Chapter 2
Respiratory
System
FATHIAH ABDULLAH
Lesson outcomes
At the end of this topis, you should be able to
1. describe the characteristics of respiratory surfaces in fishes,
insects, amphibians, birds, mammals and other organisms.
2. describe breathing mechanisms in fishes, insects,
amphibians and birds.
3. explain the human respiratory system with other organisms.
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Fun facts!!
• A person usually breathes an average of 26 cups of air every minute.
• Lungs aren’t the same size. To accommodate the heart, the right lung
is larger than the left lung
• Lungs are the only organs in the human body that are capable of
floating on water.
• If the lungs were opened flat they would be so big that they would
cover the size of a tennis court!
• O2 only plays a small part in breathing. The air we breathe contains Black Lung is a very common disease among miners
21% O2, but our bodies only use 5% — the rest is exhaled. worldwide that is given to them by breathing in coal
dust. Since 1990, over 20,000 coal miners have died.
• 70% of waste is eliminated through your lungs just by simply Black lung disease causes inflammation, tissue
breathing. scarring and will significantly reduce the amount of
oxygen intake.
• Children and women breathe faster than men.
• Humans exhale up to 17.5 ml of H2O per hour.
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Characteristics of Respiratory Surfaces
➢Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of organic
molecules to produce ATP. Respiratory O2 CO2
medium Respiratory
(air of water) surface
➢A sufficient supply of O2 is required for the aerobic respiratory
machinery of Krebs Cycle and the Electron Transport Chain to Organismal
level
efficiently convert stored organic energy into energy trapped in Circulatory system
ATP.
Cellular level
➢CO2 is generated and must be removed from the cell. Energy-rich
molecules Cellular respiration ATP
from food
➢There must be an exchange of gases:
➢1) O2 entering the cell for cellular respiration;
➢2) CO2 leaving the cell.
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ENMM
Diffusion
The molecules or particles will
move from an area where they
are very concentrated into an
area where they are less
concentrated.
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3 Basic Processes of Respiration
➢Pulmonary Ventilation / Breathing:
The inhalation and exhalation of air and involves the exchange of air between the atmosphere
and the alveoli of the lungs.
➢External (pulmonary) respiration:
Exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood in pulmonary capillaries
across the respiratory membrane. During this, pulmonary capillary blood gains O2 and loses
CO2.
➢Internal (tissue) respiration:
Exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells. In this step the blood
loses O2 and gains CO2. Within cells, the metabolic reactions that consume O2 and give off CO2
FA during the production of ATP are termed cellular respiration.
Respiratory Medium
• No problem keeping the • HIGH concentration of
cell membranes of the O2 than H2O
respiratory surface MOIST • O2 and CO2 diffuse
WATER
(aqueous environment) FASTER in air
AIR
• But, O2 concentrations are • Less energy required for
LOW ventilation (air is far
lighter and much easier
to pump)
• Air dries out the
respiratory surface
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Respiration in small animals
Small organisms such as single-celled protozoa (Amoeba
and Paramecium), Hydra, earthworm, and jellyfish
exchange gases directly across their cell membrane or
body surface through simple diffusion.
Because of small body volume, diffusion alone is
sufficient to transport O2 and CO2 into, around, and out of
their bodies.
Simple animals that lack specialized exchange surfaces
for gas exchange have flattened, tubular, or thin shaped
body plans, which are the most efficient for gas exchange.
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Respiration in higher organisms
➢ H i g h e r o r g a n isms s u c h a s fi s h e s, i n s e c ts, a m p h i b i a ns,
b i r d s , a n d ma mma l s e x c h a n g e g a s e s a t a s p e c i al i z ed
r e g io n o f b o d y c a l l e d a re s pira tory s urf ac e.
➢ T h e r e s p iratory s u r face i s o fte n p a r t o f a n e l a b o ra te
r e s p i ratory o r g a n ( e xa m pl e : g i l l s , tr a c hea e o r l u n g s ).
