Cement Manufacturing Process

Stage 1
Raw Material Extraction/Quarry

The raw cement ingredients needed for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand and clay
(silicon, aluminum, iron), shale, fly ash, mill scale and bauxite. The ore rocks are quarried and
crushed to smaller pieces of about 6 inches. Secondary crushers or hammer mills then reduce
them to even smaller size of 3 inches. After that, the ingredients are prepared for pyroprocessing.

Stage 2
Grinding, Proportioning and Blending

The crushed raw ingredients are made ready for the cement making process in the kiln by
combining them with additives and grinding them to ensure a fine homogenous mixture. The
composition of cement is proportioned here depending on the desired properties of the cement.
Generally, limestone is 80% and remaining 20% is the clay. In the cement plant, the raw mix is
dried (moisture content reduced to less than 1%); heavy wheel type rollers and rotating tables
blend the raw mix and then the roller crushes it to a fine powder to be stored in silos and fed to
the kiln.

Stage 3
Pre-Heating Raw Material

A pre-heating chamber consists of a series of cyclones that utilizes the hot gases produced from
the kiln in order to reduce energy consumption and make the cement making process more
environment-friendly. The raw materials are passed through here and turned into oxides to be
burned in the kiln.

Stage 4
Kiln Phase

The kiln phase is the principal stage of the cement production process. Here, clinker is produced
from the raw mix through a series of chemical reactions between calcium and silicon dioxide
compounds. Though the process is complex, the events of the clinker production can be written
in the following sequence:

1. Evaporation of free water

2. Evolution of combined water in the argillaceous components
3. Calcination of the calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) to calcium oxide (CaO)
4. Reaction of CaO with silica to form dicalcium silicate
5. Reaction of CaO with the aluminum and iron-bearing constituents to form the liquid phase
6. Formation of the clinker nodules
7. Evaporation of volatile constituents (e. g., sodium, potassium, chlorides, and sulfates)
8. Reaction of excess CaO with dicalcium silicate to form tricalcium silicate

The above events can be condensed into four major stages based on the change of temperature
inside the kiln:

1. 100°C (212°F): Evaporation of free water

2. 100°C (212°F)-430°C (800°F): Dehydration and formation of oxides of silicon, aluminum, and iron
3. 900°C (1650°F)-982°C (1800°F): CO2 is evolved and CaO is produced through calcination
4. 1510°C (2750°F): Cement clinker is formed

The kiln is angled by 3 degrees to the horizontal to allow the material to pass through it, over a
period of 20 to 30 minutes. By the time the raw-mix reaches the lower part of the kiln, clinker
forms and comes out of the kiln in marble-sized nodules.

Stage 5
Cooling and final grinding

After exiting the kiln, the clinker is rapidly cooled down from 2000°C to 100°C-200°C by
passing air over it. At this stage, different additives are combined with the clinker to be ground in
order to produce the final product, cement. Gypsum, added to and ground with clinker, regulates
the setting time and gives the most important property of cement, compressive strength. It also
prevents agglomeration and coating of the powder at the surface of balls and mill wall. Some
organic substances, such as Triethanolamine (used at 0.1 wt.%), are added as grinding aids to
avoid powder agglomeration. Other additives sometimes used are ethylene glycol, oleic acid and
dodecyl-benzene sulphonate.

The heat produced by the clinker is circulated back to the kiln to save energy. The last stage of
making cement is the final grinding process. In the cement plant, there are rotating drums fitted
with steel balls. Clinker, after being cooled, is transferred to these rotating drums and ground into
such a fine powder that each pound of it contains 150 billion grains. This powder is the final
product, cement.

Stage 6
Packing and Shipping

Cement is conveyed from grinding mills to silos (large storage tanks) where it is packed in 20-40
kg bags. Most of the product is shipped in bulk quantities by trucks, trains or ships, and only a
small amount is packed for customers who need small quantities.

