Chapter 2 Chemical Bonding

Name: ______________________( ) Class: ______ Date: ____________

CHAPTER MAP & OVERVIEW

CHAPTER 2.1 CHAPTER 2.2

IONIC BONDING COVALENT BONDING

Formation of Ionic Dot-and-Cross Covalent Bonds in Covalent Bonds in

Bond Diagram Elements Compounds

M. Heyworth Rex, & J G R Briggs. (2013). All About Chemistry 'O' Level. Malaysia: Pearson
Education South Asia Pte Ltd., pages 84 to 93

Learning Outcomes:

2.1 Ionic bonding

Pupils are expected to:

(a) describe the formation of ions by electron loss/gain in order to obtain the electronic configuration of
an inert gas
(b) describe, using 'dot and cross' diagrams, the formation of ionic bonds between metals and non-
metals, e.g. in NaCl, MgCl2.

2.2 Covalent bonding

Pupils are expected to:

(a) describe the formation of a covalent bond by the sharing of a pair of electrons in order to gain the
electronic configuration of an inert gas.
(b) describe, using 'dot and cross' diagrams, the formation of covalent bonds between non-metallic
elements, e.g. H2 , O2, H2O, CH4, CO2.
(c) deduce the arrangement of electrons in other covalent molecules

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 CHAPTER 2.3
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES

Covalent
Ionic Compounds
Metals Substances

Giant Metallic
Giant Ionic Giant Covalent Simple Molecular
Structures
Structures Structures Substances

Strong forces of Strong forces of Strong bonds

attraction between attraction between Strong covalent between atoms;
sea of electrons positive and bonds between weak forces of
and positive ions atoms attraction between
negative ions
molecules

• High boiling and

melting point • High boiling and • High boiling and
• High boiling and
melting point melting point
• Conduct melting point
electricity • Does not • Does not
• Conduct
conduct conduct
• High density electricity (in
electricity electricity
molten and
• Malleable and aqueous state)
• Hard • Soft
ductile

M. Heyworth Rex, & J G R Briggs. (2013). All About Chemistry 'O' Level. Malaysia: Pearson
Education South Asia Pte Ltd., pages 94 to 97

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Learning Outcomes:
Pupils are expected to:

(a) relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of ionic compounds to their lattice
structure
(b) relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of covalent substances to their structure
and bonding
(c) relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of metals to their structure and bonding
(d) compare the structure of simple molecular substances, e.g. methane; iodine, with those of giant
molecular substances, e.g. sand (silicon dioxide); diamond; graphite in order to deduce their
properties
(e) compare the bonding and structures of diamond and graphite in order to deduce their properties such
as electrical conductivity, lubricating or cutting action (students will not be required to draw the
structures)
(f) deduce the physical and chemical properties of substances from their structures and bonding and
vice versa
(g) describe metals as a lattice of positive ions in a ‘sea of electrons’

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Electron structure and chemical bonding

We have previously looked at the first twenty elements in the periodic table.

When elements react we now know that they try to gain, lose or share electrons in order
to get a more stable electron structure. In many cases, this more stable electron
structure is the same as that of a noble gas.

When elements react we now know that they try to gain, lose or share electrons in order to get a
more stable electron structure. In many cases, this more stable electron structure is the same
as that of a noble gas.

The simple ideas expressed in this statement form the basis of the electronic theory of chemical
bonding.

Look carefully at the table below. This shows the electron structures of the atoms and ions of
elements in period 3.

Notice three important points from the above table

1. The first three elements in period 3 (sodium, magnesium and aluminium) lose the electrons
in their outer shell to form positive ions (Na+, Mg2+, Al3+) with an electron structure like the
previous noble gas, neon.

2. Elements in groups VI and VII (sulphur and chlorine), which are near the end of period 3,
gain electrons to form negative ions (S2-, Cl-) with an electron structure like the next noble
gas, argon.

3. Elements in the middle of the period (silicon and phosphorus) do not usually form ions. They
get stable electron structures when they react by sharing electrons with other atoms instead
of gaining them or losing them. This sharing of electrons results in covalent bonds between
atoms which is the usual type of bonding in compounds of non-metals.

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Why do atoms bond?

Noble gases, such as helium, neon and argon, are monoatomic because their valence shells
are fully occupied by electrons. Thus, noble gases are stable and do not undergo bonding with
other atoms.