➢ An i ma ls req u ire L ARG E & MO IST r esp ira tor y sur faces
fo r th e a d e q u a te d if f u sio n o f r e s p i ratory g a s e s
Between their cells and the respiratory medium (air or water)
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ENMM
Respiration in fish,
insects, amphibians and
birds
FA
The feathery gills projecting from a salmon are
an example of a specialized exchange system
(respiration) found in animals
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Respiration in fish
Gills are out-folding of
the body surface
• Collect dissolved O2
and release CO2
Gills are consisted of
• Gill arches
• Gill filaments
• Lamellae
Discus fish - native to the Amazon River basin
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Oxygen-poor
Gill arch blood
Oxygen-rich
Lamella
blood
Blood
vessel
Gill
arch
Water
flow Operculum
O2 Blood flow
Water flow through capillaries
over lamellae in lamellae
showing % O2 showing % O2
Gill
filaments
Countercurrent exchange
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The effectiveness of gas
exchange in some gills is
increased by
1. Countercurrent flow of
blood and water
2. Ventilation
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1) Countercurrent exchange pathway
➢Arteries are arranged so that blood flows in the
opposite direction of water movement against the
gills.
➢By having respiration pathway in this orientation,
maximum gas exchange can take place.
➢By setting up a countercurrent pathway, the blood is
always passing water that still has oxygen. The
equilibrium would not reach, diffusion/ gas
exchange is constantly taking place.
➢If the blood and the water were moving in the same
direction (concurrent), the blood would reach
equilibrium with water which would stops the
diffusion or gas exchange.
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2) Ventilation
➢Ventilation : any method of
increasing the flow of the respiratory
medium (H2O) over the respiratory
surface (lamellae of gills)
➢H2O must be flowing over the gills to
provide a continual source of O2.
➢Several ways to keep them ventilated:
◦ Some fish swim with their mouths open
almost all of the time.
◦ Other fish have a special flap called an
operculum, which is used to force H2O
across the gills.
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Respiration in insect
➢ Takes place in the tracheal
system
➢ Consists of tiny branching
internal tubes that
• penetrate throughout the
body
• deliver O2 directly to body
cells
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Tracheal system
Rings of chitin reinforce the largest tubes, called
tracheae, keeping them from collapsing.
Enlarged portions of tracheae form air sacs near organs
that require a large supply of O2.
Air enters the tracheae through openings called
spiracles on the insect’s body surface and passes into
smaller tubes called tracheoles
The tracheoles are closed and contain fluid (blue-gray).
When the animal is active and is using more O2, most
of the fluid is withdrawn into the body. This increases
the surface area of air in contact with cells.
FA Air flow: Spiracle →tracheae→tracheole→tissue cells
The tracheal tubes
Body
cell Air
Tracheole sac
➢ Supply O 2 directly to body cells
Trachea
Air Body wall
Tracheoles Myofibrils
Mitochondria
This micrograph shows cross sections of tracheoles in a tiny
piece of insect flight muscle (TEM). Each of the numerous
mitochondria in the muscle cells lies within about 5 µm of a
tracheole.
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2.5 µm
Small insect Large insect Aquatic insect
Gas exchange occurs by Actively pump air into the Must seal their spiracles
diffusion only. tubes. when they are under the
water to prevent flooding
their tubes.
Passive movement of air Larger insects with higher Some aquatic insects even
into the tracheae and energy requirement must have specialized spiracles
diffusion brings in ventilate air in and out of that can puncture
enough O2 to support the tracheae through underwater plants and
cellular respiration. rhythmic body. access their plants’ O2
Movements produced by storage centers.
muscles.
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Respiration in amphibians
The frog has three respiratory
surfaces on its body that it uses to
exchange gases
▪ skin
• lungs
• lining of the mouth.
