THERMODYNAMICS – I

ENGR. SYED SHERAZ ALI

MS MECHANICAL (NUST)
LECTURER (DSU KARACHI)
Course Code: ME – 131

Credit Hours: 3 – 0

Pre Requisite: Applied Physics NS – 101

Recommended Text Book:

Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach,
by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles
 Course Objective
• To familiarize students with basics of Energy conversions and
the processes involved within.
• Allow them to know basic concepts of thermodynamics.
• Understand the first law of thermodynamics (hitherto
applying to open and closed system).
• To know the essentials of steady and unsteady flow.
• Get an insight of second law of thermodynamics and the
concept of reversible/ irreversible processes.
• To understand Entropy and Carnot principles.
 Thermodynamics

Chapter 1: Introduction &

Basic Concept
 Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy

• Derived from Greek words:

Therme (heat) and dynamis (power)

• Thermodynamics is the study of the transformation process of

converting work into heat and heat back into work, and the
efficiency with which these two processes can occur
 Introduction to thermodynamics
• The study of thermodynamics is concerned with the ways
energy is stored within a body and how energy
transformations, which involve heat and work, may take
place.
• One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the
conservation of energy principle.
• It simply states that during an energy interaction, energy can
change from one form to another but the total amount of
energy remains constant. That is, energy cannot be created
or destroyed.
 Classical Thermodynamics
• The study of thermodynamics, which involved studying a large
number of particles, called molecules, is known as
macroscopic approach.

• The macroscopic approach to thermodynamics does not

require knowledge of the behavior of individual particles and
is called classical thermodynamics.

• On the other hand, statistical thermodynamics, is an

elaborate approach. It is based on the microscopic approach
(average behavior of large groups of individual particles). Here
state of system is unknown.
 Heat Transfer & Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics:
… Deals with the amount of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another
and makes no reference to how long the process will take.

How long (time) -> Heat Transfer

Thermal Sciences
 Application
• electric or gas range
• the heating and air-conditioning systems
• the refrigerator
• the humidifier
• the pressure cooker
• the water heater
• the shower
• the iron
• the computer
• the TV
Direction of heat flow
 Energy
The ability to do or cause change

Forms of Energy
Mechanical , Electrical, Kinetic,
Potential, Heat, Nuclear, Chemical
Spring, Internal etc
 Forms of Energy
• Heat Energy: The form of energy that can be transferred from
one system to another as a result of temperature difference
• Kinetic energy [energy due to motion]
• Potential energy [energy due to position]
• Internal energy [energy stored in the molecules {both
potential and kinetic associated with temperature]
 Thermodynamics Laws

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from one equilibrium state to another

Laws of Thermodynamics:

ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED OR DESTROYED

The first law requires that the rate of energy transfer into a system be equal
to the rate of increase of the energy of that system.
The change in the internal energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of heat supplied
to the system, minus the amount of work done by the system on its surroundings.
Equivalently, perpetual motion machines of the first kind are impossible
Perpetual motion describes motion that continues indefinitely
without any external source of energy

The second law requires that heat be transferred in the

direction of decreasing temperature
And the entropy (lost energy) never decreases, it always
reaches thermodynamic equilibrium – the max. entropy
 Basics

QUIZ
Secondary Dimensions
These are dimensions which are expressed in terms of primary dimensions

 L 
Velocity  
 t 
, Area  L , Volume  L 
2 3

 mL   m   m
Force  t2  ,Pressure  2  , Density  L3 
   Lt   

Dimensional homogeneity
Whenever we carry out engineering operations we need to make sure that
engineering equations are dimensionally homogenous

Example:
Energy = E = 25 J + 10 J/kg (wrong)
Multiply the 10 J/kg with given mass. Let’s assume mass = 2 kg
Therefore, E = 25J + 20J (correct)
 Thermodynamic system
System:
Quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study
Open System
Close System
Surrounding:
The mass or region outside the system
Boundary:
The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings
 System
Closed System (Control Mass)
No mass can ever enter or leave the system
but energy can
Employs conservation of mass

Open system (control volume)

Mass may flow in or out of the system

Adiabatic System
If no heat can flow in or out of system (Q=0)

Isolated System
Heat, energy or work is not allowed to cross
the boundary
 Properties of System
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. . It is something
which can be quantitatively evaluated. Like Temperature, Pressure,
Volume, Mass, Density etc.
Intensive properties
Independent of the (size) mass of a system. They are extensive
Volume V  m 
3

properties per unit mass. For example, specific volume v    

mass m  kg 
Other examples: temperature, pressure and density.

Extensive properties
Whose values depend on the size of the system and vary with them.
e.g. Total mass, total volume and total momentum
 Specific Properties
Specific properties are extensive properties per unit mass
They are denoted by lower case letters.

For example:

 Density is defined as mass per unit volume.

It depends on temperature and pressure. Mostly, it varies in
gases, while remains negligible in solids and liquids.
Example: At 20 C, water density changes from 998 kg/m3 (1 atm)
to 1003 kg/m3 (100 atm); a change of just 0.5 percent.
• The reciprocal of density is the specific volume
v, which is defined as volume per unit mass.

• Ratio of the density of a substance to the

density of water is specific gravity or relative
density. It is a dimensional quantity.

The substances with specific gravities less

than 1 are lighter than water, and thus
they would floaton water.