Since atoms with electronic configurations of noble gases are stable, atoms bond to achieve
electronic configuration of a noble gas. Atoms do so by transfer or sharing of electrons with
other atoms.

By having an electronic configuration of a noble gas, an atom will achieve stability.

- When you have 2 electrons in the 1st shell, you have a duplet structure.
- When you have 8 electrons in the rest of the shells, you have an octet structure.

Chemical bonds

There are three ways of forming chemical bonds between atoms:

(i) Ionic bonding

(ii) Covalent bonding

(iii) Metallic bonding (to be covered in Sec. 3)

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2.1 Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonding is usually formed between metals and non-metals.

Ionic (electrovalent) bonds result from the transfer of electrons from metal atoms to non-metal
atoms forming positive and negative ions. The electrical forces between these oppositely
charged ions produce strong ionic bonds.

Naming of ionic compounds:

[name of cation] [space] [name of anion]

Formation of ionic bonds

Using the formation of sodium chloride (Figure 1) as an example:

The sodium atom loses one electron to form a positive ion (cation) in order to obtain an octet
structure. The chlorine atom gains the electron from sodium atom to form a negative ion
(anion) in order to obtain an octet structure. The ions have opposite charges and therefore
attract each other to form an ionic compound known as sodium chloride. This attraction force
is called ionic bond.

In a sodium atom, there are 11 protons and 11 electrons. In a sodium ion, there are 11 protons
and 10 electrons. Therefore, the sodium ion carries an overall positive charge of 1+ and is
written as Na+.

In a chlorine atom, there are 17 protons and 17 electrons. In a chloride ion, there are 17
protons and 18 electrons. Therefore, the chloride ion carries an overall positive charge of 1-
and is written as Cl-.

Figure 1: Formation of Sodium Chloride

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In figure 2, the magnesium atom gives up two electrons to form a magnesium ion, Mg2+. These
two electrons are transferred to two chlorine atoms to form two chloride ions, Cl-. The
magnesium chloride has the formula MgCl2.

Figure 2: Formation of Magnesium Chloride

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‘Dot-and-cross’ diagrams of ionic compounds

Steps:
1. Draw the valence electrons of the elements using ‘Dot and Cross’ only.

2. Electron(s) is/are transferred from the valence shell of the metal to the valence shell of
the non-metal.

3. The anion that has gained electron(s) from the cation will now have two type of electrons
– one originally from its valence shell, another one from the cation – differentiated by
‘dots’ and ‘crosses’.

4. Remember to indicate the charges of the ions.

Examples of ‘Dot-and-cross’ diagram can be found in figure 3 and 4.

Figure 3: ‘Dot-and-cross’ diagram showing the bonding in sodium chloride

Figure 4: ‘Dot-and-cross’ diagram showing the bonding in magnesium chloride

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2.2 Covalent Bonding

Some atoms form bonds by sharing electrons to gain electronic configuration of a noble gas.
The bonds formed are known as covalent bonds.

A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms. Each
atom contributes one electron to the bond.

Generally, covalent bonds are formed between atoms of non-metal. Covalent bonds can be
formed between atoms of same elements or between atoms of different elements. Compounds
which contain covalent bonds are known as covalent compounds.

Single covalent bond - One pair of shared electrons between two atoms
Double covalent bond - Two pair of shared electrons between two atoms
Triple covalent bond - Three pair of shared electrons between two atoms

Covalent bonds in elements

• Hydrogen molecules, H2

A hydrogen atom has 1 valence electron. It requires one more electron to obtain the electronic
configuration of a noble gas.

In order to obtain the electronic configuration of helium, two hydrogen atoms can share a pair of
electrons between themselves to form hydrogen molecules, H2 (figure 5). In order to
differentiate the two electrons, the electron of one atom is represented by a ‘cross’ while the
other electron of another atom is represented by a ‘dot’.

Formation of hydrogen molecule

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• Oxygen molecules, O2

In order to obtain the electronic configuration of a noble gas, each oxygen atom requires two
more electrons. Instead of sharing a pair of electrons, two oxygen atoms can share two pairs of
electrons to form a double bond and obtain an octet structure.

Formation of oxygen molecule (showing of electrons in the outer shells only)

2.2.2 Covalent bonds in compounds

• Methane molecule, CH4

The carbon atom has four valence electrons and it needs four more electrons to gain an octet
structure. The carbon atom can share its four electrons with four other hydrogen atoms, forming
a single covalent bond with each of the hydrogen atom.