FA Ye l l o w t r e e f r o g
Bumble bee poison frog
Amphibian skin
Moist
Gases can only cross cell membranes when they are
dissolved in water or an aqueous solution, thus respiratory
surfaces must be moist
Thin
Allows the respiratory gases to readily diffuse in and out
between the blood vessels and the surroundings.
Highly vascularized
Lots of blood vessels going through it. Since the blood
vessels are close to their permeable skin surface, diffusion
can take place right through the skin.
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Amphibian lungs
◦ Ventilate lungs by positive pressure breathing -
forces air down the trachea
◦ Without diaphragm, air will be forced to the lungs
◦ Inhalation
◦ muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity, drawing
in air through the nostrils
◦ With the nostrils & mouth closed, the floor of the
oral cavity rises and air is forced down the
trachea
◦ Exhalation
◦ Compression of muscular body wall, forces air
back out the lungs
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Amphibian lining of mouth
•Root of mouth has rich supply of blood vessels
•Constant movements of throat brings air in through the nose & into
the mouth, where diffusion occurs
•The air is then released through the nose and the passage to the
lungs is kept close
•While at rest, this process is their predominate form of breathing,
only fills the lungs occasionally
•This is because the lungs, which only adults have, are poorly
developed.
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Respiration in birds
➢Takes place in lungs
➢The respiratory system is similar to that of
mammals:
◦ Gases are exchanged in the capillaries
◦ The major difference is the way to breathe /
route of airflow through the bird.
➢Besides lungs, bird have 8/9 air sacs that
◦ collect air
◦ keep air flowing through the lungs
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During inhalation - air is brought
into the posterior air sacs, which
A second inhalation will move the A second exhalation will push the
expand.
air from the lungs to the anterior air out of the body.
Upon exhalation - the air is forced
air sac.
from the posterior air sacs into the
lungs. This is where gas exchange
takes place.
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Characteristics of route of airflow through
lungs and air sacs in birds
• T h i s p r o g ressio n o f a i r th r o ug h th e b i r d m e a n s
th a t th e lu n g s a r e c o m p resse d d u r i n g i n h a l a tion
a n d e xp a n d d u r in g e xh a l a ti o n.
• It a l s o ta k e s tw o fu l l i n h a l a ti o n s a n d
e xh a la tio ns to m o ve o n e g u l p o f a i r th r o u gh th e
b ir d .
• Ai r p a s se s th r o u gh th e l u n g s i n o n e d i r e c ti on
o n l y - fr e s h a ir d o e s n o t m i x w i th a i r th a t h a s
a lr e a d y c a r ri e d o u t g a s e xc h a nge Vogelkop Superb Bird-of-Paradise, discovered in
May 2018
• Eve r y e xh a la tio n - c o m p l etel y r e n e ws th e a i r i n
FA th e l u n g s d ir e ction i n w h i c h a i r m o ve s
a lte r n ates
Advantages of respiration in birds
The unidirectional flow of air through the lungs
allows all the air flowing through the lungs to be
fresh air with maximal O2 to be collected.
In humans, this is not the case since there is only
one pathway to the lungs and it is used for both entry
and exit.
During flight, air sacs and lungs are continuously
filled with O2 rich air which provides maximal air to be
absorbed into the blood stream, which is necessary
T h e s h i n i n g h o n e y c r e e p e r,
for the high metabolism needed for flight
found in central America
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Respiration in mammals
Modern lemur
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Respiration in mammals
The process that ventilates the lungs is breathing
alternate inhalation and exhalation of air
Breathing is dependent upon the rib muscles and the
diaphragm
Breathing is done without conscious effort
Mammals ventilate their lungs
◦ By negative pressure breathing, which pulls air into the
lungs
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Control of Breathing in Humans
➢Respiration is regulated by
• medulla oblongata
• pons
➢They decide how fast respiration needs to take place
by monitoring the level of CO2 in the blood.
➢In times of excitement or during exercise, the cells
require more O2 than normal - respiration speeds up.
