Circular (Iowa State College.

Agricultural Iowa Agricultural and Home Economics

Experiment Station) Experiment Station Publications

5-1917

Feeding Dairy Cattle

Andrew C. McCandlish
Iowa State College

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Part of the Agriculture Commons, and the Dairy Science Commons

Recommended Citation
McCandlish, Andrew C., "Feeding Dairy Cattle" (1917). Circular (Iowa State College. Agricultural Experiment Station). Paper 34.
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Feeding Dairy Cattle
Abstract
The dairy cow is a more efficient producer of human food than any other domestic animal. For each 100
pounds of digestible nutrients consumed she returns in her milk more than six times as much edible solids as
the beef steer or mutton sheep yields in its carcass. As agriculture becomes more intense the farmer has to pay
greater attention to economy of production, so it is becoming necessary for him not only to use the most
economical type of animal but also to have it producing to the best of its ability.

To insure successful milk production two things are fundamentally necessary, a productive dairy cow and a
liberal system of feeding. A good cow will produce well for a considerable time even on poor feed, but this is
done at the expense of her own body and so if proper feed is not supplied she must produce less milk than she
is really able to do and finally dry oft' when the stores of nutrients in her body are depleted. Lack of suitable
feed explains why many cows in the corn belt are not producing well. They are fed on corn stalks and timothy
hay with perhaps a little ear or shelled corn; in spite of this they produce wen for a few months after calving,
but they soon dry up and arc idle until their next freshening.

For the successful feeding of dairy cows a knowledge is neccesary not only of the food materials required by
the animals but also of the various classes and quantities of constituents in the feeds used.

Keywords
Dairy Husbandry, Animal Husbandry

Disciplines
Agriculture | Dairy Science

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May, 1917 Circular No. 34

FEED lNG DAIRY CATTLE

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

lOWA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
AND MECHANIC ARTS

Animal Husbandry Section

Dairy Husbandry

Ames, Iowa
 CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTORY 3
Constituents of Feeds 3
Functions of Nutrients 4
DEFINITIONS OF FEEDS 5
TnE CHARACTERISTICS oF FEEDING STUFFS • 7
Concentrates 7
Roughages . 12
REQUIREMENTS OF A RATION 18
FEEDING DAIRY ANIMALS 25
The Calf 25
'l'he Growing Heifer 27
The Dry Cow 27
The Cow Immediately Before Parturition 28
The Cow Immediately After Parturition . 28
The :Milking Cow 28
The Bull 30
Salt 30
Water. 31
Order of Feeding 31
Method of Feeding 32
 FEEDING DAIRY CATILE
By A. C. McCandlish

The dairy cow is a more efficient producer of human food than any other
domestic animal. For each 100 pounds of digestible nutrients consumed she
returns in her milk more than six times as much edible solids as the beef
steer or mutton sheep yields in its carcass. As agriculture becomes more
intense the farmer has to pay greater attention to economy of production,
so it is becoming necessary for him not only to use the most economical
type of animal but also to have it producing to the best of its ability.
To insure successful milk production two things are fimdamcntally neces-
sary, a producti\'e dairy cow and a liberal system of feeding. A good cow
will produce well for a consirlcrable time C\"en on poor feed, but this is done
at the expense of her own body and so if proper feed is not supplied she
must produce leBB milk than she is really able to do and finally dry oft' when
the stores of nutrients in her body are depleted. Lack of suitable feed ex-
plains why many cows in the corn belt are not producing well. TI1ey are
fed on corn stnlks and timothy hay with perhaps a little car or she11ed corn;
in spite of this they produce wen for a few montlls after calving, but they
soon dry up and arc idle until their next freshening.
For the succcBSful feecling of dairy cows a knowledge is neccBBDry not
only of the food materials required by the animals but also of the various
classes and quantities of constituents in the feeds used.

CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDS
Feeding stuffs are not simple substances but arc composed of many com-
plex chemical compounds. The constituents of feeds which are useful in the
feeding of animals are called nutrients, and the mrious cla!!!!es of these,
proteins, carbohydrates, fats, ash and water, arc defined below:
A nutrient is a compound, or group of compounds of similar composition,
which aids in 8!1pporting animal life.
The proteins nrc complex organic compoumls cont.'lining nitrogen. Other
simpler nitrogenous substances, such as amids, are also present. These are
sometimes grouped with the true protein and the whole e.·llled crude protein.
Tho carbohydrates arc composed of e."\rbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the
hydrogen and oxygen being present pr~eticnlly always in tl1e proportions in
which they occur in water. This group is subdivided into crude fiber and
nitrogen-free extract. The crude fiber consists of materials such as are
found in the woody parts of plants, while the best known examples of nitro·
gen free extract S!lbstnncea are starch and S!lgnr.
 4
Tho fats contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but the hydrogen and
oxygen are not present in the snme proporlions as in water.
Tho ash is the mineral part of the feeds.
· Water, which needs no definition, occurs in all feeds and is exceedingly
important.
FUNCTIONS OF FOOD NUTRIENTS
All tho food nutrients consumed by an animal are not utilized. In its
passage thru the stomnch and intestines the feed is acted on by many diges·
• tivo juices and part is absorbed from the alimentary tract and taken into
tho blood. It ·is this pnrt of tho rntion, the digestible nutrients, that·is of
greatest importance. It is the digestible protein, digestible "fat, and so on,
. , that must be t.aken into account in mnking up a ration •
. ·. ~neb food nutrient hns severn! functions to perform in the animal body.
Tho proteins are used for building up and replacing muscular and other
active tissue and are \'cry essential for the welfare of the animal. When
more protein than is necessary for tissue building is supplied it is U1!0d for
the pro<luction of heat ami energy. In pregnant animals. protein is also
neetletl for tho growth of the fetus nml after parturition a considerable
runoant of the nitrogenous constituents of the feed is used in the production
of the milk proteins.
Carbohy<lrntes, including both <ligestible fiber and nitrogen·free extract,
are .used largely for the production of heat and energy but may be con·
verted into fats aml stored in the body as such. Large amounts of them
are used up in the pr01luction of the fat and sugar of milk. The fats are
more concentrated l1eat anti energy producers than any other of the food
nutrients and are also used as material to be stored up in the body. They
help in the production of the fat nnd other milk solids.
Tho proteins cannot be replaced by either fats or carbohydrates for the
building of body or milk protein. As their heat and energy producing
value is only equal to that of the carbohydrates and their cost is usually
greater proteins should not be fed in excess if the most economical results
are sought. The tissue and milk requirements for protein should be sup·
plied by the feed ami a little extra, as this has a stimulative action, .but the
nutrients needed for heat and energy production shoulcl be supplied mainly
as fats and carbohytlrates. The fats, pound for pound produce two and a
quarter times as much heat. and energy as do the carbohydrates or proteins.
Ash, though present in feeds in smaller proportions than any other food
nutrient, is absolutely essential. Its main function is to build up bone in
tho animal, and also in the fetus of pregnant females, and to form the min-
eral portion of milk. It has other functions wbieh though vital are less
evident.
Tho water supplied to a cow, eitl1er in the feed or as drinking water, is
required in the tissues nnd ns a means of carrying tho other nutrients from
one part of the body to auotht•r anti t.o the fetus and mammary glands.
Its import.anee in the production of milk is easily seen when it is known
that Si per eent of milk is water.
 5

DEFINITIONS OF FEEDS
The following definitions of feeding stuffs, officially adopted by the As-
sociation of Feed Control Officials of the United States, will give an idea
as to the source, method of preparation, and general character of some of
the more common feeds:

GENERAL DEFINITIONS
Meal is the clean, sound, ground product of the entire grain, cereal, or
seed which it purports to represent.
Chop is a ground or chopped feed composed of one or more different
cereals or by-products thereof. If it bears a name descriptive of the kind
of cereals it must be made exclusively of the entire grains of those cereals.
Screenings arc the smaller imperfect grains, weed seeds and other foreign
material having fee1ling value, separated in cleaning the grain.
Alfalfa meal is the entire alfalfa hay ground, and docs not contain an
admixture of ground alfalfa straw or other foreign materials.
BREWERS' AND DISTILLERS' PRODUCTS
Brewers' dried grains are the properly dried residue from cereals ob·
tained in the manufacture of beer.
Distillers' dried grains are the dried residue from cere..Us obtained in the
manufacture of alcohol and distilled liquors. The product shall bear tho
designation indicating tho cereal predominating.
Malt sprouts are the sprouts of the barley grain. If the sprouts are de-
rived from any other malted cereal, the source must be designated.
BUCKWHEAT PRODUCTS
Buckwheat shorts or buckwheat middlings are that portion of the buck·
wheat grain immediately inside of the hull after separation from the flour.
CORN PRODUCTS
Com bran is the outer coating of the corn kernel.
Com feed meal is the sifting obtained in the manufacture of cracked
corn and table meal made from tl1e whole grain.
Com germ meal is a proiluct in the m:mufacture of starch, glucose and
other corn products and is the germ layer from which a part of the com
oil has been extracted.
Grits are the hard, flinty portions of In~lian corn, without hulls and germ.
Hominy meal, hominy feed or hominy chop is a mixture of tho bran coat-
ing, the germ and a part of the starchy portion of the corn kernel obtained
in the manufacture of hominy grits for human consumption.
' Com gluten meal is that part of commercial shelled com that remains
after the separation of the larger part of the st.·nch, the germ and the bran,
by the processes employed in the manufacture of corn starch and glucose.
It may or may not contain corn solubles.
Com gluten feed is that portion of commercial 11helled corn that remains
after tho separation of the larger part of the starch an<l the germ by tho
processes employed in the manufacture of corn starch a11<l glucose. It may
or may not contain corn solubles.
COTTON SEED PHODUCTS
Cottonseed meal is a product of the cottonseed only, compose,) principally
of tho kernel with Sllch portions of the hull as is necessary in the manu·
facture of oil, provillcd tlmt nothing shall be recogni?.ed as cottonseed meal
 6

tnnt docs not conform to the foregoing definition and that does not contain
at least 36 per e~nt of protein.
Choice cottonseed meal must be finely ground, not necessarily bolted, per-
feeUy sound and sweet in odor, yellow, free from excess of lint and must
contain at least 41 per cent of protein.
Primo cottonseed meal must be iinely ground, -not -necessarily ·bolted, of
sweet odor, reasonably bright in color, and must contain at least 38.6 per
cent of protein.
Good cottonseed meal must be finely ground, not necessarily bolted, of
sweet odor, reasonably bright in color, and must contain at least 36 per
cent of protein.
Cottonseed feed is a mixture of cottonsec!l meal and cottonseed hulls,
containing less than 36 per cent of protein.
Coltl pressed cottonseed is the product resulting from subjecting the
whole umlecorticatc<l cottonseed to the coltl pressure process for the ex-
trnction of oil, ami includes the entire cottonseed less the oil extracted.
Ground cold pressed cottonse01l is the ground product resulting from sub-
jecting the whole undecortieate!l cottonsee!l to the cold pressure process for
the extraction of oil, and includes the entire ground cottonseed less the oil
extracte!l.
LINSEED .AND FLAX PRODUCTS
Linseed meal is the ground protluct obtained after extraction of part of
the oil from ground flaxseed screened and cleaned of wee!l seeds and other
foreign materials by the most improYe!l commercial processes.
Oil meal is the groun!l product obtained after the extraction of part of
tl1e oil by cruslling, cooking an!l hydraulic pressure, or br crushing, heating,
and the use of solvents from seeds which have been screened and cleane!l
of weed seeds and other foreign materials by the most improved commercial
processes.. When used alone the term ''oil meal'' shall be understood to
!lesignate the product obtaine!l from screene!l and cle:me!l flaxsee!l. When
used to co,·er any other product the name of the seed from which it is ob-
tained shall be prefixed to tl1e words "oil meal."
Old process oil meal is tho ground product obtained after extraction of
part of tl1e oil by crushing, cooking and hydraulic pressure from seeds
screened and cleaned of weed seeds and other foreign materials by the most
impro\·cd commercial processes. 'Vhen used alone the term '• old process
oil meal'' shall be understood to designate the product obtained from
partially extracted, screened and cleaned flaxsee!l. When used to cover any
other product the name of the seed from which it is obtained shall be pre-
fixed to ''old process oil meal.''
New process oil meal is the ground product obtained after extraction of
part of the oil by crushing, beating an!l by the use of solvents from seeds
screened and cleaned of weed seeds and other foreign materials by the most
impro\'ed commercial processes. 'Vl1cn used alone the term • • new process
oil meal'' shall be understood to designate the product obtained from par-
tially extracted, screened and cleaned flaxseed. When used to cover any
other product the name of the seed from which it is obtained shall be pre-
fixed to "new process oil meal."