Formation of methane molecule (showing of electrons in the outer shells only)

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Valency

The number of electrons an atom uses to form bonds is called its valency.

Element Valency
Hydrogen 1
Oxygen 2
Aluminium 3
Carbon 4

Making and breaking chemical bonds

When a chemical reaction occurs, one substance changes to another. This means that bonds in
the reactants must first be broken and then new bonds must be made in the products.

Now breaking bonds involves pulling atoms apart and this requires energy. On the other hand,
making bonds helps to make atoms more stable and this gives out energy. So,
• bond breaking is endothermic,
• bond making is exothermic.

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2.3 Structure and Properties
Look at the crystals of sodium chloride in this
photograph. What do you notice about all the salt
crystals?

All the salt crystals are roughly the same cubic shape.
Further studies show that all the crystals of one
substance have similar shapes. This suggests that the
particles in the crystals are always packed in a regular
fashion to give the same overall shape. Sometimes,
crystals grow unevenly and their shapes become
distorted. Even so, it is usually easy to see their
general shape. Solid substances which have a regular
packing of particles are described as crystalline. The
particles may be atoms, ions or molecules.

The figure below shows how cubic crystals and hexagonal crystals can form. If the particles are
always placed in parallel lines or at 90o to each other, the crystal will be cubic. If the particles
are placed at 120° in the shape of a hexagon, the final crystal will be hexagonal.

We can compare the way in which a crystal

grows to the way in which a bricklayer lays
bricks. If the bricklayer always places the bricks
in parallel lines or at 90° to each other, then the
final buildings will be like cubes or boxes.
However, if the bricks are laid at 120° to make
hexagons, then the final buildings will be
hexagonal.

The overall shape of a crystal can only give a

clue to the way in which the particles are
arranged. X-rays give much better evidence.

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Using X-rays to study crystals (Optional)

Look through a piece of thin stretched cloth at a small bright light. The pattern you see is due to
the deflection of the light as it passes through the regularly spaced threads of the fabric. This
deflection of the light is called diffraction and the patterns produced are diffraction patterns. If
the cloth is stretched so that the threads in the fabric get closer, then the pattern spreads further
out. From the diffraction pattern which we can see, we can work out the pattern of the threads in
the fabric which we cannot see. The same idea is used to work out how the particles are
arranged in a crystal.

A narrow beam of X-rays is directed at a well-

formed crystal. Some of the X-rays are diffracted
by particles in the crystal onto X-ray sensitive film.
When the film is developed, a regular pattern of
spots appears. This is the diffraction pattern for
the crystal. From the diffraction pattern which we
can see, it is possible to work out the pattern of
particles in the crystal which we cannot see. A
regular arrangement of spots on the film
indicates a regular arrangement of particles in
the crystal. This regular arrangement of particles
in the crystal is called a lattice.

X-rays have been used in this way to study the

structure of thousands of different solids. Beams
of electrons can also be used, like X-rays, to
study the way in which particles are arranged in
crystals.

The Structure of Substances

All substances are made up of particles. If we

know how particles are arranged (the structure)
and how the particles are held together (the
bonding), then we can explain the properties of a
substance.

For example, copper is a good conductor

because its metallic bonding allows electrons to
move through the structure when it is connected
to a battery. It can be drawn into wires because

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copper atoms can slide over each other in the close-packed structure.

In turn, the properties of a substance lead to its uses. Copper, for example is used for electrical
wires and cables because it is a good conductor and it can be drawn into wires.

Notice that the structure and bonding of a substance determine its properties and, in turn,
the properties determine its uses.

So the links from structure and bonding to properties help us to explain the uses of materials -
why metals are used as conductors, why graphite is used in pencils and why clay is used to
make bricks.

Earlier, you have learnt that all substances are made up from only three different types of
particle - atoms, ions, and molecules.

These three particles give rise to four different solid structures.

• giant metallic structures,
• giant covalent structures,
• giant ionic structures, and
• simple molecular structures.

The table below shows the particles in these four structures, the types of substances formed
and examples of these substances.