➢Additionally, the heartbeat increases because the
circulatory system is required for the respiration Haryz Nadzim Mohd Hilmy Naim was accepted into Mensa
system to function. UK after scoring 142 on the Stanford Binet test
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Breathing mechanism
Rib cage
expands as Rib cage gets
rib muscles Air inhaled smaller as Air exhaled
rib muscles
contract
relax
Lung
Diaphragm
INHALATION EXHALATION
Diaphragm contracts Diaphragm relaxes
(moves down) (moves up)
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Inhalation
1. Lung volume increases as the rib
muscles and diaphragm contract
Rib cage
2. Rib cage move up and out; the expands as
rib muscles Air inhaled Air exhaled
contract
diaphragm flattens and moves
downward.
3. Air pressure inside the lungs
decrease and drop below that of the
air outside their body. Lung
Diaphragm
4. Air rushes inside through nostrils
and mouth and down the breathing INHALATION EXHALATION
Diaphragm contracts Diaphragm relaxes
tube to the alveoli. (moves down) (moves up)
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Exhalation
1. The rib muscles and diaphragm relax - this reduces
lung volume and forces air up the breathing tubes
and out through the nostrils \
Rib cage
2. Lung volume decreases as theexpandsrib
as muscles and
Rib cage gets
smaller as
rib muscles Air inhaled Air exhaled
rib muscles
diaphragm relax to their neutral
contract state.
relax
3. Rib cage move down and in; the diaphragm domes
up moves upward.
4. Air pressure inside the lungs increases and forces Lung
air up the breathing tubes and out through the
nostrils and mouth.
EXHALATION
Diaphragm relaxes
(moves up)
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Mammalian Respiratory Systems
Branch Branch
from the from the
pulmonary pulmonary
vein artery
(oxygen-rich (oxygen-poor
blood) blood)
Terminal
bronchiole
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Left
Larynx lung Alveoli
Esophagus
50 µm
Trachea
Right lung
50 µm
Bronchus
Bronchiole
Diaphragm
SEM Colorized SEM
Heart
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Mammals : Air → nostrils → pharynx → epiglottis → larynx → trachea → bronchi →
bronchioles →alveoli (where gas exchange occurs)
Bronchi: Extensions of
Nose/nostrils: It gets the windpipe that
warmed, moistened, and shuttle air to and from
filtered by cilia and mucus the lungs.
membranes which can
trap dust and pathogens. Bronchioles: The tiny
branch of air tubes
within the lungs that is a
Epiglottis: The epiglottis continuation of the
regulates air going into the bronchus. The
trachea (windpipe) and bronchioles connect to
closes upon swallowing to the alveoli (air sacs).
prevent food from being
inhaled. It is the Alveoli: Tiny air sacs
gatekeeper to the lungs. that crucial in
increasing the surface
Trachea: Along structure area that can be used
of soft tissue surrounded for gas exchange.
by c-shaped rings of
cartilage (hyaline). FA
• Spiders, land snails, and most terrestrial vertebrates have
internal lungs
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Diffuses in the opposite
Gas exchange direction, from
capillaries across the
epithelium of the alveolus
and into the air spaces.
➢Gas exchange takes place in the
capillaries, so the alveoli are closely
aligned with the network of
capillaries.
➢This brings the blood carrying
waste products into close enough
proximity with fresh air for diffusion
to take place. From air, entering the alveoli,
then dissolves in the moist
➢The waste is removed and the O2 film that lining the inner
surfaces and rapidly diffuses
is taken up by the blood.
across the epithelium to
capillaries.
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Respiratory volumes
Tidal volume - the volume of air an animal
inhales and exhales with each breath at rest
(extra effort is not applied)
Residual volume - the volume of air that
remains in the lungs after forcefully exhaling
Vital capacity - The total volume of air that
can be exhaled out of the lungs after fully
inhaling (inspiratory reserve volume + tidal
volume + expiratory reserve volume).
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