Chemical Reactions during Cement Manufacturing Process

The reactions that take place (after evaporation of free water) between the reactants in the kiln
phase of cement making process are as follows:

1. Clay Decomposition:
Si2Al2O5(OH)2 → 2 SiO2 + Al2O3 + 2 H2O (vapor)
KAlSi3O8 (orthoclase) + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 3 SiO2 + 0.5 Al2O3 + 0.5 K2SO4
2. Dolomite Decomposition:
CaMg(CO3)2 → CaCO3 + MgO + CO2
KMg3AlSi3O10(OH)2 + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 0.5 K2SO4 + 3 MgO + 0.5 Al2O3 + 3 SiO2 + H2O (vapor)
3. Low Temperature Calcite Decomposition:
2 CaCO3 + SiO2 → Ca2SiO4 + 2 CO2
2 MgO + SiO2 → Mg2SiO4
Ca5(PO4)3OH + 0.25 SiO2 → 1.5 Ca3(PO4)2 + 0.25 Ca2SiO4 + 0.5 H2O (vapour)
4. Alumina and Oxide Reaction:
12 CaCO3 + 7 Al2O3 → Ca12Al14O33 + 12 CO2
 4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 → Ca4Al2Fe2O10 + 4 CO2
4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Mn2O3 → Ca4Al2Mn2O10 + 4 CO2
5. Reaction of Remaining Calcite:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
6. Sintering:
Ca2SiO4 + CaO → Ca3SiO5

Properties of Cement- Physical & Chemical

ement, a popular binding material, is a very important civil engineering material. This
article concerns the physical and chemical properties of cement, as well as the methods to
test cement properties.
Physical Properties of Cement

Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by their physical

properties. Some key parameters control the quality of cement. The physical properties of
good cement are based on:

 Fineness of cement
 Soundness
 Consistency
 Strength
 Setting time
 Heat of hydration
 Loss of ignition
 Bulk density
 Specific gravity (Relative density)

 These physical properties are discussed in details in the following segment. Also, you will
find the test names associated with these physical properties.

Fineness of Cement

The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good cement
is achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process. As
hydration rate of cement is directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement
is very important.

Soundness of Cement

Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality
cement retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by
excessive free lime and magnesia.

Tests:
Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests for ensuring soundness
must be able to determine that potential.

 Le Chatelier Test
This method, done by using Le Chatelier Apparatus, tests the expansion of cement
due to lime. Cement paste (normal consistency) is taken between glass slides and
submerged in water for 24 hours at 20+1°C. It is taken out to measure the distance
between the indicators and then returned under water, brought to boil in 25-30
mins and boiled for an hour. After cooling the device, the distance between indicator
points is measured again. In a good quality cement, the distance should not exceed
10 mm.
 Autoclave Test
Cement paste (of normal consistency) is placed in an autoclave (high-pressure
steam vessel) and slowly brought to 2.03 MPa, and then kept there for 3 hours. The
change in length of the specimen (after gradually bringing the autoclave to room
temperature and pressure) is measured and expressed in percentage. The
requirement for good quality cement is a maximum of 0.80% autoclave expansion.
Standard autoclave test: AASHTO T 107 and ASTM C 151: Autoclave Expansion of
Portland Cement.

Consistency of Cement

The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.

It is measured by Vicat Test.

In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat Apparatus. The
plunger of the apparatus is brought down to touch the top surface of the cement. The
plunger will penetrate the cement up to a certain depth depending on the consistency.
A cement is said to have a normal consistency when the plunger penetrates 10±1 mm.
Strength of Cement

Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and flexural.
Various factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio,
curing conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading
conditions and age. While testing the strength, the following should be considered:

 Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly related.
Cement strength is merely a quality control measure.
 The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement paste.
 Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test should
be mentioned.

Compressive Strength

It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and subjected to a
compressive load until failure. The loading sequence must be within 20 seconds and 80
seconds.

Standard tests:

i. AASHTO T 106 and ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement

Mortars (Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube Specimens)
ii. ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using Portions of
Prisms Broken in Flexure)

Tensile strength

Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement production, now it
does not offer any useful information about the properties of cement.
Flexural strength

This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed in a 40 x40 x
160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its center point until failure.

Standard test:

i. ASTM C 348: Flexural Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars

Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on
multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and
admixtures. Cement used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not too
low and a final setting time not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:

 Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within 30-
45 minutes)
 Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs below
10 hours)

Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

Standard Tests:

i. AASHTO T 131 and ASTM C 191: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat
Needle
ii. AASHTO T 154: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Gillmore Needles
iii. ASTM C 266: Time of Setting of Hydraulic-Cement Paste by Gillmore Needles

Heat of Hydration

When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration
generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in
maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat
generation is high, especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of
hydration is affected most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by water-cement
ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat of hydration of Portland cement is
calculated by determining the difference between the dry and the partially hydrated
cement (obtained by comparing these at 7th and 28th days).