The four types of solid structure and the particles they contain
Types of
Particles in the structure Types of substance Examples
structure

Metals and alloys

Giant metallic atoms Na, Fe, Cu, steel, brass
(mixture of metals)
Very large molecule Diamond (carbon, C),
Non-metals or non-
Giant covalent containing thousands of polythene, sand (silicon
metal compounds
atoms dioxide, SiO2)
Compounds of
Na+Cl- (salt), Ca2+O2- (lime
Giant ionic Ions metals with non-
dioxide)
metals
I2 (iodine), O2 (oxygen), H2O
Simple Small molecules Non-metals of non-
(water), CO2 (carbon
molecular containing a few atoms metal compounds
dioxide)

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If you look carefully at the surface of some
galvanised iron (iron coated with zinc), you will see
irregular shaped areas separated from each other
by clear boundaries.

The irregular shaped areas are called grains and

the boundaries between them are called grain
boundaries. The grains in zinc are usually easy to
see, but the grains in most metals are too small to
see with the naked eye.

The oxide coating on many metals also makes it

difficult to see the grains. If, however. the metal
surface is clean and smooth, the grains can be
seen through a microscope.

X-ray analysis shows that the atoms in metal grains - packed in a regular fashion, but the grains
themselves are irregular-shaped crystals pushed tightly together.

Metals usually have a high density. This suggests that the atoms are packed close together. In
fact, X-ray studies show that the atoms of most metals are packed as close together as possible.
This arrangement is close packing. The figure above shows a few atoms in layer of a metal
crystal.

Notice that each atom in the middle of the crystal

touches six other atoms in the same layer. When
a second layer is placed on top of the first layer,
atoms in the second layer sink into the dips
between atoms in the first layer. This means that
any one atom in the first layer can touch six atoms
in its own layer, three atoms in the layer above it
and three atoms in the layer below, i.e. a total of
twelve atoms in all.

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The properties of metals

The typical properties of metals can be explained in terms of their structure.

• High density - The close packing of atoms

explains why most metals have a high density.

• High melting points and boiling points -

suggest that there are strong forces holding the
atoms together in metals. Scientists think that
the outermost electrons in each metal atom
can move about freely in the whole structure.

So, metals consist of positive ions surrounded

by a 'sea of moving electrons'. The negative
'sea of electrons' attracts all the positive ions
and cements everything together.

The strong forces of attraction between the

negative electrons and the positive ions
result in high melting points and high boiling
points.

The structures of metals are often described as

giant structures. In a giant structure, there are
strong bonds from one atom or ion to another in
a vast network throughout the whole substance.

• Good conductivity - When a metal is

connected in a circuit, freely moving electrons in
the metal move towards the positive terminal. At
the same time, electrons move into the other
end of the wire from the negative terminal. This
flow of electrons through the wire forms the
electric current.

• Malleability - The bonds between atoms in a

metal are strong but they are not rigid. When a
force is applied to a metal crystal, the layers of
atoms can `slide' over each other. This is known
as slip. After slipping, the atoms settle into
position again and the close-packed structure is restored.

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This diagram shows the positions of
atoms before and after slip. This is what
happens when a metal is bent or
hammered into different shapes.

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Giant Ionic Structures

Ionic compounds form when metals react with non-metals.

For example, when sodium burns in chlorine, sodium chloride is formed.

2Na + Cl2  2Na+Cl-

two sodium + one chlorine  two sodium ions
atoms molecule two chloride ions

In solid ionic compounds, the ions are held together by the attraction between positive ions
and negative ions. The figures below show how the ions are arranged in one layer of sodium
chloride and a three-dimensional model of the structure of sodium chloride. Notice that Na+ ions
are surrounded by Cl- ions and vice versa.

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Giant covalent structures

In giant covalent structures, like diamond,

polythene and sand (silicon dioxide), strong
covalent bonds join one atom to another in very
large molecules containing thousands or even
millions of atoms.

In diamond, each carbon atom is joined to four

other. Each carbon atom is at the centre of a
tetrahedron with four other carbon atoms at the
corners of the tetrahedron.

Every carbon atom shares its four outer electrons,

one with each of its four neighbours forming
strong covalent bonds. The covalent bonds
extend through the whole diamond forming a
three-dimensional giant covalent structure. Thus, a diamond is a single giant molecule or a
macromolecule. Only a small number of atoms are shown in the model. In a real diamond, there
are billions of atoms.

The properties of diamond

• Diamond is very hard because its carbon atoms are linked by very strong covalent bonds.
Another reason for its hardness is that the atoms are not arranged in layers so they cannot
slide over one another like the atoms in metals. In fact, diamond is the hardest known
natural substance. Most of its industrial uses depend on this hardness.

