented as a progressive accumulation of knowledge, in which true
theories replaced false beliefs. More recent historical interpretations, such as those of Thomas Kuhn, tend
to portray the history of science in terms of competing paradigms or conceptual systems within a wider
matrix of intellectual, cultural, economic and political trends. These interpretations, however, have met
with opposition for they also portray the history of science as an incoherent system of incommensurable
paradigms, not leading to any actual scientific progress but only to the illusion that it has occurred.

Technology Timeline

2400 BC The abacus, the first known calculator, invented in Babylonia

300 BC Pingala invents the binary number system
87 BC Liang Ling-Can invents the first fully mechanical clock
1041 Movable type printing press invented by Bi Sheng
1280 Eyeglasses were invented
1350 Suspension bridges built in Peru
1450 Alphabetic, movable type printing press invented by Johann Gutenberg
1510 Pocket watch invented by Peter Henlein
1576 Ironclad warship invented by Oda Nobunaga
1581 Pendulum invented by Galileo Galilei
1593 Thermometer invented by Galileo Galilei
1608 Telescope invented by Hans Lippershey
1609 Microscope invented by Galileo Galilei
1642 Adding machine invented by Blaise Pascal
1643 Barometer invented by Evangelista Torricelli
1645 Vacuum pump invented by Otto von Guericke
1657 Pendulum clock invented by Christiaan Huygens
1679 Pressure cooker invented by Denis Papin
1687 Newton, Principia: Newton's physics formed
1698 Steam engine invented by Thomas Savery
1671 Gottfried Leibniz is known as one of the founding fathers of calculus
1705 Steam piston engine invented by Thomas Newcomen
1708 Jethro Tull invents mechanical (seed) sower
1710 Thermometer invented by Rene Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur
1733 John Kay invents flying shuttle
1742 Franklin stove invented by Benjamin Franklin
1752 Lightning rod invented by Benjamin Franklin
1767 Spinning jenny invented by James Hargreaven
1769 Steam engine invented by James Watt
1774 Priestly isolates oxygen
1779 First steam powered mills automate the weaving process
1781 William Herschel discovers the planet Uranus
1783 Hot air balloon invented by Montgolfier brothers
1791 Steamboat invented by John Fitch
1793 Eli Whitney develops the cotton gin
1798 Vaccination invented by Edward Jenner
1799 Humphrey Davy discovers nitrous oxide (laughing gas)
1804 Locomotive invented by Richard Trevithick
1814 Steam Locomotive (Blucher) invented by George Stephenson
1816 Miner's safety lamp invented by Humphry Davy
1816 Stethoscope invented by Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec
1821 Faraday demonstrates the principle of the electric motor
1822 Charles Babbage designs his first mechanical computer
1821 Electric motor invented by Michael Faraday
1826 Photography invented by Joseph Nicephore Niepce
1830 Lawn mower invented by Edwin Beard Budding
1831 Von Liebig discovers chloroform
1834 Braille invented by Louis Braille
1834 Refrigerator invented by Jacob Perkins
1834 Combine harvester invented by Hiram Moore
1835 Morse code invented by Samuel Morse
1838 Electric telegraph invented by Charles Wheatstone (also Samuel Morse)
1839 Vulcanization of rubber invented by Charles Goodyear
1842 Anaesthesia invented by Crawford Long
1843 Typewriter invented by Charles Thurber
1846 Sewing machine invented by Elias Howe
1846 Rotary printing press invented by Richard M. Hoe
1849 Safety pin invented by Walter Hunt
1859 Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species
1862 Revolving machine gun invented by Richard J. Gatling
1862 Mechanical submarine invented by NarcÃs Monturiol i Estarriol
1866 Dynamite invented by Alfred Nobel
1869 Mendeleev produces the Periodic Table
1870 Stock ticker invented by Thomas Alva Edison
1873 Christopher Sholes invents the Remington typewriter
1876 Gasoline carburettor invented by Daimler
1877 Phonograph invented by Thomas Alva Edison
1877 Microphone invented by Emile Berliner
1878 Cathode ray tube invented by William Crookes
1883 First skyscraper built in Chicago (ten stories)
1885 Motor cycle invented by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach
1888 Hertz produces radio waves
1900 Planck develops quantum theory
1901 Vacuum cleaner invented by Hubert Booth
1903 Powered airplane invented by Wilbur Wright and Orville Wright
1905 Einstein writes the Theory of Relativity
1907 Color photography invented by Auguste and Louis Lumiere
1908 Henry Ford mass-produces the Model T.
1909 Bakelite invented by Leo Baekeland
1919 London to Paris air service begins
1923 Sound film invented by Lee DeForest
1924 Electro Mechanical television system invented by John Logie Baird
1926 Robert Goddard experiments with liquid-fueled rockets
1928 Antibiotics, penicillin invented by Alexander Fleming
1931 Iconoscope invented by Vladimir Zworykin
1937 Jet engine invented by Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain
1938 Ballpoint pen invented by Laszlo Biro
1943 Enigma: Adolf Hitler uses the Enigma encryption machine
1945 The atomic bomb
1946 Microwave oven invented by Percy Spencer
1951 Nuclear power reactor invented by Walter Zinn
1960 Laser invented by Theodore Harold Maiman
1961 Yuri Gagarin is the first man in space
1963 Computer mouse invented by Douglas Engelbart
1967 Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) invented by John Shepherd-Barron
1968 Video game console invented by Ralph H. Baer
1969 The moon landing - Neil Armstrong sets foot on the moon
1971 E-mail invented by Ray Tomlinson
1973 Ethernet invented by Bob Metcalfe and David Boggs
1983 Camcorder invented by Sony
1990 World Wide Web invented by Tim Berners-Lee
2001 Digital satellite radio