Standard Test:

ASTM C 186: Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement

Loss of Ignition

Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight is obtained)
causes weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition.
Improper and prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to
pre-hydration and carbonation, both of which might be indicated by increased loss of
ignition.

Standard Test:

AASHTO T 105 and ASTM C 114: Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic Cement

Bulk density

When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would normally
be air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important. Cement has a
varying range of density depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of
cement may be anywhere from 62 to 78 pounds per cubic foot.
Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland cement

has a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example, portland-blast-
furnace-slag and portland-pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.

Standard Test:

AASHTO T 133 and ASTM C 188: Density of Hydraulic Cement

Chemical Properties of Cement

The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon),
bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast
furnace slag, slate. Chemical analysis of cement raw materials provides insight into the
chemical properties of cement.

1. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces the
hydration of C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the early stages of hydration. C3A
does not provide any more than a little amount of strength.
Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO 3 (in cement having more than 8% C 3A)
Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8% C3A)
2. Tricalcium silicate (C3S)
C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is responsible for the cement’s
early strength gain an initial setting.
3. Dicalcium silicate (C2S)
As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early strength gain, dicalcium silicate
in cement helps the strength gain after one week.
4. Ferrite (C4AF)
Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of the raw materials in
the kiln from 3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it hydrates rapidly, it does not contribute
much to the strength of the cement.
5. Magnesia (MgO)
The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a raw material in
dry process plants. An excess amount of magnesia may make the cement unsound
and expansive, but a little amount of it can add strength to the cement. Production of
MgO-based cement also causes less CO2 emission. All cement is limited to a content
of 6% MgO.
6. Sulphur trioxide
Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.
7. Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide
Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric oxide is mainly
responsible for the color of the cement.
8. Alkalis
The amounts of potassium oxide (K 2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O) determine the
alkali content of the cement. Cement containing large amounts of alkali can cause
some difficulty in regulating the setting time of cement. Low alkali cement, when
used with calcium chloride in concrete, can cause discoloration. In slag-lime cement,
ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own but is "activated" by
addition of alkalis. There is an optional limit in total alkali content of 0.60%,
calculated by the equation Na2O + 0.658 K2O.
9. Free lime
Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause expansion.
10. Silica fumes
Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of properties,
especially compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond strength. Though
setting time is prolonged by the addition of silica fume, it can grant exceptionally
high strength. Hence, Portland cement containing 5-20% silica fume is usually
produced for Portland cement projects that require high strength.
11. Alumina
Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid temperatures
since alumina is chemical-resistant. It also quickens the setting but weakens the
cement.
What is Cement Clinker? Composition, Types & Uses

Clinker is a nodular material produced in the kilning stage during the production of cement
and is used as the binder in many cement products. The lumps or nodules of clinker are
usually of diameter 3-25 mm and dark grey in color. It is produced by heating limestone
and clay to the point of liquefaction at about 1400°C-1500°C in the rotary kiln. Clinker,
when added with gypsum (to control the setting properties of cement and ensure
compressive strength) and ground finely, produces cement. Clinker can be stored for long
periods of time in a dry condition without degradation of quality, hence it is traded
internationally and used by cement manufacturers when raw materials are found to be
scarce or unavailable.

Composition of Clinker

The composition of clinker is examined by two separate approaches:

mineralogical analysis, using petrographic microscopy and/or x-ray diffraction analysis

chemical analysis, most accurately by x-ray fluorescence spectrometry

The four main components of clinker are:

Alite: approximately tricalcium silicate (typically about 65% of the total)

Belite: approximately dicalcium silicate (typically about 15% of the total)

Aluminate: very approximately tricalcium aluminate (typically about 7% of the total)

Ferrite: very approximately tetracalcium aluminoferrite (typically about 8% of the total)

Other substances may be present in small amounts:

 Salt phases - various combinations of sodium, potassium and calcium cations with sulfate
and chloride anions, such as:

Arcanite - K2SO4

Calcium Langbeinite - K2Ca2(SO4)3

Aphthitalite - K3Na(SO4)2

Sylvite - KCl

Low-temperature phases - various intermediate chemical species that have escaped

further thermal processing, such as:

Spurrite - Ca5(SiO4)2(CO3)

Ternesite - Ca5(SiO4)2(SO4)

Ellestadite - Ca10(SiO4)3(SO4)3(OH)2

Ye'elimite - Ca4(AlO2)6(SO4)

The chemical analysis of clinker is usually given in oxide form, as follows (in oxide weight
%):

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O SO3 LOI IR Total

21.5 5.2 2.8 66.6 1.0 0.6 0.2 1.0 1.5 0.5 98.9

Free lime= 1.0% CaO

The balance is made by addition of alkali sulfates and minor impurities, such as small
amounts of oxides of titanium, manganese, phosphorus, and chromium.
The amounts of different components vary depending on the desired properties of the
produced clinker.