O.AT PRODUCTS
Oat groats are the kernels of the oat berry.
Oat hulls are the outer chaffy coYcrings of the oat grain.
Oat middlings are tho floury portion of the oat groat obtained' in the
milling of rolled oats.
Oat shorts are the covering of the oat grain lying immediately inside the
hull, being a fuzzy material carrying with it considerable portions of the
fino floury part of the groat obtained in the milling of rolled oats.
 7

Clipped oat by-product is the resultant by-product obtained in the man-

ufacture of clipped oats. It may contain light, chaffy material broken
from the ends of the hulls, empty hulls, light immature oats and dust. It
must not contain an excessiYe amount of oat hulls.

WHEAT PRODUCTS
Wheat bran is the coarse outer coatings of the wheat berry obtained in
the usual commercial milling process from wheat that has been cleaned and
screened.
Shorts or standard middlings are the fine particles of the outer and inner
bran separated from bran and white middlings.
Wheat white middlings or white middlings are that part of the offal of
wheat intermediate between shorts or standard mitldlings and red dog.
Red dog is a low grade wheat flour containing the finer particles of bran.

THE OHARAOTERISTIOS OF FEEDING

STUFFS
Feeding stuffs are as a rule diYided into "concentrates" and "rough·
ages.'' The concentrates are materials, such as tl1e grains and factory by·
products, which contain Yery little crude fiber and are Yery highly digestible.
The roughages are bulky materials, like hay and silage, and are considerably
more fibrous than the concentrates.

Concentrates
Tho concentrates are grouped here according to their origin, so far as
possible, but occasionally it will be necessary to class them on the basis of
their characteristics rather than their origin.
Corn. Corn is capable of pro,·i!ling a. Yery large proportion not only of
tho roughages but also of the concentrates used on the dairy farms of Iowa.
This feed is Yaluablo chiefly on account of its carbohydrates, for tho it con-
tains about 10 per cent of protein, other sources of this material are usually
cheaper. It is also deficient in ash, particularly lime and sometimes phos·
phates. In the corn belt, corn must form the basis of the economical grain
ration as it is usually the cheapest source of earbohytlrates or energy-sup·
plying material. But corn should not be fed as the sole concentrate, es-
pecially where the corn plant is also supplying the silage or other rou~;.hage
used; it should be supplemented by other nitrogenous feetls. It wdl be
found more 1•rofitable to feed corn to dairy cows as cracked corn or corn
meal rather than as ear or shelled corn because the prepared forms are more
completely utilizetl.
Soft Corn. The best way of handling a crop of soft com is to put it in the
silo, but sometimes this is not possible and the grain bas to be fed. Pound
for pound, soft corn has not as high a feetling Yalue as well matured corn
but when figured on the dry matter basis there is little difference, because,
tho soft corn contains relatively less fat than mature corn, it as a rule con-
tains more crude protein. There is no renson why soft corn can not be
utilized economically by the dairy cow if it is fed carefully and with proper
supplements. The main difficulty in its use is the problem of storage as its
high moisture content is faYorable to mold growth.
Corn and Cob Meal. Bulk, one of the essentials in a dairy ration, is the
characteristic that makes eom and cob meal a valuable feed. When corn
is fed in a finely ground form it is _likely to form pasty masses in tho
 8
alimentary trnct of the cow and consequently it is not only incompletely
utilized, but it may also cause digestive disturbances. The fine particles of
cob in the com and cob meal possess little if any nutritive value, but they
have a very beneficial effect. They add bulk to the feed and, by keeping
the particles of the corn apart, allow of more complete digestion. There·
fore, corn and cobmeal, tho it contains a large amount of indigestible fiber,
is nearly as valuable pound for pound in feeding dairy cattle as corn meal.
Corn Bran. Corn bran is now seldom on the market as it is used in the
preparation of other feeds, for example gluten feed. It contains more fiber
and leas protein than wheat bran.
Gluten Meal. Gluten meal is exceedingly rich in crude protein, contain·
ing on the average about 35.5 per cent. It is a very heavy -feed and likely
to cause digestive disturbances unless fed in limitetl quantities.
Gluten Feed. Gluten fcctl is fairly high in crude protein, containing on
the average about 25 per cent. The addition of corn bran gives it a much
higher per cent of erutle fiber than gluten meal but the increased bulk adds
materially to ita usefulness. Where the solnlJie materials of the steep
water have been arlded the ash content is also good. As a rule gluten feed
is a fairly economical source of protein, but being a corn by-product it
should not be the only concentrate used to balance a ration containing a
largo amount of corn.
Germ Oil Meal. This feed contains le~s protein than gluten feed, but
on the average it contains almost 11 per cent of fat.
Hominy Feed. Hominy feed differs very little in composition from corn,
tho it contains higher per cents of fiber, fat, and ash. It is essentially a
carbohydrate feet! which can often be used economically, especially as it is
bulkier than corn meal tho rather less digestible.
Corn DistUicrs' Gmins. Distillers' wet grains are too bulky to be profit-
ably shipped far aiHl as their wat('ry nature makes them perishable they
arc usually dried and soltl as distillers' drietl grains. They contain about
twice as much crude protein and three times as much fat as wheat bran
and have a feetling mine above that of gluten feed. Being bulky and con·
taining about 31 per cent of crutle protein they form an excellent feed.
Oats. Oats vary consirlernlJiy in quality. In the south they have a large
per cent of hull and a light bushel weight, while in the north they are
plumper :uHl weigh more per bushel. Oats are higher in crutle protein,
fiber and ash than corn antl almost equal to it in per cent of fat. There
is no grain bett~>r Umn oats for milk producing cows or cows about to
freshen, but they are frequently too high in price to be fed economically
except in limited quantities to high 11roducing cows. It is usually best to
grind oats before feeding them to dairy cattle. Not only are they very
palatable, but when ground and mixed with tho rest of the grain ration
they increase its bulk and thus enhance its value.
Oat By-Products. Several by-products, including oat hulls and oat
shorts or middlings, are made in the manufacture of oatmeal but they are
of little importance in feeding dairy cattle, except as constituents of mixed
feeds. Oat hulls contain almost 30 per cent of crude fiber and have little
feeding value. They are usually mixed with othe~.:_ feeds and their bulk may
then have some beneficial effect. Oat middlings-contain more fat than
wheat bran. As with oat bran, oat dust and oat clippings, they are usually
put into mixed feeds.
Wlleat. As when t is the chief American grain ·for human consumption
and consequently demands a high price, only poor or spoiled lots are
available for stock feeding. Wheat contains more protein, ash and carbo·
hydrates than corn but it is lower in fat. Tho higiJCr than corn in protein
it is a carbohydrate feed. Damaged wheat ns n rule differs little in com·
 9
position from good grain, but often contains more protein. It is about
equal to corn for milk production and when used should be ground.
Wheat Bran. Tho protein content of wheat bran is high, running usually
about 16 per cent in eruile protein. It has a fair amount of other digesti·
ble nutrients, tho it has a relatively high content of crude fiber. The ash
content is also high and is rich in phosphates, tho poor in lime. Bran is
light and bulky, is extremely palatable and has a beneficial and cooling
effect on cows. Owing to its high price it is sometimes not a very economi-
cal protein supplement for corn and other carbonaceous feeds. It can sel·
dom be profitably fed to all the animals in a herd, but even tho it is high
priced it is usually advisnble to feed it to cows just before and after fresh·
ening, to animals that are being force1l for records aml to young stock. Its
laxative properties and its palatnbility render it extremely useful, in the
form of mashes, for cows that ha\'e gone off feed.
W11eat Middlings. Standard wheat middlings or shorts, tho higher in
protein than wheat bran, should seldom be fed to dairy cows. They are
not palatable and there are other more economical sources of protein. 'Vhen
fed middlings should be used in small quantities only and mixe<l with other
feeds.
Flour Wheat Middlings. This feed contains less crude fiber an1l more
protein than the standard wheat middlings. Like shorts they should be fed
in limited quantities, if at all.
Reil Dog Flour. This contains less fiber and ash and more nitrogen·
free extract than wheat bran. In feeding value it is very similar to good
flour middlings.
Barley. Barley is a common feed where corn cannot be grown success·
fully, and is excellent in value. It is rather higher in crude protein and
fiber, and lower in fat, than corn nnd its nutritive value is just a. little less.
When fed it should be rolled instead of being ground, as bnrley meal is
likely to cause indigestion. Being carbonaceous, it requires to be supple·
mented with protein feeds. It is palatable and when it can be obtained
at a reasonable price makes a minable addition to the ration of the dairy
cow.
Barley Sll()rts anil Barley Bran. These products contain less protein than
tho corresponding wheat products and are of little importance in dairy
cattle feeding.
Malt Sprouta. The dried sprouts from the malted barley grains contain
about 26 per cent of crude protein. This is fairly easily digested but a
large part of it is not true protein. :Malt sprouts contain over 12 per cent
of crude fiber an1l the per cent of nitrogen-free-extract and fat is low.
They are bulky, but owing to their unpalat.'lble nature not more than two
or throo pounds per head per day shoulll be fed and they should be soake1l
in water for se\"eral hours before feeding.
Brewers' Wet GraiM. Owing to their bulk and to the fnct thnt they
should be fed fresh, brewers' wet grains arc in common use only near brew-
eries. 'Vhen properly hnndled they make a profitable fee1l for 1lairy cows,
the usual allowance being 20 to 30 lbs. per day. It is l"ery el!sential that
they 1;1e fl'1l before 1leeomposition start11, ·otherwise digesth·e disturbances
are sure to result and the odors from the decomposing feed will also be
imparted to the milk.
Breu·ers' Dried Grai11s. They form a bulky feed aml contain about 10
rer cent more crude protein than wheat bran. They ha\·e a higher per cent
of fiber aml fat aml a lower Jler cent of ash than bran. Brewers' dried
grains ean often be use1l as a. protein suppleml.'nt and usually are more
economical than wheat bran. They add bulk to tho ration but they ha,·e
not the same beneficial laxnth·e and cooling effect on the system as bran.
 10
Bye. Rye is not quite such an efficient feed for milk production as com.
In composition it differs little from wheat, containing slightly less protein,
fiber, an1l fat and a little more ash and nitrogen-free extract. It is not
very palatable to dairy cows and large quantities of it are likely to cause
digestive disturbances. Two or three pounds per day may be safely fed
along with other feeds.
Bye By-products. The chief rye by-products are middlings, bran and
distillers' grains. The rye middlings and bran do not differ much from
wheat middlings and bran except that they are somewhat lower in fiber,
fat and protein and are unpalatable. Rye distillers' grains are consider-
ably lower in protein and fat than those made from corn and are conse-
quently of less value in the feeding of dairy cattle.
Buckwheat and its By-products. Buckwheat and its products are not
much used in the feeding of dairy cattle. Buckwheat middlings, contain-
ing over 28 per cent of crude protein, make quite a good protein feed but
aro often mixed with the hulls and sold as buckwheat bran or feed.
Emmer. This feed, also known as spelt, is not common in Iowa and is
not as valuable as corn for dairy cows. It contains about 12 per cent of
crude protein.
Kafir. This feed, containing about 11 per cent of protein, is of little
importance in Iowa. As it is constipating it sl10uld be fed along with lax-
ath·e feeds.
Milo. Milo is very similar to kafir in composition but it has a laxative
ratl1er than a constipating effect.
Rice and ita By-products. Damaged rice, both rough and hulled, is some-
times fed to c.'lttle but the quantity available is small. Rice hulls should
never be fed to cattle, for not only are they very fibrous and practically
lacking in digestible nutrients, but they contain a large per cent of sandy
material which c.'luses great irritation in the digestive tract and may
even result in death. Ri~e bran, when of high grade, contains about 12
per cent cnllle protein and 11 per cent fat, but it is not considered a good
feed for milch cows ns it is likely to become rancid nnd is said to spoil
the flavor of tho milk even when fed fresh. Rice polish is little used in
feeding.
Fla:rseed. This is used in the feeding of eah·es but not of cows.
Linseed Oil Mral. New process oil meal contnins less fat than tbe old
process. Owing to difference in values, new process oil meal is sometimes
substituted for old process, but the following simple test will enable any
one to distinguish between them: Put a little of the finely pulverized meal
in a glass nnd to it add ten times its volume of boiling water. Stir thoroly
aml allow to stand umlisturbe1l for an hour. If the meal settles to the
bottom and lem·es the water clear, it is new process; if the mixture remains
jelly-like, it is oltl process. Linseed oil meal is one of the best feeds for
dairy cows. It contains a. large nmount of digestible nutrients and has a
la.xntive and cooling effect upon the system. It is a very safe feed, and
tho its high price frequently makes it a less profitabl~ source of protein
than some other feells, it is often ndvisable to lise it, for animals that are
off feed, in low condition, or being prepared for freshening or Ad\·anced
Registry tests. One or two pounds per !loy makes an excellent mldition to
a rati6n. The old proce8s oil meal contains 3 per cent less crude protein
and 4¥.! per cent more fat than the new process; it is also more diges-
tible and hns a better effect on the system, and so should be fed instend
of tl1c new process if the difference in price is not too great.
Cottonseed. Very little whole cottonseetl is now fed to cattle as nearly
all of it is used in tho manufncture of oil.
 11
Cottonseed HuUs. These are extremely high in fiber and very low in
digestible nutrients. They should not be bought for a dairy feed, tho they
are sometimes used as a filler in cottonseed feeds.
Cottonseed Meal. This is one of the richest anll most nitrogenous feeds
available and is often an economical source of protein. Cotwnseed meal
is sold according to the following grades: choice, prime, and good. Be·
sides being rich in protein, cottonseed meal contains a relatively large
amount of fat and ash which also add to its value. It has a constipating
effect and so should be fed with such laxative feeds as linseed oil meal
and bran. Cottonseed meal should always be bought subject to guarantee
as it varies greatly in protein content. It should be in good fresh condi·
tion as moldy meal is not only unpalatable but also dangerous to stock.
Under certain conditions any grade of cottonseed meal may prove poison·
ous and it should never be fed w young calves or to cows about w freshen.
Howe\·er, there is no danger in feeding a limited amount, two or three
pounds per day, w milking cows, provided it is mixed with laxative, bulky
and less nitrogenous feeds. It is an excellent feed for cows on pasture, as
its constipating effect counteracts the effect, of washy grass. Unlike oil
meal, it serves to harden butter which is oftentimes· soft during the summer
time.
Cold-pressed Cottonseed Cake. This feell contains more fiber than cotton·
seed meal, due w a larger Jler cent of bulls, and it is consequently less
valuable as a feed. It is usually sold as broken cake but sometimes it is
ground inw a meal. It is also put on the market under various trade names.
Canada Field Peas. Field peas contain about 23 per cent of crude pro·
tein and make an excellent supplement to corn.
Cowpeas. These are very similar in composition to field peas. There is
not a large acreage of this crop in the corn belt and the bulk of it is used
for silage and hay.
Soybeans. Of the leguminous seeds mred in cattle feeding, this is the
richest in crude protein and ash. The resiflue left after tl1e extraction of
tho oil from the beans is sold as soybean cake or meal and used for feeding.
The extracted soybean meal has about 41 per cent of crude protein and 7
per cent fat, or in other words 5 per cent more protein and 10 per cent less
fat than there is in the soybeans. These arc excellent feeds for dairy cows,
tho they tend w produce a soft butter. An abundance of carbohydrate
feeds should be fed with them.
Molasses. Molasses, whether from sugar cane or sugar beets, is a valua-
ble carbonaceous feed. The two varieties do not differ much in composi·
tion, tho the beet molasses is likely w have a purgative action due to the
alkaline salts present. The protein in molal!SCs has little nutritive value.
Owing w its high price molasses is often not an economical feed. How·
ever, it is often valuable as an addition to feeds of poor quality, such as
badly weathered hay or musty grain. The molasses, either alone or diluted
with water, is poured oyer the other fec1ls. Not more than two or three
pounds per cow per day should be fed. Animals well along in pregnancy
should receive molasse~ only in limited amounts, if at all.
Proprietary Feel.s. Many proprietary feeds are 011 the market, both
mixed feeds and standard feeding stuffs which are sold under trade names.
A number of these are valuable while others have nothing to recommend
them but their name and appetizing odor. Proprietary feeds should be
bought according to their composition ami their digestibility. The protein
content of these feeds is usually fairly high, but the price asked for them
is frequently much wo high.
 12