• Diamond has a very high melting point because of the strong covalent bonds linking
carbon atoms in a giant structure. This means that the atoms cannot vibrate fast enough to
break away from their neighbours until very high temperatures are reached.

• Diamond does not conduct electricity. Unlike metals, diamond has no free electrons
because all four electrons in the outer shell of each carbon atom are held firmly in covalent
bonds. So in diamond there are no free electrons to form an electric current.

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Simple molecular substances

Oxygen and water are good examples of simple

molecular substances. They are made of simple
molecules each containing a few atoms. Their
formulas and structures are shown near the top
of the table below. Most other non-metals and
non-metal compounds are also made of simple
molecules.

For example, hydrogen is H2, chlorine is Cl2, iodine is I2, carbon dioxide is CO2 and
tetrachloromethane is CCl4. Sugar (C12H22O11) has much larger molecules than these
substances, but it still counts as a simple molecule.

In these simple molecular substances, the atoms are held together in each molecule by
strong covalent bonds. But there are only weak forces between the separate molecules.
These weak forces between the separate molecules are called intermolecular bonds or Van der
Waals forces.

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The properties of simple molecular substances

The properties of simple molecular substances can be explained in terms of their structure. The
molecules in these substances have no electrical charge (unlike ions in ionic compounds or
electrons in metals). So there are no electrical forces holding them together. But some simple
molecular substances, like iodine, sugar. tetrachloromethane and water do exist as liquids and
solids so there must be some intermolecular forces holding their molecules together.

• Simple molecular substances are soft.

The separate molecules in simple molecular

substances are usually further apart than
atoms in metal structures and ions in ionic
structures. The forces between the
molecules are only weak and the molecules
are easy to separate. Because of this,
crystals of these substances, like iodine and
sugar, are usually soft.

• Simple molecular substances have low

melting points and boiling points.

It takes less energy to separate the

molecules in simple molecular substances
than to separate ions in ionic compounds, or
atoms in metals. So, simple molecular
compounds have lower melting points and
lower boiling points than ionic compounds
and metals.

• Simple molecular substances do not conduct electricity.

They have no mobile electrons like metals. They do not have any ions either. This means
that they cannot conduct electricity as solids, as liquids or in aqueous solution.

Notice the following key points from the last four ions.

• Substances with giant structures are often hard with high melting points and boiling
points.
• Substances with simple molecular structures are usually soft with low melting points and
boiling points.
• There are three types of strong force between particles in giant structures; metallic
bonds between metal atoms, covalent bonds between non-metal atoms, ionic bonds
between positive metal ions and negative non-metal ions.
• In simple molecular substances there are relatively weak forces between the separate
molecules.

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Common ions and formulae of ionic compounds

Symbols of common ions

You are not expected to know all the names and symbols of common ions, but you should be
able to work out the formulae of ionic compounds. The names and symbols of some ions are
shown below.

Formulae of ionic compounds

Ionic compounds contain positive and negative ions. The number of positive charges must
equal the number of negative charges so that the compound has no charge overall. When the
positive ion has the same number of charges as the negative ion, it is easy to work out the
formula of the compound formed. Sodium chloride contains sodium ions, Na+, and chloride ions,
Cl-. As both ions have single charges, the formula is simply written as NaCl, i.e. the positive ion
followed by the negative ion with no charges written.

Similarly, ammonium chloride is NH4Cl; magnesium oxide is MgO, and so on. The fun starts
when the number of charges is different, as in magnesium chloride.

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Additional Reading: The Nuclear Age

On the 6th of August, 1945, weeks before the end of the World War II,
an atomic bomb code-named "Little Boy" was detonated over the
Japanese city of Hiroshima.

Three days later, a second bomb, code-named "Fat Man", was dropped
on the city of Nagasaki.

The death and destruction wrought by these weapons were

unprecedented, claiming approximately 200,000 lives and obliterating
nearly every single structure within a 1.6km radius around the drop
sites.

While the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki may have contributed

to Japan's surrender, the ethicality of the use of nuclear weapons
remains a hugely contentious topic today.

What is certain, however, is that the events of 1945 marked the start of the nuclear age for
mankind.

Nuclear energy has been heralded as one of the cleanest

source of energy in terms of carbon emissions. Today, nuclear
power plants provide about 6% of the world's energy and 13–
14% of the world's electricity.