Thermochemistry of Clinker

The raw materials entered into the kiln are taken at room temperature. Inside the kiln, the
temperature continues to rise and when it reaches its peak, clinker is produced by rapid
cooling. Though the reaction stages often overlap, they can be expressed in a sharply-
defined sequence as follows:

65-125°C: Free water evaporates: latent heat must be supplied. Net heat input: 2145
kJ/kg clinker.

400-650°C: Clays decompose endothermically, and alkalis react with the kiln atmosphere
to form liquid sulfates. Net heat input: 42.2 kJ/kg clinker.

500-650°C: Dolomite decomposes endothermically. Net energy input: 19.7 kJ.

650-900°C: Calcium carbonate reacts endothermically with silica to form "incipient

belite". Net heat input: 722.5 kJ

700-900°C: Calcium carbonate reacts endothermically with alumina and iron oxide to
form incipient aluminate and ferrite. Net heat input: 207.2 kJ .

900-1050°C: When all available silica, alumina and iron oxide have reacted, the
remaining calcium carbonate decomposes endothermically to calcium oxide. Heat input
requirement: 601.9 kJ/kg clinker.

1300-1425°C: Aluminate, ferrite and part of the belite melt endothermically, and belite
react with calcium oxide to form alite.

1425-1300°C: Having passed peak temperature, the melt re-freezes exothermically to

aluminate, ferrite, and belite.
Types of Clinker

The most common type of clinker is produced for Portland cement and its blends. The
types of clinker vary depending on the type of cement for which the clinker is produced.
Aside from the Portland cement blends, some special types of cement clinker are listed
below:

Sulfate Resistant Clinker

Low Heat Clinker

White Clinker

Low-alkali Clinker

Belite Calciumsulfoaluminate Ternesite (BCT)

Sulfate Resistant Clinker

It contains 76% alite, 5% belite, 2% tricalcium aluminate, 16 % tetracalcium

aluminoferrite, and 1% free calcium oxide. Its production has decreased in recent years
because sulfate resistance can easily be obtained by using granulated blast furnace slag in
cement production.

Low Heat Clinker

It contains 29% alite, 54% belite, 2% tricalcium aluminate and 15 % tetracalcium

aluminoferrite, with very little free lime. It is no longer produced because cement produced
from ordinary clinker and ground granulated blast furnace slag has excellent low heat
properties.

White Clinker

It contains 76% alite, 15% belite, 7% tricalcium aluminate, no tetracalcium aluminoferrite,

and 2% free lime, but the composition may vary widely. White clinker produces white
cement which is used for aesthetic purposes in construction. The majority of white cement
goes into factory-made pre-cast concrete applications.

Low-alkali Clinker

Reduction of alkali content in clinker is done by either replacing the raw-mix alumina
source with another component (thus obtaining a more expensive material from a more
distant source), or installing an "alkali bleed", which involves removing some of the kiln
system's high temperature gases (which contain the alkalis as fume), resulting in some heat
wastage.

Belite Calciumsulfoaluminate Ternesite (BCT)

This concept is used in producing a type of clinker with up to 30% less carbon dioxide
emission. Energy efficiency improves and the electricity costs for the manufacturing
process are about 15% lower as well.

Use of Clinker: Conversion to Cement

Clinker, combined with additives and ground into a fine powder, is used as a binder in
cement products. Different substances are added to achieve specific properties in the
produced cement. Gypsum added to and ground with clinker regulates the setting time and
gives the most important property of cement, compressive strength. It also prevents
agglomeration and coating of the powder at the surface of balls and mill wall. Some organic
substances, such as Triethanolamine (used at 0.1 wt.%), are added as grinding aids to avoid
powder agglomeration. Other additives sometimes used are ethylene glycol, oleic acid, and
dodecyl-benzene sulphonate. The most notable type of cement produced is Portland
cement, but certain active ingredients of chemical admixtures may be added to clinker to
produce other types of cement, such as:

ground granulated blast furnace slag cement

pozzolana cement

silica fume cement

Clinker is primarily used to produce cement. Since it can be stored in dry condition for
several months without noticeable deterioration, it is traded internationally in large
amounts. Cement manufacturers buy clinker for their cement plants in areas where raw
materials for cement are scarce or unavailable.