Rmtghages
Tl10 roughages used in the feeding of dairy cattle should as n rule be
grown on the farm. There is no more economical way of marketing the
hays and other roughages grown on tho farm than by way of the dairy cow,
provided they are suitable for dairy cattle._ The roughages can be classed
as succulent including pasture, roots, silage and soiling crops; and dry for-
ages, such as hays, fodder and stover.

SUCCPLENT ROUGHAGES
No feeds will induce greater or more economical milk production than
succulent ones and it is essential that a supply of these be on hand thruout
tho year. 'Vith a judicious combination of pasture, soiling crops and silage
this can be obtained.
PASTURE
Gootl succulent pasture is the feed, par excellence, for the dairy cow.
It is not only bulky and succulent, but it contains the necessary food nu-
trients in about the correct proportions. The pasturing season in Iowa
usually lasts from May to October. For tho first six weeks or two months
no additional rough feed will be required and during the early part of the
season, it is well to cut down, and in most cases to eliminate entirely the
grain ration of all except the heaYiest producers. This cools and rests the
tligcstiYo tract and the cow is in much better shape to handle concentrates
when it again becomes neeess:ny to feed them. From the time pasture
begins to dry up, as a rule about the middle or end of June, until the end
of tho pasturing season, it is well to feed soiling crops or silage and same
concentrates. By the use of soiling or silage not only will the milk pro·
duction per eow be increased, but the carrying capacity of the farm can
also be considerably increased. Bluegrass makes an excellent pasture while
it lasts, but its period of greatest usefulness is usually short. For a good
cow pasture nothing equals a mixture of grasses and clovers, as the variety
increases palatability, the cloyers increase the protein conrent, and the
clo\·ers and mixe1l grasses supply excellent feed after the bluegrass season
is past.
_ If pasture is used without soiling or summer silage it will require one and
one-half to two and one-half acres per cow to get the best results, whereas
if silage or soiling is fed the pasturage allowance can be economically cut
down to as low as one-half llll acre per cow. The carrying capacity and
returns from a pasture are greatly influenced by the method in which it is
handled. It should be well 1lrained and regularly manured. The stock
should not be turned on to it in spring until the land is fully dry
and growth is well starred. Stocking the pasture before there is a
good cover lessens the \'itality of the forage, and trampling on wet ground
lloes much damage. Q,·or stocking at any time is also inad,·isable. Weeds
detract from the value of a pasture and should be kept down at all times.
 13
SILAGE
Corn silage is essential on all dairy .farms in the corn belt. Without it
the largest and most economical milk production cannot be obtained. Corn
being a succulent plant which is easily harvested and put thru the cutter
makes an excellent silage crop.
That the use of the silo makes possible the most efficient harvesting of
the corn crop is shown by the .following figures .from the Wisconsin Agricul·
tural Experiment Station. During .four years' work there it was .found
that when t11e corn crop was \lricd in the shock there was an average loss
of 23.8 per cent of the dry matter and 24.3 per cent of the crude protein,
whereas when the corn was made into ensilage the respccth·e losses were
15.6 per cent and 16.8 per cent. This shows a considerable conservation of
the valuable food nutrients. Then again, when the crop has been put in
the silo all of it will be consumed by the animals, whereas when the eom
has been shocked the stock will refuse a large poriion of it.
The stage of ripeness at which the crop is cut has a great influence on
the yield and quality of silage produced. If the ensiling is done too early
the largest yield of nutrients will not be obtained. Also, owing to the
large per cent of water and soluble suhst.-mces present, the fermentation
will be excessh·e, much valuable feeding material will be lost, a poor
quality of silage will result, and the silo may leak. If the cutting is deayed
too long, the yield of dry matter will be largest, but owing to the large
amount of air present the contents of tl1e silo will become moldy and per·
haps rot unless water is added at the time of tilling. Mot.ly silage is not
only undesirable but is sometimes dangerous to the stock.
Tho best silage is produced when the com is cut just as the kernels are
well dented. At this stage the yield of dry matter is large and there is still
usually sufficient moisture present to insure thoro packing and a succulent,
palatable silage.
The .following figures, adapted from ''The Soft Com Predicament,'' by
Evvard of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, illustrate well the
facts mentioned above.
TABLE I. YIELD OF FOOD NUTRIENTS IN CORN AT DIFFERENT
STAGES OF GROWTH (TAKEN ON ACRE BASIS)
MATURE YIELD TAKEN AS 100

Stage of Growth I Dry )fatter ~Crude Protein) Nitrogen Fll'e Extract I

Crude Fiber

In the milk--------~
In the glaze_______
Well dented--------
Ready to shock_____
66
86
95
I 00
II 79
82
95
100
I 61
86
96
100
I 78
88
92
100