However, the pursuit of nuclear power is not without its costs.

The Chernobyl disaster (1986), the Three Mile Island accident
(1979) and the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011) are
all reminders of the risks and hazards that nuclear power entail.

Furthermore, the nuclear arms race between the

United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold
War period caused the number of nuclear warheads to
multiply so much so that any use of the weapon in
actual warfare would lead to Mutual Assured
Destruction.

Even in the relative peace of today, the possibility of

nuclear weapons falling into the wrong hands, such as
rogue states or terrorists, remains a threat to global
peace and stability.

In this chapter, we shall explore the science behind nuclear weapons and find out why atomic
bombs are so devastatingly powerful.

23
Atomic Bombs and Nuclear Weapons

To understand how nuclear energy works,

we shall revisit the topic on isotopes that
we covered earlier.

Radioactive isotopes are used to produce

large amounts of energy in nuclear fission.
This can be done in a controlled way in a
nuclei reactor.

One common fuel used is an isotope of

uranium, uranium-235.

In the reactor, the uranium atoms are

bombarded with neutrons. When the
neutron hits a uranium nucleus, the
nucleus breaks up into two smaller nuclei.
This is called nuclear fission.

An example is shown.

Mass Defect and Binding energy

The mass of the nucleus is about 1 percent smaller than the mass of its individual protons and
neutrons. This difference is called the mass defect. The mass defect arises from the energy
released when the nucleons (protons and neutrons) bind together to form the nucleus. This
energy is called the binding energy. The binding energy determines which nuclei are stable
and how much energy is released in a nuclear reaction.

The hydrogen-2 nucleus, for example, composed of one proton and one neutron, can be
separated completely by supplying 2.23 million electron volts (MeV)* of energy. Conversely,
when a slowly moving neutron and proton combine to form a hydrogen-2 nucleus, 2.23 MeV are
liberated.

*1eV = 1.602×10−19J

Einstein's formula: E = mc2

The mass defect and binding energy are related by the

formula E = mc2.

In 1905, Albert Einstein developed the special theory of

relativity. One of the implications of this theory was that
matter and energy are interchangeable with one another.
This equation states, a mass (m) can be converted into
an amount of energy (E), where c is the speed of light.

24
Because the speed of light is a large number and thus c2 is huge, a small amount of matter
can be converted into a tremendous amount of energy. This equation is the key to the
power of nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors.

During fission, more neutrons are produced. These neutrons cause fission in other uranium
atoms. This is repeated over and over again. This repeated process is called a chain reaction.
A lot of heat energy is produced in a nuclear fission chain reaction.

In a nuclear reactor, this heat energy is used to produce steam which is then used to drive a
turbine and dynamo to generate electricity.

When the chain reaction in nuclear fission is allowed to get out of control, an explosion can
occur. This is done deliberately in explosions produced by nuclear weapons. The explosion is
produced by uncontrolled fission of uranium-235 or plutonium-239.

Consequences of Nuclear Weapon

As we see earlier, a small amount of matter can be converted into a tremendous amount of
energy in a nuclear reaction. Therefore nuclear weapon is far more powerful than any
conventional weapon. The atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, the “Little Boy”, released
between 54 and 75 TJ (Tera- = 1012) of energy, which is equivalent to 13 to 18 kilotons of TNT.

The modern nuclear weapon is even more devastating, as a weapon weighing a little more than
1,100kg is capable of releasing energy equivalent to more than 1.2 Megatons of TNT.

Health Risks

Most of the immediate damage caused by nuclear weapons is due to the energy released. This
takes the form of intense heat as well as shock waves which destroys both living things and
structures.

There are many long-term health effects of nuclear weapons as well. Radiation and radioactive
fallout affect those cells in the body that actively divide (hair, intestine, bone marrow,
reproductive organs). Some of the resulting health conditions include:

• Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea

• Cataracts
• Hair loss
• Loss of blood cells

These conditions often increase the risk of leukemia, cancer, infertility and birth defects.

25
References

http://www.atomicarchive.com/Physics/Physics1.shtml
http://energyfromthorium.com/2010/08/06/loveswu1/
http://science.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-bomb8.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon

Picture references

en.wikipedia.org (3), p3
archives.govt.nz, p3
en.wikipedia.org, p15
craighill.net, p41

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