Difference between Clinker and Cement

Cement and clinker are not the same material. Cement is a binding material used in construction
whereas clinker is primarily used to produce cement. The main differences between clinker and
cement are given below.

  Clinker Cement
Cement is a binding agent that sets and
Clinker is a nodular material which is used
1 hardens to adhere to building units such as
as the binder in cement products.
stones, bricks, tiles etc.
Cement is such a fine powdery substance
Clinker is a granular substance containing
2 that each pound of cement contains 150
spherical pellets of diameter 3-25 mm.
billion grains.
3 Clinker is produced inside the kiln during Cement is produced by grinding clinker
the cement manufacturing process. Raw mix (added with different active ingredients to
is heated and then rapidly cooled to produce achieve the desired properties of cement)
into a fine powder.
   Clinker Cement
the marble-sized pellets of clinker.

Read: Clinker Manufacturing Process

The composition of a typical good quality
Composition of the most common type of
clinker for general use: 37-72% of
cement: 85% clinker, 1.5-3.5% gypsum by
3CaO.SiO2; 6-47% 2CaO.SiO2; 2-20%
SO3 content, and up to 15% admixtures. 
4 2CaO.Al2O3; 2-19% 4CaO. Al2O3.Fe2O3
Read: 8 Main Cement Ingredients & Their
Read: What is Cement Clinker?
Functions
Composition, Types & Uses
Cement is used in construction to make
concrete as well as mortar and to secure the
The primary use of clinker is to manufacture infrastructure by binding the building blocks.
5
cement. It is also used for water-proofing, filling or
sealing gaps, and making decorative
patterns.
Extraction and Preparation of Raw Materials

The main raw materials (limestone, clay chalk or basalt) are quarried from natural rocks.
They are crushed and transferred to pre-blending storage where other substances (such as
sand, iron ore, bauxite, shale, slag, fly ash) are added to get the desired chemical
composition.

Homogenization

The raw materials are ground in the raw mill where the particle size is reduced on a 90 um
sieve and then transferred to a homogenization silo to ensure the production of uniform
and good quality clinker.

Pre-heating

The homogenous mixture of raw materials is heated and transformed into oxides (that are
ready for the burning phase in the kiln) in pre-heater cyclones fitted with a pre-calciner
fired with petroleum, natural gas or coal.
Kiln phase

Since clinker is a complex mixture of ingredients, it requires a multi-staged heat treatment,

which is done in the kiln. The main part of the manufacturing process of clinker takes place
in the kiln. The stages in the kiln phase are as follows:

Evaporation of free water: A pressure above atmospheric is required to vaporize the

water from the slurry mixture of raw materials. Water becomes superheated and the
evaporation gradually stops when the temperature rises above 120°C.

Clay decomposition: “Clay” minerals account for most of the alkalis in the raw materials,
the most common of which is kaolinite, Al2Si2O5(OH)4. The detached alkalis react with the
acid gases present in the kiln at high temperature. The effective reactions here are:

Si2Al2O5(OH)2→ 2 SiO2 + Al2O3 + 2 H2O (vapor) KAlSi3O8 (orthoclase) + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25
O2 → 3 SiO2 + 0.5 Al2O3 + 0.5 K2SO4

Dolomite decomposition: The magnesia in the raw-mix exists mainly as dolomite,

CaMg(CO3)2, but also as silicate or in carbonate form. Dolomite reacts as follows:

CaMg(CO3)2>→ CaCO3 + MgO + CO2

Again, non-carbonate magnesium compounds (for example, phlogopite) react thus:

KMg3AlSi3O10(OH)2 + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 0.5 K2SO4 + 3 MgO + 0.5 Al2O3 + 3 SiO2 +
H2O (vapor)