Tho good succulent com is best for silage, .fairly satisfactory silage can
be made from a com crop damaged by (lrought or frost which otherwise
would be largely wasted. Such material is not necessarily poor or (}anger·
ous as a feed. It. contains the same amount of nutrients as it did im·
mediately before it was damaged, tho of course leM thnn if it ha(l been
allowed to come to the proper st.'lge of de,·elopment. If it is ensiled as
 14
soon as possible after it is damaged it will come out of tho silo in the
spring in good condition. If allowed to dry ·out, however, add water, as
tho corn is being put into the silo to assist in its packing and to impart
the necessary succulence. Corn fool!ler that has been dried in the shock
can also be made into good silage if plenty of water is added. Tho not
just as palatable as the silage made from the fresh green forage, it gives
good results and will be more thoroly utilized tlmn woul!l the dry fodder.
Similarly, corn stover can be mad\) more valuable as a feed by being put in
the silo, tho of course the absence of the ears lowers its femling value.
Tho value of corn silage is due largely to its succulence, bulk and palata-
bility and to its beneficial effect on the digestive tract of the animal. In
effect it is laxative and cooling. These are the essential characteristics of a
good ration for a dairy cow and they make silage an excellent feed for
milk production. When cows are turned out to pasture in the spring the
milk yieltl invariably increases, due largely to the 1 palatable, succulent
nature of the pasture. This initial rise is not a full measure of the value
of pasture, however, for it also puts the cows in a condition for continued
milk production. The feedir.g of silage in winter gives many of the nd-
vantages of pasture as the essential characteristics of the two are very
similar.
Silage, tl10 of greater value in winter, can be used to considerable ad-
vantage in summer when the pasture is short and dry. The feeding of
silage in the barn during the hot dry weather of July and August not only
supplements the rather scant pasture, but also allows the cows to feed in a
cool place where they can be sprayed to keep off the flies.
Tho feeding silage is not a difficult matter, it should be done with care
or trouble may arise. The silo shoultl be of such a diameter that enough
feed will be taken out each day to prevent decomposition of the top layer.
This is especially important in tho summer, so if a silo is erected for sum-
mer use only it should be of smaller dinmetcr than the winter silo. In
winter the silage will keep well if at least two inches per day are removed
for feeding purposes.
The following table shows the number of cows that can be kept during
the winter with various sized silos. The length of tl1e silage feeding period
is t.'lken as 225 days and average amount of silage fed as 30 lbs. per day.
The heights gi\·en are the heights of the silos from the bottom of the pit
to the e:n-es. The depth of tl1e silage will be nbout six feet less than this,
depending on the amount of settling. With large herds it will usually
be fountl best to build two silos of small diameter rather than one of large
diameter. For this reason data is given in table II on quite a few silos
of small diameter. As a rule it is well to lun·e the total depth of the
silage not less than 36 to 38 feet. If it is less than this and has to be fed
all winter the amount remo\·ecl each day for feeding purposes will be a
layer less than two inches and the silage may spoil.
At one time it was considered that good milk could not be produced when
silage was fed, but this has been found to be incorrect. Milk will rapidly
take on a silage odor if it is given the opportunity, but in a well managed
 15
T.ABLE II. DESIRABLE CAPACITY OF SILO FOR DIFFERENT
SIZES OF HERDS

Diameter II l.
of Silo
Feet
10
II
12
II
14
II 16 18
Height of
Silo Feet II Cap.\No. of\\ Cap.\No. of\\ Cap.\No. of\\ Cap.\No. of\\ Cap.\No. of
Tons Cows Tons Cows Tons Cows Tons Cows Tons Cows
34 42 12 61 18 83 25 ----- ----- ----- -----
36 47 14 67 20 91 27 ----- ----- ----- -----
38 51 15 74 22 100 30 131 39 ----- -----
40 56 17 80 24 109 32 143 42 ----- -----
42 ----- ----- 87 26 118 35 155 46 196 58
44 ----- ----- ----- ----- 128 38 167 49 212 63
46 ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- 180 53 229 68
48 ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- 244 72

bam it should not have this opportunity. If the silos arc shut oft' from
the bam, the silage fed after milking, the amount limited to what will
be cleaned up in a short time, and the milk remo,·ed from the barn as
soon as it is milked, there is no danger of having a noticeable silage odor
in milk. Bad odors of any kind in milk are as a rule due to carelessness.
Even at the present time it is sometimes said that silage causes the teeth
of the cows to decay, brings about digestive troubles and may c\·en induce
abortion. These statements arc incorrect. Silage does not cause teeth to
decay and unless it is badly molcle.t or .Iecaye.I or suddenly fe•l in too large
amounts it will .not cause digestive troubles or abortion.

BOILING CROPS
Soiling crops are also excellent for supplementing pasture in summer.
With the aid of soiling crops the area of pasture nee!lc•l for tlJC dairy
herd can be reduce!l, or more animals can be kept, aml consequently the
cost of milk production lowered. The other advantages are similar to
those to be obtained from the fcc!ling of silage during summer, with the
addition of variety.
Several crops cnn be use!l successfully for soiling an!l table III gives
information concerning those that have been ghing satisfaction at the
Iowa State College dairy fann during the last six years.
The dates given for sowing and cutting will vary quite a little. according
to seasons but they form a fairly reliable guide. ,
The various cuttings of alfalfa can be utilized successfu1ly for soiling,
tho the time they can be use!l is limited. If tho cutting is stnrte•l too
early it will decrease the yicJ.l ami if it is delayed too long the following
crop will suffer. The daily amount of green alfalfa consumc•l by cows is
not as great as for some other feeds.
Oats and Canada field peas are among the most valuable e:1rly soilings.
When the oats arc in the milk and the peas have filled the pods, but ha\·e
not commencecl to llry, they form a very palatable aml highly nutritious
suceuleneo. Tho main drawback to this mixture is that it ripens rapidly
ancl when ripe is not so
palatable. Owing to their early and rapid growth,
however, they arc well suited for the early part of the clry season.
Al!'l~T e;~no and cowpens in mixture yield hea.,·ily an<l the season tkru
 16
TABLE III. SUCCESSION OF SOILING CROPS
.....
OG>
g
- " E-t .
..,Il-l ..
.~og 0
Approxlmat~ Approximate
Crop Time of Time of Rate of Seeding Per Acre
i><~E-t ~~
Cutting Sowing &rz, rJ llo!'d
f~~ .. A
!ef< "0
<t!! 0
Alfalfa June 10·20 Previous Spring 20 lbs. 8
--
3.00
or August
Oats and Can· June 20· 1'1.. bushels Oats and
ada Field Peas July 5 April 5 1 '1.. bushels Peas 6 5.00
Oats and Can· 1 '1.. bushels Oats and
ada Field Peas July 5·30 April 20 1 '1.. bushels Peas 5 5.00
Allalfa July 10·20 Previous Spring 20 lbs. 4 4.00
or August
Amber Cane 35 pounds Cane and
and Cowpeas Aug. 1·30 May 25 1 bushel Peas 9 2.50
Amber Cane Aug. 15· 35 pounds Cane and
and Cowpeas Sept. 5 June 25 1 bushel Peas 13 2.00
Amber Cane 35 pounds Cane and
and Cowpeas Sept. 1·20 July 5 1 bushel Peas 9 2.00
Sudan Grass August 25·
Sept. 10 llay 25 20 lbs. 11 4..00
Soybeans Aug. 25·
Sept. 15 )[ay 20 50 lbs. 6 2.75
* This Is the approximate cost of the green feed as it is laid down in the bam, and
Includes the expenditure for seed, labor and other items in the cost of production.

which they can be used is a long one. The cowpens increase the protein
content of the feed and also add nitrogen to the soil, but in all probability
larger and cheaper yieltls of green feed can be obtained by sowing the eane
alone at the rate of about 75 to SO pounds per acre. Sown in this way
the cane will be finer and will not become so woody as ripening progresses.
Sudan grass gil'es large yields of fee{] but it is not so palatable as some
of the other soiling crops and it becomes fibrous when ripe.
Soybeans ha;e not often been tried as a soilage in the com belt, but
when drilled in at the rate of 50 pounds per acre economical yields are
obtainable. For the first few days cows do not care for them much, but
they soon acquire a taste.
Millet pro\'es a fairly good soilngc for use in the late part of the season
and can be sown for use after the crops in the abo\'c table have been cut. It
can be usell up to the time of frost or until the silos are filled. Green com
can also be used until silo filling time, tho it is rather difficult to handle.
The abo\'e is only an outline of a soiling system, and it can be varied
to suit inllivithml conclitions. Tho soiling is not as cheap as summer silage
it makes possible a decrease in t!:e cost of summer milk production.
The a\'erage cost }Jer cow for 11asture and soiling at the Iowa State Col·
lege dairy farm during the last six years has been practically $8.00 and
 17
if pasture alone had been used the cost would have been somewhere be-
tween $9.00 and $15.00.
Tho choice between summer silage and soiling crops depends largely on
individual conditions. On the average farm, if a silo of small diameter is
available, summer silage is probably the most economical, especially if help
is scarce. Where no silo is available soiling crops should be used, and on
largo dairy farms more cows can usually be kept by growing soiling crops
than by feeding summer silage. For the most efficient and economical milk
production one or the other should be used.
Roots. Root crops are not much in evidence in Iowa and are not very
important in any part of the corn belt. Pound for pound of dry matter
roots have about the same feeding value as com silage and so owing to the
small yields and tho high cost of production it seldom pays to grow any
largo quantity of them. Howe>er, where cows are being run on official test
and large records are wanted, it is often advisable to have a few roots, as
their palatability and succulence \Yill increase the flow of milk. Sugar
beets, mangels, and rutabagas are most commonly used. Potatoes might
also be put in this elass as cows will utilize small potatoes efficiently. Po-
tatoes have to be fe<l carefully, howewr, owing to the danger of choking
and to the fact that too large quantities of them will produce milk and
butter with poor flavor.
Beet Pulp. This is the residue from the manufacture of beet sugar.
Wet beet pulp makes an excellent succulence for supplementing or even
replacing silage. Owing to its high moisture content it cnnnot be used
economienlly except close to the sugar factories where the cost of trans-
portation is small. It is usually bought in the dried condition and soaked
before feeding. It shoultl be soaked for about 12 hours an<l will take up
about three times its weight of water. It enn be fed with the silage, or
as a substitute if silage is not available. When fed as the sole sueeulence,
from four to eight pounds per day of the <lried material enn be given and
when fed with silage two to four pounds will as a rule be sufficient.