Nature and Philosophy of Science

Nature of Science
Values as assumption inherent to science
Distinguishing features:

 Scientific knowledge demands empirical evidence (i.e., science is derived from, and guided by,
observation or experiment.
 Scientific claims are testable/falsifiable.
  Scientific tests or observations are repeatable.
 Scientific knowledge is tentative and developmental, and hence fallible.
 Science is self-correcting.

Non-distinguishing features:

 Scientific progress is characterised by the invention of, and competition among,

hypotheses/theories
 Different scientists can sense the same things, and interpret the same experimental data,
differently.
 Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions/problems.
 Science is a social activity, both influencing society and being influenced by people’s values and
opinions.
 Logic, imagination, curiosity, and serendipity contribute to scientific exploration.

Statements about the nature of Science

 Science is an attempt to explain natural phenomena.

 People from all cultures contribute to science.
 Scientific knowledge, while durable, has a tentative character.
 Scientific knowledge relies heavily, but not entirely, on observation, experimental evidence,
rational arguments and scepticism.
 There is no one way to do science – therefore, there is no universal step-by-step scientific
method
 New knowledge must be reported clearly and openly.
 Scientists require accurate record-keeping, peer review and reproducibility.
 Observations are theory laden.
 Scientists are creative.
 Over the centuries, science builds in both an evolutionary and a revolutionary way.
 Science is part of social and cultural traditions.
 Science and technology impact each other.
 Scientific ideas are affected by the social and historical setting.
 Laws and theories serve different roles in science – therefore, students should note that theories
do not become laws even with additional evidence.

Philosophy of Science

 the study, from a philosophical perspective, of the elements of scientific inquiry.

 is the study of the assumptions, foundations, and implications of natural science (which is usually
taken to mean biology, chemistry, physics, earth science and astronomy, as opposed to
social science which deals with human behavior and society).

 is where the two disciplines meet to examine a body of knowledge and the approaches used
to study it.

 requires mindfulness of objective and individual perspectives and comfort with the assumptions and
underpinnings of the various philosophical perspectives.

 is a sub-field of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science.

 focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of science.