Low-temperature calcite decomposition Calcium carbonate, present in the raw-mix as

calcite, produces carbon dioxide, the amount of which exceeds half the mass of the finished
clinker. This requires a huge heat input. The efficiency of this reaction is one of the factors
that determine the output and heat consumption in the kiln. Pure calcite in the kiln
decomposes at around 650°C:

2 CaCO3 + SiO2 → Ca2SiO4 + 2 CO2

 Reactive clay decomposition products and small amounts of alkali sulphate/chloride-
melt draw the products together by surface tension and act as an ion transfer medium.
Here, CO2 is produced but no free lime (CaO) is formed. In the silicate phases, magnesium
reacts with silica to produce forsterite (which goes into solid solution in belite):

2 MgO + SiO2 → Mg2SiO4

Phosphorus (as apatite in raw-mix) reacts with a little free silica and produces
whitlockite (which also goes into solid solution in belite):

Ca5(PO4)3OH + 0.25 SiO2 → 1.5 Ca3(PO4)2 + 0.25 Ca2SiO4 + 0.5 H2O (vapour)

This stage ends when all the silica in the kiln is used up.

Alumina and iron oxide react: Calcium carbonate continues to react with other oxides
and no free lime is yet formed. Though tricalcium aluminate is stable here, poorly
crystallized mayenite (Ca12Al14O33) seems to be formed. The reactions at this stage are:

12 CaCO3 + 7 Al2O3 → Ca12Al14O33 + 12 CO2

4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 → Ca4Al2Fe2O10 + 4 CO2

4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Mn2O3 → Ca4Al2Mn2O10 + 4 CO2

Decomposition of remaining calcite: A little amount of calcite remains at this stage and
forms free lime for the first time:

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

Sintering: Sintering is the process of compacting and forming a solid mass of material by
heat or pressure to the point of liquefaction without actually melting it. When the
temperature inside the kiln reaches about 1300°C (the eutectic melting point of aluminate,
ferrite and silicate), clinker flux is produced. The rate of melting varies, and when the liquid
is formed, alite, which becomes stable at above 1250°C, begins to form. The principal
reaction of this stage is as follows:

Ca2SiO4 + CaO → Ca3SiO5

 The liquid formed both acts as a solvent of ion exchange between the solid phases and
draws the reactant particles together by surface tension. The powdery or granular mixture
quickly solidifies into spherical nodules of clinker.

Cooling and storing

The mixture inside the slightly inclined kiln is rapidly cooled from 2000°C to 100°C-200°C.
Thus, the final product, clinker, is produced, and then stored, ready for the production of
cement.

Specific Gravity of Cement - Details & Test Procedure

Mainly Specific Gravity is the is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a
reference substance at a fixed temperature. On the other words, it is the ratio of the mass of
a substance to the mass of a reference substance. And the theme is also same for cement.
Specific Gravity of cement is the ratio of the density or mass of cement to the density or
mass of a reference substance.

But in both of the state's density or mass, the volume should be same. If the volume does
not remain same the specific gravity has no existence then. Because the mass or density
will be changed of the substance or reference substance.

Specific Gravity of Cement

Specific Gravity of Cement. Source: commons.wikimedia.org

Why We Calculate Specific Gravity of Any Substance

We calculate specific gravity of any substance to know the behavior of the material in
water. And we can know the material will sink or floats in the water. All of the materials in
our environment have a fixed specific gravity. The usual range is 1-100. If the specific
gravity is greater than 1, then it sinks in water. If the specific gravity Is less than 1 it floats
in water. So if the specific gravity of any substance is known to us we can use the materials
in suitable place of any work.

Basically, specific gravity defines that the substance is how much heavier than water or
reference substance of the same volume. The specific gravity of cement ranging from 3.1 to
3.16 g/cc. By this statement, we can ensure that cement 3.1-3.16 times heavier than water
of the same volume. And it sinks in water. Because the specific gravity is greater than 1.

Every material consists off so many little pores, which may contain voids in it. And a
material becomes useless when any void present in the material. If the cement covered by
extreme moisture content due to bad weather conditions, then the specific gravity of
cement may go up to 3.19. If the specific gravity value reaches 3.19, then the pores in
cement are filled with the moisture. Cement undergoes a chemical reaction when it is
reacted with the atmospheric moisture this process is termed as hydration. Moisture is
very harmful to cement. Cement becomes useless once it is hydrated with water. The
presence of excessive moisture is the reason for finding a lot of lumps in old cement is due
to content in it.