DRIED ROUGHAGES
The dairy cow is preeminently a consumer of roughages and usually
provides the most eeonomi~al market for those grown on the farm. They
supply the bulky and fibrous part of the ration so necessary for the most
efficient action of the cow's digestive system.
Com Fodder a11d Stot·cr. Com fodder an<l sto,·er, tho not so good QB
silage, make fairly good carbonaceous roughages. Where they ha,·e to be
fed, some nitrogenous hay shoul•l al~o be UN'tl. Wl1ere there is silage and
also some f011der or sto\·er a\·ailable it is often admntageous to gi\·e the
cows a little of tl:e fodder or sto\·er in ad<lition to th!'ir silage. They will
relish small quantities of it, and a goo!l rl:m is to gi\"e the cows aeeess to
it when out for ex!'rcise.
Straw. The eereal strawR, being poor in protein, low in <ligestibility and
unpalatable, arc not good roughages for mileh cows.
 18
Timothy Hay. This roughage is too fibrous and poor in protein to make
a good cow feed. Its feeding value is about the same as that of oat straw
and it should not be fed to milking cows. Usually it can be sold for as
high a price as it takes to buy alfalfa bay and in this case the best policy
is to sell the timothy and buy alfalfa.
Mixeil Hay. Hay from the mixed grasses is better than timothy and
if there are some legumes present it makes a fairly satisfactory feed.
Oat and Pea Hay. A mixture of oats and Canada field peas, in equal
· parts and drilled in at the rate of three bushels per acre, will yield a good
hay for dairy cows. The best results are obtained when the crop is cut
just as the oats are entering the dough stage. Tho not quite so good as
alfalfa or clover buy it makes an excellent substitute.
Alfalfa Hay. This is undoubtedly the best dry roughage for dairy cows.
It has a high content of valuable nutrients, especially protein and ash, a
good effect upon the system and it is palatable. These properties, in addi·
tion to. its bulk, render it an excellent material for balancing the silage
and corn part of the ration. For best results alfalfa bay should be har-
vested in good condition. One of the main points to remember in curing
alfalfa is that the leaf waste should be kept as low as possible. The leaves
are the most nutritious part of the plant and every care should be taken to
cure the buy with u minimum of bundling, as each time the hay is handled
some of the leaves are lost. One of the main functions of alfalfa hay in
the ration is to supply protein and tho it can not be used to eliminate the
grain ration, the concentrates fed can be rather less nitrogenous when it is
used. Similarly, alfalfa meal is a roughage and not a concentrate, consP·
quently it shoultl not be fed as a substitute for the grain ration. If good
alfalfa hay is obtainable alfalfa meal should not be used.
Clover Hay. Tbe value of clover hay for milk production is about four·
fifths that of alfalfa hay. Except that it contains rather less protein than
alfalfa it is very similar and the statements regarding alfalfa apply also to
clover hay.
81oeet Clot•cr Hay. Not much has been <lone with sweet clover so far but
it is probably about equal in value to alfalfa hay for feeding purposes.
Stock usually object to it at the start when it is in the fresh green state.
This is probably due to the presence of the bitter principle, cumarin. In
the curing of bay this objectionable substance is perhaps destroyed to some
extent and the hay is consequently more palnta~lc than is the green feed.

REQUIRE1l!ENTS OF .t1 DAIRY RATION

The main object in feeding cows is to get the largest and most economical
milk proiluction. To do this it is necessary to know bow to compound a
ration. This is not a very difficult proposition when the composition, prop-
erties and prices of the various feeds nmih\bltl tiTO known. In compound·
 19
ing a ration the following points must be considered: palatability, variety,
bulk, succulence, effect upon the system, balance of nutrients and economy.

PALATABILITY
Palatability is one of the most important points to consider in formu-
lating a ration for dairy cows. If tl1e feed is not palatable the cow will
not eat as much as she really requires and consequently will lose weight or
decrease in milk flow, or both. Unpalatable feeds will often throw cows
off feed. Moldy or damaged grain and badly weathered hay are unpalata·
ble. Certain fee,ds are naturally unpalatable and they should be fed only
in limited amounts and mixed with other feeds. Some cows have distastes
for certaiB feeds and where the highest production is aimed at, the tastes
of each cow should be catered to by individual feeding. The preparation
of the feed has in some cases quite an influence on its palatability, for in·
stance cracked corn, and ground oats are more palatable than the whole
grains.
VARIETY
Frequent changes in the ration are not conduci\'e to the best work on the
part of the cow and as she soon tires of a ration consisting of only two or
three feeds it is well to ha\'e a variety of feeds in the ration. It is best
to feed at least two varieties of roughage, the first choice going to corn
silage and alfalfa hay, and the grain ration should also contain a variety of
ingredients. A mixed ration like this is much more palatable than is a
Bimplo one.
It has lately been found that the value of a feed depentls not entirely on
its content of digestible protein and other nutrients, but also on the pres·
enco of certain substances which are but little understood, and are deficient
in some feeds. By giving a variety of feeds the presence of these essential
constituents, or '' vitamines,'' is practically aBBurcd. It has also been
found that all proteins are not of like value in feeding and that sometimes
a mixture of two proteins is more efficient than either of the two alone. This
is another argument in favor of variety in the ration. The dairy cow, unlike
tho beef steer, is fed for successive long periods and so must ha\'e a \'aried
ration.
BULK
Unlike the hog, the cow has a large roomy digesth·e tract that is built
for the handling of rough feetls. Tho cow digests her feed to best ad·
vantage when her ration is bulky as the bulky parts of tho feed keep the
small particles of grain apart ami thus allows them to be thoroly acted on
by the digesti\'o juices. Tho hay and silage should not constitute all the
bulk of tho ration as part of it can profitably be supplie<l by such feeds
as corn and cob meal, ground oats, wheat bran and distillers' dried ·grains.

SUCCULENCE
A succulent ration has many beneficial effects. It supplies part of the
large amount of water required by milking cows, increases the palatability
 20
of tho ration, and has a laxative and cooling effect on the cow's digesth·e
system. In the early part of the summer, pasture grass provides the neces-
sary succulence but in the later part of tho season it should be supple-
mented ·with corn silage or soiling crops; in winter silage is the most eco-
nomical succulence in Iowa, tho it can sometimes be advantageously sup·
plemented with beet pulp or roots.

EFFECT UPON DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Tho effects of feeds on tho digestive system of the cow v1,1ry considerably.
If a. ration is to give best results it should be cooling and have a slightly
laxative effect. Succulent feeds in sufficient quantity have beneficial effects,
but it is well, especially where a large amount of grain is being fed, to see
that the constipating and heating effect of feeds like cottonseed meal is
neutralized by feeding cooling ones like wheat bran and oil meal.

BALANCE OF NUTRIENTS
For the best production a. cow must be supplied with sufficient digestible
food nutrients-protein, carbohydrate fat and ash. A large amount of
nutrients in the feed is not all that is required, however, as the relative
proportions or balance of the nutrients should be right. For example, a
liberal ration will not give the best production if it is deficient in protein
and contains too many carbohydrates and fats. Similarly, a ration that is
liberal but bas too much protein will usually be uneconomical.
This problem of balance of nutrients has rece.ived much attention and
feeding standards have been proposed by several investigators in this coun-
try and abroad. In this circular the Armsby-Eckles standard will be used.
This standard is based on the protein and energy requirements of the ani-
mal. The protein used is digestible true protein and needs no further
explanation. It is based on digestible protein because feeds vary not only
in their protein content but also in the digestibility of the protein. Hence
substances supplying equal amounts of protein do not necessarily supply
equal amounts of digestible protein.
The energy requirements are much simpler to use as a standard than the
carbohydrate and fat requirements, aml nrc probably more accurate. When
substnnces are burm~d they supply definite amounts of heat, and when
used for heat production in the animal body they supply similar amounts of
heat. The food substances can be used in the body for the production of
forms of energy other than heat, but their heat producing power is a con-
venient standard of comparison. The therm, or unit of heat measurement,
is the amount of heat requiretl to raise the temrerature of 1,000 Ibs. of
water about 4" F.
According to the Armsby standard the maintenance requirements of a
1,000 lb. animal are .5 lbs. digestible protein and 6 therms net energy value
per day. As the maintenance requirements of cattle are figured propor·
tional to their live weight, the requirement for any animal can be ealcu·
lated from the above stnndard if its weight is known.
 21
TABLE IV. NUTRIENTS IN 100 LBS. OF SOME COMMON 1-'EEDS*

Feed
I I
I
Digestible Nutrienta
Total Crude! Car·
Dry
I
Pro- bohy·
l'llatter tein drate
Fat I Total Total
Ash
Concenlrale.
Corn, 'Vhole----------------------- 89.5 7.5 67.8 4.6 85.7 1.5
Corn, Soft------------------------- 69.4 5.5 53.3 3.5 66.7 1.0
Corn MeaL------------------------ 88.7 6.9 69.0 3.5 83.8 1.3
Corn and Cob Meal-----!----------- 89.6 6.1 63.7 3.7 78.1 1.5
Hominy Feed---------------------- 89.9 7.0 61.2 7.3 84.6 2.6
Gluten Meal----------------------- 90.9 30.2 43.9 4.4 84.0 1.1
Gluten Feed----------------------- 91.3 21.6 51.9 3.2 80.7 2.1
Germ Oil Meal---------------------· 91.1 16.5 42.6 10.4 "82.5 2.7
Corn BraD------------------------ 90.0 5.8 56.9 4.6 73.1 2.4
Distiller&' Dried Grains, Corn-------- 93.4 22.4 40.4 11.6 88.9 2.6
89.8 9.2 67.5 1.5 80.1 1.9
'VheatDog
Red ---------------------------
Flour-------------------- 88.9 14.8 56.5 3.5 79.2 2.5
\Vheat Shorti---------------------- 89.6 13.4 46.2 4.3 69.8 4.4
'Vheat Bran----------------------- 89.9 12.5 41.6 3.0 60.9 6.3
90.6 9.9 68.4 1.2 81.0 2.0
Rye -----------------------------
Ground Oat1---------------------- 89.2 9.4 51.4 4.1 70.0 3.8
Barley --------------------------- 90.7 9.0 66.8 1.6 79.4 2.7
Brewera' Dried Grain•-------------- 92.5 21.5 30.5 6.1 65.7 8.5
87.9 8.1 49.7 2.5 63.4· 2.1
Buckwheat -----------------------
Emmer (Spelt)-------------------- 91.3 9.5 63.2 1.7 76.5 3.7
Cottonseed Meal-------------------- 92.5 37.0 21.8 8.6 78.2 6.2
Cold·pressed Cottonseed Cake--------- 92.1 21.1 33.2 7.4 70:9 4.2
Linseed Oil l'lleal 0. P--------------- 90.9 30.2 32.6 6.7 77.9 5.4
Linseed Oil Meal N. P--------------- 90.4 31.7 37.9 2.8 75.9 5.6
88.4 19.4 54.5 1.1 76.4 3.4
Cowpea --------------------------
Field PeA------------------------- 90.8 19.0 55.8 .6 76.2 3.4
90.1 30.7 22.8 14.4 85.9 5.3
Soybean -------------------------
Cane Molasse•--------------------- 74.2 1.0 58.2 59.2 6.4
Dru Rouglmge.
Corn Fodder---------------------- 81.7 3.0 47.3 1.5 53.7 5.0
Corn Stover----------------------- 81.0 2.1 42.4 .7 46.1 5.5
Oat StraW------------------------ 88.5 1.0 42.6 .9 45.6 5.4
Rye Str&W------------------------ 92.9 .7 39.6 .4 41.2 7.1
\Vheat Straw---------------------- 91.6 .7 35.1 .5 36.9' 8.4
lllillet HaY------------------------ 85.7 5.0 46.0 1.8 55.0 6.8
l'llixed Grass HaY------------------ 87.2 4.3 44.3 1.2 51.3 5.6
Prairie Har----------------------- 93.5 4.0 41.4 ·1.1 47.9 7.7
Timothy HaY---------------------- 88.4 3.0 42.8 1.2 48.5 4.9
Oat liar-------------------------- 88.0 4.5 38.1 1.7 46.4 6.8
Clover and Timothy liar------------ 87.8 4.0 39.7 1.1 46.2 6.1
Oat and Pea HaY------------------ 83.4 8.3 37.1 1.5 48.8 7.3
Alfalfa llaY----------------------- 91.4 10.6 39.0 .9 51.6 8.6
Red Clover HaY------------------- 87.1 7.6 39.3 1.8 50.9 7.1
Sweet Clover liar------------------ 91.4 10.9 38.2 .7 50.7 7.2
Cowpea HaY----------------------- 90.3 13.1 33.7 1.0 49.0 11.9
Soybean Hay---------------------- 91.4 11.7 39.2 1.2 53.6 8.6
Dey Beet PuiP-------------------- 91.8 4.6 65.2 .8 71.6 3.5
S~cuunl Fee.U
Bluegrass ------------------------ 31.6 2.3 14.R .6 18.5 2.8
Timothy -------------------------- 37.5 1.5 19.3 .6 22.2 2.2
Corn Fodder---------------------- 21.9 1.0 12.8 .4 14.7 1.2
Com Stover----------------------- 22.7 .5 12.0 .2 12.9 1.4
Ailalfa -------------------------- 25.3 3.3 10.4 .4 14.6 2.4
Red Clover------------------------ 26.2 2.7 13.0 .6 17.1 2.1
Sweet Clover---------------------- 24.4 3.3 10.3 .3 14.3 2.1
16.3 2.3 8.0 .3 11.0 2.0
Cowpea -------------------------- 7.1 .a
Field PeA------------------------- 16.6 2.9 10.T 1.6
23.6 3.2 10.2 .5 14.5 2.4
Soybean
Oats and·-------------------------
Peas-------------------- 22.6 2.4 10.6 .6 14.4 2.0
Sugar Beet1----------------------- 16.4 1.2 12.6 .1 14.0 1.1
:Mangels -------------------------- 9.4 .8 6.4 .1 7.4 1.0
Rutabagas ------------------------ 10.9 1.0 7.7 .3 9.4 1.0
9.5 1.0 6.0 .2 7.4 .9
Turnips --------------------------
Corn Silage from ::llature Corn _______ _ 1.1 15.0 .7 17.7 1.7
Immature Com----- 26.31 21.0 1.0 11.4 .4 13.3 1.4
Frosted Corn------- 25.3 1.2 13.7 .6 16.3 1.8
Fi•ld Cur.d Stover-- 19.6 .5 9.9 .4 11.3 1.4
• From the extensive tsbles In Feeds and Feedln~r, 16th ed•Uon, by Henry 11 Mor-
rison.
 22
TABLE V. DIGESTIBLE TRUE. PROTEIN AND NET ENERGY
VALUES IN 100 LBS. OF SOME COMMON FEEDS*
(This table is based on the figures in Table VI)