• The weight of a unit volume of a

substance is called specific weight
Find out specific gravity of Nitrogen,
Benzene and R-134a.
 Equilibrium
• The state of a system in which properties have definite,
unchanged values as long as external conditions are
unchanged is an equilibrium state.
A system in thermodynamic equilibrium satisfies:
• Mechanical equilibrium (no pressure/ volume change)
• Thermal equilibrium (no temperature differences)
• Chemical equilibrium (no chemical reactions)
• Phase equilibrium (same phase)
 State
• State Postulate
As noted earlier, the state of a system is described by its properties. But
by experience not all properties must be known before the state is
specified. The number of properties required to fix the state of a simple,
homogeneous system is given by the state postulate:

The thermodynamic state of a simple compressible system is completely

specified by two independent, intensive properties.
 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
• Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is
called a process
P = 20 kPa P = 30 kPa
T= 30 oC T= 60 oC
mass= 3 kg mass= 3 kg
Volume = 2.0 m3 Volume = 1.5 m3
This is state 1 This is state 2

• The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called
the path

• When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains

infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a
quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium process.
 A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its
initial state at the end of the process.
2
P Process
B
1
Process
Process Property held constant A

V
isobaric pressure

isothermal temperature

isochoric volume
System
Boundary
isentropic entropy
F
Water
2
P T Constant Pressure Process
P
1 2 1 2

T 1 V
V

Isobaric ΔP=0 Isochoric ΔV=0 Isothermal ΔT=0

 Steady flow Process
• Process in which no changes occur with time
• When properties change with time, it is unsteady
• Engineering flow devices that operate for long periods of
time under the same conditions are classified as
steady-flow devices
Temperature scale

9
T  F = T  C  32
5
 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body,
they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 Pressure scale
• Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area

• In liquids Pressure increases with depth because weight of liquid contributes to

increase of Pressure.
• The unit mmHg is also called the torr in honor of Torricelli.
Therefore, 1 atm = 760 torr and 1 torr = 133.3 Pa.

• The actual pressure at a given position is called

Absolute pressure
• Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called
Vacuum pressure
• This difference between atmosphere pressure and absolute pressure is called
Gage pressure
• Where the +Pgage is used when Pabs > Patm and –Pgage is used for a vacuum gage.

Pabs  Patm  Pgage

Example

A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30 kPa at a location where the

atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the tank?

Pabs  Patm  Pgage

 98 kPa  30 kPa
 68 kPa

34
 Variation of Pressure with Depth

Pressure in a fluid at rest does not change in the horizontal direction. Consider a thin
horizontal layer of fluid and doing a force balance in any horizontal direction.

To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with depth, consider a rectangular fluid element of
height Δz, length Δx, and unit depth (into the page) in equilibrium. Assuming the density of the fluid r to
be constant, a force balance in the vertical z-direction gives

where W = mg = ρgΔx Δz is the weight of the fluid element. Dividing by Δx on both sides
 Manometer
• An elevation change of Δz in a fluid at rest corresponds to P/ ρg, which
suggests that a fluid column can be used to measure pressure differences.
• Used to measure small to moderate pressure differences .
• A manometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube
containing one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
• A differential fluid column of height h corresponds to a pressure difference
between the system and the surroundings of the manometer.

This pressure difference is determined from the manometer fluid displaced height as

P   g h ( kPa)
 Home assignment

Find out about pressure measuring devices.

Mention their working, advantages and

disadvantages.
Example 1-5

Both a gage and a manometer are attached to a gas tank to measure its pressure. If the
pressure gage reads 80 kPa, determine the distance between the two fluid levels of the
manometer if the fluid is mercury, whose density is 13,600 kg/m3.

P
h
g
103 N / m2
80 kPa kPa
h
kg m 1N
13600 3 9.807 2
m s kg m / s2
 0.6 m

39
Determine the pressure exerted on the surface of a submarine cruising 54m below
the free surface of the sea. Assume that the barometric pressure is 7kPa and the
specific gravity of seawater is 1.03.

Solution:

Properties
The specific gravity of seawater is given to be SG = 1.03.
The density of water at 0°C is 1000 kg/m3 (Table A-3).
Analysis
The density of the seawater is obtained by multiplying its
specific gravity by the density of water,

ρ = SG × ρ H O = (1.03)(1000 ) = 1030 kg/m3

2

The pressure exerted on the surface of the submarine cruising 54m below the
free surface of the sea is the absolute pressure at that location:
1 𝑘𝑃𝑎
P = Patm + ρgh = (7) + (1030)(9.8)(54) 1000
P = 7 + 545 = 552 kPa
 A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 35 kPa at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is 92 kPa. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber

The gage pressure in a liquid at a depth of 3 m is read to be 28 kPa. Determine the

gage pressure in the same liquid at a depth of 9 m.
A manometer containing oil ( density = 850 kg/m3) is attached to a tank filled with air. If
the oil-level difference between the two columns is 60 cm and the atmospheric pressure is
98 kPa, determine the absolute pressure of the air in the tank
A gas is contained in a vertical, frictionless piston–cylinder device. The piston has a mass of 4 kg and
a cross-sectional area of 35 cm2. A compressed spring above the piston exerts a force of 60 N on the
piston. If the atmospheric pressure is 95 kPa, determine the pressure inside the cylinder.
 MEASURING BLOOD PRESSURE

The maximum blood pressure in the upper arm of a healthy

person is about 120 mm Hg. If a vertical tube open to the
atmosphere is connected to the vein in the arm of the person,
determine how high the blood will rise in the tube. Take the
density of the blood to be 1050 kg/m3.
The gage pressure of the air in the tank shown in Fig.
is measured to be 80 kPa. Determine the differential
height h of the mercury column.
 DESIGN PROBLEM – LIFTING WEIGHT
A hydraulic lift is to be used to lift a 2500 kg weight by putting a weight of 25 kg
on a piston with a diameter of 10 cm. Determine the diameter of the piston on
which the weight is to be placed

The pressure applied to a confined fluid

increases the pressure throughout by the
same amount. (Pascal’s law)