Standard Value of Specific Gravity of Cement

The specific gravity value of portland cement is generally around 3.15 while the specific
gravity value of portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-pozzolan cements may have
specific gravities near 2.90.

Portland Cement Association (PCA). (1988). Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures.
Portland Cement Association.

Reference Substances for Specific Gravity

Maximum time water is used as a reference substance. And its temperature should be near
at 4°C. For gases, it is air at room temperature 25°C. But if “Cement” is used as a sample
substance then kerosine would be the reference substance. Because cement hydrates and
forms calcium oxide when it reacts with water. But kerosene won’t show any reaction
when it mixed with cement.

The specific gravity of kerosine is 0.79 g/cc.

How to Calculate Cement Specific Gravity?

One can easily determine the value of specific gravity of cement using Le Chatelier Flask
method. Determination of specific gravity of cement at the site level can be easily done
using this is an experiment.

Required Materials & Apparatus

Followings are the specific gravity test apparatus and materials:

Kerosene

Ordinary Portland Cement

Le-Chatelier Flask of 250 ml or Specific Gravity Bottle / Pycnometer of 100 ml

Weighing balance with 0.1 gm accurate

Specific Gravity Test Procedure for Cement

The specific gravity test procedure contains only four steps. Followings are the four steps
to be followed to perform specific gravity test of cement:

The Flask should be free from the liquid that means it should be fully dry. Weigh the
empty flask. Which is W1.

Next, fill the cement on the bottle up to half of the flask around 50gm and weigh with its
stopper. And it is W2.

Add Kerosene to the cement up to the top of the bottle. Mix well to remove the air
bubbles in it. Weigh the flask with cement and kerosene. And it is W3.

Empty the flask. Fill the bottle with kerosene up to the top and weigh the flask for
counting W4.

Specific Gravity Calculation

Cement specific gravity formula:

Sg=W2−W1(W2−W1)−(W3−W4)×0.79

Specific Gravity Calculation

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Storage of Cement: Procedures, Protection, Duration

torage of cement is predominate for constructional works. For economy and proper flow of
work, it is a very common practice to buy a bulk amount of cement at a time. Hence, it is
essential to ensure correct arrangements to store properly this amount of cements.
Properly maintained storage facilities preserve the quality and fitness of cement to be used.

Cement may be an absorbent construction material. It reacts with wetness either in liquid
or in vapor forms quickly. In the presence of wetness, cement undergoes a chemical
process termed as hydration. Cement becomes useless once the hydration method has
taken place. Cement will stay in shape as long because it encounters wetness. Moisture may
be a huge enemy of cement and thus cements luggage never keep for an extended amount.

Why it is Important to Properly Store the Cement?

Storing cement is very important because of its own quality, use and while we have bought
the cement, consecutive step is storing it properly,

Moisture Effect on Cement Strength

If cement is not stored properly, it will absorb moisture from the region air or the other
supply, inflicting the cement to react with it with chemicals. The binding property and
strength of cement depend upon its capability for the chemical process. For this, the
strength of cement is going to be affected.

Storage Duration Effect on Cement Quality

Prolonged storage of cement, wherever dampish air could gain access, decreases the
strength of the cement and makes it seem to be coarser, the quantity of water needed to
create up a neat cement paste of normal consistency will increase, and setting time is
additionally accrued. In worst cases, lump formation even renders the cement unusable.
For hindrance of cement against deterioration and retentive its freshness, its storage ought
to be specified no damp or moisture is allowed to succeed in cement either from the
bottom, walls or from the setting. This becomes necessary throughout the wet season and
in coastal regions once region air contains the next quantity of moisture in it.

Procedures of Cement Storage

Following are some basic points that one ought to be considering whereas storing cement:

Cement baggage ought to be held on wherever no wet or moistness is allowed to succeed

in cement either from the bottom, walls or from the surroundings, etc.

Do not enable hooks to facilitate the storage of cement. Exploitation hooks have been
marked as a harmful follow for the handling of baggage because it exposes the cement to
the open atmosphere, which can be damp and misty.

Never store the cement bags with fertilizers or a different product, as any contamination
will have an effect on the standard and performance of the screen.

Avoid storage of cement within the basement; ideally, the storage ought to be drained the
primary or higher floors.

The little windows are provided at sill level and commonly unbroken tightly shut.
Because of this, the wet or rainwater is prevented from stepping into the shed.