FEED IDigestiblePounds
Trua Protein/ Net Energy Value
Therms
Ooncen!ra!e&
Corn, Whole------------------- 7.0 89.16
Corn MeaL-------------------- 6.4 88.75
Corn and Cob MeaL____________ 5.7 75.80
Hominy Feed__________________ 6.5 81.31
Gluten MeaL------------------ 28.1 84.15
Gluten Feed------------------- 20.1 80.72
Germ Oil MeaL---------------- 14.3 83.88
Distillers' Dried Grains (Corn)-- 18.3 85.08
Wheat ----------------------- 8.1 91.41
Wheat Shorts------------------ 12.0 59.10
Wheat Bran___________________ 10.8 53.00
Rye ------------------------- 9.0 93.71
Oats ------------------------- 8. 7 67.56
Barley ----------------------- 8.3 89.94
Brewers' Dried Grains---------- 20.2 53.38
Buckwheat ------------------- 7.2 59.73
Cottonseed MeaL--------------- 35.4 93.46
Linseed Oil Meal, 0. P----------- 28.5 88.91
Linseed 011 Meal, N. P,__________ 30.9 85.12
Cowpea ---------------------- 16.9 79.46
Field Pe&--------------------- 16.6 78.72
Soybean ·--------------------- 27.3 81.29
Cane Molasses----------------- 55.38
D111 Roughage•
Corn Fodder------------------ 2.3 43.94
Corn Stover------------------- 1.6 31.62
Oat StraW-------------------- .8 34.81
Rye StraW-------------------- .5 17.59
Wheat Straw __:________________ .3 7.22
MiUet HaY-------------------- 3.9 47.96
Timothy HaY------------------ 2.2 43.02
Oat Hay---------------------- 3.9 32.25
Clover- and Timothy Hay________ 3.2 41.07
Altalla HaY------------------- 7.1 34.23
Red Clover HaY---------------- 4.9 38.68
Sweet Clover HaY-------------- 6.7 38.98
Cowpea HaY------------------- 9.2 37.59
Soybean H•Y------------------ 8.8 44.03
Dry Beet Pulp---------------- .7 75.87
Succulent Fee.U
Bluegrass -------------------- 2.2 17.77
Timothy---------------------- 1.1 18.36
Corn Fodder------------------ .8 14.60
Alfalfa ----------------------- 1.8 11.50
Red Clover-------------------- 1.7 15.87
Cowpea ---------------------- 1.7 10.42
Field Pea--------------------- 2.1 9.78
Soybean --------------------- 2.4 12.53
Sugar Beets------------------- ,4 11.20
Mangels --------------------- .1 5.68
Rutabagas ·----------·--------- .3 8.46
Turnips --------------------- .4 6.16
Corn Silage from Jl!ature Corn___ .6 15.90
Immature Com____ .4 11.96
Frosted Corn______ .6 14.27
------~----~F~i~el=d~C~u~re~d~S~to~v~e~r=-~------~·3 ______~------- 8_._9_8_______
• Net Enera values for Ruminants, Bul. 142 Pa. Sta. Annsbr & Fries.
 23
The requirements for milk production depend on the quantity of milk
produced and on the richness of the milk, as rich milk requires more nu·
trients than poor milk. Furthermore, each additional pound of milk re·
quires more nutrients for its production than the previous pound. A cow
producing 40 lbs. of 3 per cent milk will require rather more than twice as
much nutrient material, over and above maintenance requirement, for pro·
duetion than does a cow producing 20 lbs. of 3 per cent milk. The follow·
ing is the Eckles standard for production.

TABLE VI. PROTEIN AND ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRO·

DUCTION
Per Pound of Milk
Fat Content of Milk %1 Digestible Protein Lbs. 1Energy Value Therms.
3.0
3.5
.050
.052 I .26
.28
4.0 .055 .30
4.5 .058. .33
5.0 .062 .36
5.5 .066 .40
6.0 .Q70 .45
6.5 .075 .50
It is not always convenient to take into consideration the richness of the
milk of each individual in the herd so Eckles suggests that in such eases the
following standards be used.

TABLE VII. PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS BY BREEDS

Per Pound of Milk
Breed 1 Digestible Protein lbs.l Energy Value Therms.
Holst~in .••.........•.•. ··1·
Ayrshtre . .. .. • . .. . . .. .. . • .
.050
.055
I .26-.2!1
.28-.30
Jersey and Guernsey........ .066 .40-.45
Owing to variations in individual requirements, these standards can not
be rigidly adhered to and it is also better as a rule to feed rather more than
the minimum requirements, especially of protein, as a little excess seems to
have a stimulating effect on production. However, these standards are
an excellent guide in the feeding of animals.
As a sample of a ration mode up according to the above standard take
the cnse of a 1,200 lb. Holstein cow giving 40 lbs. of 3 per cent milk per
day. The requirements for this animal will be:
1 Digestible Protein lbs.l Energy Value Therms.
Maintenance .............. ·I
Production ................ f
.6
2. 0
I 7. 2
10.4
I 2.6 17.6
For the roughage part of the ration a reasonable allowance wouM be 36
lbs. of silage and 12 lbs. of alfnlta hay. These feeds will prm·itle the fol·
lowing: (See table V}
 24

1Digestible Protein lbs.l Energy Value Therms.

36 lbs. silage ..............
12 lbs. Alfalfa Hay. . . . . . . . .
·j . 22
. 85
I 5. 72
4. 11
1 1.01 9.83
This leaves 1.53 lbs. digestible protein and 7.77 thenns energy value to be
furnished by the grain ration. A grain mixture can be worked out which
will supply this deficiency, for instance:
1 Digestible Protein lbs.1 Energy Value Thenns.
3 lbs. Corn and Cob Meal. . . .17 2. 27
2 lbs. Wheat Bran.......... .22 1.06
2 lbs. Ground Oats. . . . . . . . . . . 17 1. 35
2 lbs. Cottonseed Meal. . . . . . . 70 1. 86
2 lbs. Distillers' Dried Grains . 22 1. 12
1.48 7.76
This is M elose to the standard as it is necessary to calculate for prac·
tical purposes.

ECONOMY
In feeding for milk production the chief objective is economy. A large
yield of milk and butter fat is as a rule not desirable unless it leaves a
greater profit than does a poorer production. In the case where large
records are wanted, chiefly for advertising purposes, this does not hold
true, however.
In Iowa and other corn belt st.'l.tcs, where large quantities of corn and
other carbonaceous feeds are grown on the farm and nitrogenous concen·
trates are the chief feeds that have to be purchased, the cost of protein
requires greatest attention. As the carbohydrate equivalents of all con·
centmtcs nre about equal in value for 'feeding purposes, the cost of the
protein in a feed should be worked out before purchasing, and, other things
being equal, the feed that forms the cheapest source of protein should be
purchased. The following method is a convenient one for doing this.
Allow one cent for ea'ch pound of digestible carbohydrate equivalent in
100 poun!ls of feed. Subtract this from the cost of 100 pounds of feed.
Divide tho difference by the pounds of digestible protein in 100 pounds
of food, multiply by 100, and the result will be the cost of 100 lbs. of digest-
ible protein.
For example, which is the cheaper source of protein, wheat bran at
$24.00 per ton, or old process linseed oil meal at $:15.00 per ton if the bran
contains 12.5 per eent digestible protein and 48.4 r.er cent digestible car·
bohydrato equivalent, and the oil meal 30.2 per cent digestible protein aml
47.7 per cent digestible carbohydrate equivalentf
Wheat Bran
Cost per ton $24.00. Cost ]Jer 100 lbs .......................... $1.20
Cost of carbohydrate equivaknt at 1c per lb................... .48
 25
Cost of 12.5 lbs. protein. . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 72
Cost of 100 lbs. protein (digestible) ............................ 5. 76
Oil Meal
Cost per ton $36.00. Cost per 100 lbs ... , ...................... $1.80
Cost of carbohydrate equivalent at 1c per lb..................... .48
Cost of 30.2 lbs. protein ....................................... 1.32
Cost of 100 lbs. protein (digestible) ............................ 4.37
The oil meal is evidently the cheaper source of digestible protein. Table
VIII gives tho cost per 100 pounds of digestible protein in some common
feeds at a wide range of prices.