Notable Scientists
Nicolas Copernicus

Copernicus also became the first person to set forth clearly the
"quantity theory of money," the theory that prices vary directly with
the supply of money in the society.
Considered today to be the father of modern astronomy.
Copernican heliocentrism: This model positioned the Sun near the
center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other
planets orbiting around it in circular paths, modified by epicycles,
and at uniform speeds

Charles Darwin

He solved the mystery of formation of coral reefs and atolls.

He wrote a popular book in his travels knows as the voyage of the
beagles.
Along with Alfred Russel, he is credited for discovering the theory of
Natural Selection.
Darwin’s book origin of the species deeply influenced Western society
and thought.
His work laid the foundation of evolutionary biology.
He put forth the concept of Sexual Selection.

Sigmund Freud

Structural Model of the
Human Psyche: the id is the set of
uncoordinated instinctual trends; the
super-ego plays the critical and
moralizing role; and the ego is the
organized, realistic part that mediates
between the desires of the id and the
super-ego.
Freud psychoanalytic theory:
all psychic energy is generated by the
libido. 
The Oedipal complex: theory of
psychosexual stages of development
to describe a child's feelings of desire
for his or her opposite-sex parent and
jealousy and anger toward his or her
same-sex parent.
Dream analysis: the interpretation of dreams to determine their
underlying meanings
Studies in Hysteria
The psychopathology of
everyday life
The essays on the theory
of sexualty

Structure of Scientific Revolutions of Thomas Kunn

The Kuhn Cycle is a simple cycle of progress described by Thomas Kuhn in 1962 in his seminal work The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions. In Structure Kuhn challenged the world's current conception of
science, which was that it was a steady progression of the accumulation of new ideas.

Cultural Contributions to the Science and Technology

Meso America
 Had paper and pictorial script from very early stage.
 Centers of civilization in America
 The aztech established a public school system and continued the Maya tradition of astronomical
observation
 Science is the South Pacific was stricted to navigation across the high seas, in which islands
excelled.
Middle East/Arabia
 Astronomy: Astrolobe was improved, used to chart the precise times of sunrise and sunset.
 Medicine: mproved upon the healing arts of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt.
 Architecture: borrowed the horseshow arch from the Romans, developed into their own unique
style.

 Navigation and geography: developed by Canaanites who, probably simultaneously with the
Egyptians, discovered the Atlantic ocean.

 Horticulture: able to graft a single vine so that it would bear grapes in different colors, their
vineyards were responsible for the future of wine industries of Europe. Arab horticulture gave the
world the fragrant flowers of herbs from which perfumes were extracted. Concerning Arab
contributions to engineering, one can look to the water wheel, cisteins, irrigation, water wells at
fixed levels and water clock.
Israel
 Turning algae into heart tissue: Prof. Smadar Cohen and Prof. Jonathan Leor have discovered a
natural substance that helps rehabilitate the hearts of coronary attack victims.
 Drip irrigation technology: delivers precise drops of water and nutrients directly to the plant’s root
rather than the soil.

 Sniffphone Mobile Disease Diagnostic: system that promises a rapid and noninvasive diagnostic
tool for cancer and other diseases.
 Creating healthiest tomato varieties: tomato with a long shelf life and exceptional taste.
Asia
 Japan: DVD players, TV, karaoke, pocket calculator, rice cooker
 China: paper, compass, matches, irons, propellers
 India: cheap vaccines and drugs
Africa
 Math: first method of counting.
 Astronomy: discoveries of astronomy, many of these are foundations on which we still rely on.

 Metallurgy and tools: steam engines, metal chisels and saws, copper and iron tools and
weapons, nails, glue, carbon steel and bronze weapons.

 Medicine: use of plants with salicylic acid and for pain, Kaolin for diarrhea and extracts that were
confirmed in 20th century to kill gram positive bacteria.

 Vaccination, autopsy and limb extraction and broken bone setting, bullet removal, brain surgery,
skin grafting, filling of dental cavities, installation of false teeth, caesarean section, anesthesia,
tissue catheterization.