FEEDING DAIRY ANIMALS

THE CALF
For the best success in dairying the herd should be built up from ani·
mals reared on the farm. In this way heifers from ancestry of known
productive capacity are obtained and every care can be given to their devol·
opment. Calf rearing is a problem worthy of separate treatment but brief
attention will be given here to the feeding of the young calf.
There is somo difference of opinion as to whether or not the new born
calf should bo allowed to remain with its dam. It is probably best, bow·
e'l'er, to lea'l'e it with its dam for two or three days. This allows the calf
to obtain the first milk or colostrum which is. so necessary for its well bo·
ing. The colostrum bas a laxati'l'e action and aids in getting the diges·
tive tract into good working order. The colostrum can be milked and fed
to the calf, but the calf will do better if it is with the dam as it is then
able to get the milk warm and at short inten·als. The sucking of the calf
also aids in relieving any inflammatory condition there may be in the cow's
mlder at this time.
When the calf is two or three days old it can be taken away from the
llam and fed. fresh, warm, whole milk in a clean bueket at the rate of 2 to
4 pounds three times a day, depending on the size and vigor of the calf.
When the calf is about three weeks old the feecling can be done twice a day
and tho substitution of skimmed for whole milk can be starlet:}. This sub·
stitution should tako place slowly until the calf is six or seven weeks ol!l
when it should be getting an allowance of 12 to 16 pounds of warm skimmed
milk per day. The allowance of milk should not be increased too rapidly
as over feeding will cause digesth·e troubles. Similarly the milk should bo
fed in clean buckets and as soon· after milking as possible so that it will
still bo warm. When on full feed, 16 or 18 pounds of milk will be fountl
about sufficient for a calf. The skim milk feeding should be continued
till tho calf is seven or eight months old.
Calves will begin taking a little grain even when but a few weeks oltl
and an excellent grain mixture for them is one of equal parts of com,
bran, and oats with small quantities of oil meal. Cracked com should be
fed at first and later shelled com may be substituted. There is some dif·
ferenee of opinion as to whether whole or ground oats should be used.
 TABLE VIII. COST PER 100 IBS. OF DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN IN CONCENTRATES AT VARIOUS PRICES

COST PER TON I $231 $241 $251 $261 $271 $28 I$291 $30 I I $31 $321 $3~ I$34 r;351 $361 $37 r-;;8 I $391 $40 I I $41 $4.2

FEEDS I COST PER 100 LBS. DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN IN DOLLARS AND CENTS

Corn, 'Vhole---------- 4.91 5.57 6.24 6.91 7.57 8.24 8.91 9.57 10.24 10.91 11.57 12.24 12.91 13.57 14.24. 14.91 15.57 16.24 16.91 17.57
Corn :Meal------------ 5.52 6.25 6.97 7.70 8.42 9.14. 9.87 10.59 11.32 12.04 12.77 13.49 14..22 14..94 15.67 16.39 17.12 17.84 18.57 19.29
Corn and Cob Meal---- 7.05 7.87 8.69 9.51 10.33 11.15 11.97 12.79 13.61 14.43 15.25 16.07 16.89 17.70 18.52 19.34. 20.16 20.98 21.80 22.29
Hominy Feed---------- 5.34 6.06 6.77 7.49 8.20 8.91 9.63 10.34 11.06 11.77 12.49 13.20 13.91 14.63 15.34 16.06 16.77 17.49 18.20 18.91
Gluten Feed----------- 2.59 2.82 3.05 3.28 3.51 3.75 3.98 4.21 4.44 4.67 4.90 5.13 5.37 5.60 5.83 6.06 6.29 6.52 6.75 6.99
Gluten Meal----------- 2.03 2.19 2.36 2.52 2.69 2.85 3.02 3.19 3.35 3.52 3.68 3.85 4.01 4.18 4.34 4.51 4.68 4.84 5.01 5.17
GermDog011 Meal--------- 2.97 3.27 3.58 3.88 4.18 4.48 4.79 5.09 5.39 5.70 6.00 6.30 6.61 6.91 7.21 7.52 7.82 8.12 8.42 8.73
Red Flour________ 3.42 3.76 4.00 4.43 4.77 5.11 5.45 5.78 6.12 6.46 6.80 7.14 7.47 7.81 8.15 8.49 8.82 9.16 9.50 9.84.
6.28 6.65 7.02 7.40 7.77 8.14 8.51 8.89 9.26 9.63 10.01 10.38 10.75 11.13 11.50 ~
Wheat Short•---------- 4.41 4.78 5.16 5.53 5.00
12.13 12.53 12.03 0)
Wheat Bran----------- 5.33 5.73 6.13 6.53 6.93 7.33 7.73 8.13 8.53 8.93 9.33 9.73 10.13 10.53 10.93 11.33 11.73
Oats, Whole----------- 5.60 6.11 6.63 7.14 7.66 8.18 8.69 9.21 9.72 10.24 10.75 11.27 11.78 12.30 12.81 13.33 13.85 14.36 14.88 15.39
Oats, Ground---------- 5.79 6.32 6.85 7.38 7.91 8.45 8.89 9.51 10.04 10.57 11.11 11.64 12.17 12.70 13.23 13.77 14.30 14.83 15.36 15.89
6.07 6.62 7.18 7.73 8.29 8.84 9.40 9.96 10.51 11.07 11.62 12.18 12.73 13.29 13.84 14.40 14.96 15.51
Barley --------------- 4.96 5.51
4.42 4.67 4.91 5.16 5.40 5.65 5.90 6.14 6.39 6.64 6.88 7.13 7.37 7.62 7.87
l\falt Sprouts---------- 3.19 3.43 3.68 3.93 4.17
Brewers' Dried Grains__ 3.29 3.53 3.76 3.99 4.22 4.46 4.69 4.92 5.15 5.39 5.62 5.85 6.08 6.32 6.55 6.78 7.01 7.25 7.48 7.71
Cottonseed Meal-------- 1.99 2.13 2.26 2.40 2.54 2.67 2.81 2.94 3.08 3.21 3.35 3.48 3.62 3.75 3.89 4.02 4.16 4.29 4.43 4.56
Cold·pressed Cottonseed
3.09 3.33 3.56 3.80 4.04 4.27 4.51 4.75 4..99 5.22 5.46 5.70 5.93 6.17 6.41 6.64 6.88 7.12 7.36 7.59
Cake Oll
Linseed --------------
Meal (0. P.) 2.23 2.39 2.56 2.73 2.89 3.06 3.22 3.39 3.55 3.72 3.88 4.05 4.22 4.38 4.55 4.71 4..88 5.04 5.21 5.37
2.99 3.25 3.51 3.76 4.02 4..28 4.54 4.79 5.05 5.31 5.57 5.82 6.08 6.34 6.60 6.86 7.11 7.37 7.63 7.89
Cowpea
Field -------------- 3.04
Pea------------- 3.81 3.57 3.83 4.09 4.36 '4.62 4.88 5.15 5.41 5.67 5.94 6.20 6.46 6.73 6.99 7.25 7.52 7.78 8.04
Soybean--·------------ 1.95 2.11 2.27 2.44 2.60 2.76 2.93 3.09 3.25 3.41 3.58 3.74 3.90 4.07 4.23 4.39 4.55 4.72 4.88 5.04.
Distillers' Dried 5.29 5.51 5.74 5.96 6.18 6.41
Grains (Corn)------ 2.17 2.39 2.61 2.83 3.06 3.28 3.50 8.73 3.95 4.17 4.40 4.62 4.84 5.07
Distillers' Dried 8.99 9.35 9.72 10.09 10.46 10.82 11.19 11.51
Grains (Rye)------- 4.57 4.94 5.31 5.68 6.04 6.41 6.78 7.15 7.51 7.88 8.25 8.62
 27
Alfalfa hay should not be fed alone to young calves as it is too rich for
them and is likely to cause kidney and digesth·e troubles. Clover hay, or a
mixture of clover and alfalfa, is better than alfalfa alone.
Calves that are dropped in the fall and winter should be allowod good
pasture the following summer and if provided with shade and a little grain
will do well. Those that arc dropped in the late spring or summer will do
better if properly eared for in the barn, at least until there is cool weather
in the fall.
THE GROWING HEIFER
If fall calves have been properly treatetl during the winter it is not dif-
ficult to carry them thru the summer. They shouM be on pasture as much
as possible and in addition reeciYc a little grain. The ration can consist
of tho same constituents as were used earlier, but the corn and oats should
be increased at the expense of the oil meal and bran. Ample shade is
necessary. When cold weather comes a shed should be available for the
heifers.
As the main object in feeding 1lairy heifers is to produce animals with
plenty of constitution and capacity let the feed be bulky and at the 11ame
time contain plenty of protein and ash. The protein and ash aid in the
building of muscle and bone aml bulky feeds distend and deYelop the di·
gestiYe organs. Alfalfa and clo\·er hays are excellent roughages to feed
to dairy heifers and silage is useful in limited amounts. Where silage is
available, 15 to 20 pounds of it may be fed per day to dairy heifers during
the winter and this, with 7 or 8 pounds of alfalfa or clover hay and 2 to 3
pounds of grain, makes a good ration. Where silage is not available the
amount of hay can be doubled and another pound of grain fed.
Spring or summer calves are not so easily eared for during the winter
as are eal\·es of the pre,·ious fall, but shoulll be fed \'cry similarly, tho the
amount of silage allowe1l should be limited. During tl1e following summer
the heifers will need little but pasture until fall when the treatment may
be similar to that of the previous season.

THE DRY COW

Every dairy cow, in order to give the best results, requires a rest of six
weeks or two months between lactations. During this time she should be
prepared for her year's work, her tissues built up, and her digesth·e tract
rested and cooled as much as possible. Of course nourishment must be sup·
plied for tho growing fetus.
If the cow is dry during the summer or early falJ she will need very little
extra care if she is on good pasture. A pasture !!eparate from the general
herd is ad,·is:lblc as there is then Jess danger of injury. During this period
no more grain than is neecssnry should be fed as it allows the digestil·e
system of the cow to rest, but a few pounds of oats nnd a little bran will
often be found advisable. If tho cow is in poor condition a little corn may
be added, but it is not atl\-isable to giye much of such heating feeds. If
it is necessary to flesh up the cow this shoulrl be done gradually.
 28
If the dry period occurs in winter the ration should consist of 20 to 25
pounds of corn silage with a liberal allowance of legume hay and a grain
ration consisting of a mixture of 3 parts ground oats, 2 parts wheat bran
and 1 part oil meal; the amount of the grain ration being governed by in-
dividual requirements.
During this period the ration should be laxative in nature and should
contain little of such heating feeds as corn, and feeds Sllch as cottonseed
meal and timothy hay should be avoided.
THE COW IMMEDIATELY BEFORE PARTURITION
A few days before freshening, the grain ration should be considerably
reduced nnd at this time a mixture of 2 parts bran and 1 of oil meal is
excellent as it keeps the bowels laxative. If this mixture does not give
the desired effect a dose of 1 quart of raw linseell oil or 1 pound of epsom
salts should be given. Freedom from milk fever ami other post-parturient
troubles is in large measure due to the care with which the cow is handled
and fed just previous to freshening.
THE COW IMMEDIATELY AFTER PARTURITION
For a day or two after calving fee<l the cow bran mashes in addition to
alfalfa or clover hay and a limited amount of silage. During this period
warm the <lrinking water slightly. A mixture of bran, ground oats and
oil meal may be used to replace the bran in a !lay or two.
It is a recognized fact that 30 days is required to put a beef steer on to
full feed and at least this length of time should be given to the bringing
of the dairy cow on to a full ration. 'rhis is easily seen when it is remem-
bered that the dairy cow is not only on feed much longer than is the beef
animal, but she does the same work for SC\'eral years. In addition, par·
turition has a distinctly weakening effect on the system and the digestive
functions suffer along with the others. Consequently, great care should be
exercised in raising the cow's ration to the profitable maximum as a too
rapid raise in feed will result in indigestion, bloat or other digestive trouble.
Beginning with 4 or 5_pounds of grain per day on the fourth or :fifth day
after freshening, the grain should be increased at the rate of 1 pound on
every third or fourth day until the cow's maximum production of milk is
reached. When this is reached, that is when the milk yield does not in-
crease in response to an increase in grain, the grain ration should be slight-
ly reduced and it will, as a rule, be noted that the cow will increase a little
in milk production. The amount of grain then being fed is about what she
should receive as any less will not give the best production and additional
feed would be used for the production of body fat and consequently would
be wasted so far as milk production is concerned.
THE MILKING COW
In feeding cows for milk production the main point to keep in mind is
the individual cow. Each cow has her own requirements for maintenance
and production and in addition attention must be paid to her likes and
dislikes if tbo best reSlllts are to bo obtained.
 29
A cow should receive an abundance of feed, containing plenty of nutril.•nts
in tho right proportions and made up of fee11ing stuft's that she likes.
Economy must also be considered. In the corn belt the chief concentrates
that have to be purchased are nitrogenous ones and so in buying these
determine tho cost of protein as already described.
When cows are turned out to pasture in early summer it is usually well
to feed them no grain for about a month. At this time the grass is suceu·
lent and nutritious and going without grain allows the digestive system of
tho cow to rest. 'Vith the onset of dry weather, however, it is advisable to
feed a little grain along with the summer silage or soiling crops allowed.
Feeds suitable for this season of the year are cracked corn, cottonseed meal
and ground oats. They keep the cow up in pro!luction during the summer
and it h118 also been foun1l that cows fed grain during the summer will do
rather better during the following year than where fed no grain.
In winter the main part of the ration should consist of silage o.nd legume
hay, either alfalfa or clover. Allow about 25 to 35 pounds of silage an1l
10 to 15 pounds of hay for a 1,000 pound cow. The grain allowance neces·
sary is determined by the production and condition of the cow. As a rule,
feed 1 pound of grain for each 2¥.! to 4 pounds of milk produced, tlepend·
ing on the quantity o.nd quality of the milk. Jerseys o.nd Guernseys require
more grain per pound of milk than do Holsteins and Ayrshires. Another
simple method of determining the grain requirement is' to allow 7 younds of
grain for each pound of butter fat produced. As a nile about 31 of tbe dry
matter of the ration should be in the roughages. High producers and cows
that are in good condition need more nitrogenous rations than do those that
are poor producers or in low condition. It is not well to have a cow fat when
producing milk as o.ny beefiness tends to decrease the flow of milk. Cows
should be in good condition when freshening o.nd for a. time after this they
will loso weight. After this fall in weight the cow should be kept in good
thrifty condition till ne:1r the end of the laet:ttion when she should be fe1l
more cnrbonaceous feeds and nllowed to flesh up.
When silage is not available and no roots are grown the feeding of the
dairy cow for profit.'lble milk production is not a very easy matter. If
alfalfa or elover hay is available the proposition is much simplified. Even
good mixed bay is quite a help, but if timothy is the only hay available
it should be soltl and alfalfa bought. Timothy in goo!l condition can
usually be sold at the price for wbieb alfalfa can be bought and the in·
creased production brought about by the feeding of the alfalfa will eon·
siderably more thnn pay for the cost of hauling. If pO!sible, tlrie1l beet
pulp should also be bought to be sonkcd and fed with the corn fodder and
alfalfa or cloYcr bay. The eoncentrnte part of the ration in. 8\lch con11i·
tions should contain quite a large proportion of laxath·e fee!ls such ns bran
and oil meal, but not cotton~eed meal or other constipating feeds.
Owing to the large variations in feed prices in various localities and at
tlift'ercnt times, it is not possible to rl!l!ommend grain mixtures which wilJ
always be economical, but the following sample mixtures arc good under
the con11itions mentioned provided that. they c:m be bought at reasonable
 30

prices. When the prices of these feeds are too high other feeds of smu1nr
character but lower price cnn be substituted.
The following mixtures make good grain rations when silago and legume
hay are fed:
Sample A
400 lbs. Cracked Corn, Corn and Cob Meal or Hominy Feed.
200 lbs. Ground Oats.
100 lbs. Cottonseed Meal.
100 lbs. Oil Meal.
Sample B
400 lbs. Cracked Corn, Corn and Cob Meal or Hominy Feed.
100 lbs. Ground Oats.
100 lbs. Brewers' Dried Grains.
100 lbs. Cottonseed Meal.
100 lbs. Oil Meal.
Sample C
400 lbs. Cracked Corn, Corn and Cob Meal or Hominy Feed.
200 lbs. Ground Oats.
100 lbs. Gluten Feed.
100 lbs. Bran.
Tho following mixture would be better than either of the above in the
absence of silage:
SampleD
300 lbs. Crncked Corn, Corn and Cob Meal or Hominy Feed.
100 lbs. Ground Oats.
100 lbs. Gluten Feed.
100 lbs. Bran.
200 lbs. Oil Meal.
The above are only rough guides as to the feed mixtures to use, as much
depends on locnl markets.
THE BULL
During the first six monti1s of lifo the treatment of young bulls is the
same as for heifer calves, but at the end of this time they should be sep·
arated from the heifers, and begin to receive rather more grain thnn do
the heifers.
With older bulls, where the main object is to keep them in good breed·
ing condition, the ration should consist largely of alfalfa or clover hay
nnd grain with a little silage. Good results cnn not be obtained by feeding
large quantities of silage to the dairy bull as this CUllSC8 over-distension of
tho milhlle and he is likely to become sluggish and slow in breeding. Not
more than 10 to 15 pounds per day of silage should be fed. The grain
ration should contain a goo(] percentage of protein. Cracked corn, ground
oats and bran with the addition of a little oil meal makes an excellent grain
ration for tho !lairy bull.
SALT
Salt is essential to the· dairy cow. There arc three common methods of
salting cows, viz., to have it before them all the time, to gh·e them access
to it at stated intervals, and to mix it with the feed.
The first of these three methods is much to be preferred ami the last
method is not to be advised as some cows will ~et more than they want
 31
and others not enough. The requirements of a cow depend on her live
weight and her milk production. The salt in the feeds will also determine
to a. certain extent the amount of additional salt required by the cow. As
a. rule about 1 oz. daily is required by a milk producing dairy cow.
All young animals and bulls as well as dry cows likewise require salt-15iit
not in such large quantities.
WATER
Water, the main constituent of milk, is very essential for milk production.
From work at the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station it has been found
that 3 to 5 pounds of water are required for each pound of milk produced.
This is in addition to the water in the pasture grass, silage aml other feeds.
Keep the water supply pure and fresh. Being protected from all con·
tamina.tion by surface water, deep well water is the best. In summer water
should always be available to the cows when at pasture. This water should
be kept in a tank, or, if it is in a stream, it should be so protected that
the cows can not stand in _it and convert it into a puddle. Water l!hould
also be where the cows can obtain it on their way to and from the barn.
In winter the cows should not be turned out into a windswept lot and
allowed to drink ice-cold water. If it is necessary for the cows to drink
outside in the winter furnish the tanks with heaters.
Water the cows in the bam if possible. Individual drinking cups have the
advantage of keeping water before the cow all the time, but they also have
their drawbacks. Continuous cement mangers, fitted with a faucet at one
end and a drain at the other, are simpler and have many advantages. With
these the cows can be very easily watered two or three times a day and the
water is always fresh. Whatever the method used the cows should g~:t
all the water they want.
ORDER OF FEEDING
Much more important than the time or order of feeding is regularity. It
docs not do to feed a cow just when the feeder feels inclined; she should
have regular meal hours. Many feed the grain before the roughages, as the
cow eats her grain rapidly and then takes her time with the coarser feeds.
A very good method is to put the grain on the top of the silage. The grai•
is sometimes fed at milking time. Hays which are likely to cause dust in
tho barn, and feeds, such as silage and roots, which impart taints to the
milk, should be fed after milking and not before. A good method is to feed
the hay two or three times a. day and the silage and grain twice. This al·
lows the cow to make better use of her food than if it were fed less often
in larger quantities. Grain, if fed only once in a large quantity, is also
likely to cause digestive troubles. If the cows ha\·e not access to water at
all times they should be watered at least twice per day.
METHOD OF FEEDING
The most convenient way of feeding silage is with a wagon which can
be filled at the silo and then pushed round in front of the cows and the
silage fe1l with a scoop. If a few scoopfuls of silage are weighed occa·
sionally the silage can be fed with a fair degree of accuracy.
Baled hay is very convenient for feeding. If home grown hay is used
place the hay chute so the feeding may be done with the least trouble. The
allowance of hay, ns of silage, should be weighed occasionally.
The mixtures and quantities of grain to be fed should be determined for
 32
each cow indivi<lually. Where this is not convenient a general mixture
which is found to be economical can be made up and weighed out.
There are four general methods of feelling the grain ration.
1. A cabinet of drawers, each large enough to holll one day's grain al·
lowance for n. cow, is provided. Each day the allowance for each cow is
weighed and put in a llrawer and at fee<ling time the cabinet is wheeled in
front of the cows.
2. A row of covered boxes large enough to hold a week's feell is built in
front of the cows and each week the grain is weighed and placed therein.
At feeding time each cow's allowance is measured out with a scoop.
3. A feed wagon divided into compartments may be used. There is a
separate fee<l in each compartment and at feeding time the allowances are
weighed out on a spring balance scale which is attached to the wagon.
4. A mixture known to be economical can be malic up and measured or
weighed out.
\Vhcn it is con\'enient to measure feeds rather than weigh them the follow-
ing table will pro\'e con\'enient as it gi\'CS the weight per quart of some of
tho commoner feeds. It can also be used as a guide to the bulkiness of a
grain ration-bulky feeds having a low weight per quart.
TABLE IX. API>ROXIMATE WEIGHT PER QUART OF SOME
COMMON FEEDS*
Weight! Weight
Feeding Stuffs Per Qt. Feedings Stuffs Per Qt.
Lbs. Lbs.
Shelled Corn ....•............. 1. 7 Barley ....................... 1.5
Corn Meal ..•...............•. 1. 5 Malt Sprouts ....•.............. 6
Corn and Cob MeaL ........... 1.4 Brewers' Dried Grains. . . . . . . . . . . 6
Hominy Feed ................. 1.1 Buckwheat ............•...... 1. 4
Gluten Feed ....••............ 1. 3 Cottonseed Meal. .............. 1. 5
Gluten MeaL ................. 1. 7 Linseed Oil Meal, 0. P ......... 1.1
Oi!rm Oil Meal. .............. 1. 4 Linseed Oil Meal, N. P .......... 9
Corn Bran ......•.............. 5 Penns ........................ 1. 7
\Vheat •........•............. 1. 9 COW]lCUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 7
Wheat Shorts .................. 8 Field Peas .................... 2.1
\Vheat Bran.. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . 5 Soybeans ....•.........•...•... 8
Rye .•.........•............. 1. 7 Dry Beet Pulp.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Oats, whole •.................. 1. 0 Distillers' Dried Grains .•....... 6
Oats, ground.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Cane Molasses ................. 3.0
\Vith each of these methods there shouhl be a simple feed sheet showing
what each cow is to receive. In this way accurate feeding will be done
and the maximum and most economical production of milk will be obtained.
PRODUCTION POINTERS
1. High producing cows nrc the basis of profitable dairying; the most
economical results can not be obtained with poor producers.
2. A good sire will rapidly grade up a herd to high production; any
pure bred sire will not. do-he must be able to transmit producing ability
to his offspring.
3. The care given to dairy heifers will determine to a great extent the
profits they will make when they join the milking herd.
4. A good cow will respond to goorl treatment and e\·en a poor cow will
increase in production if she is llropcrly handled.
5. Without liberal feeding liberal retums can not be obtained. A heavy
producing cow can not do her best work unless she is well fed.
6. The milk scales and the Babcock tester separate the good· cows from
the poor cows.
• From the extensive tables In Feeds and Feeding, 16th edition, by Henry
and l\lorrison.