Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

Module 1:
Principles of combinational logic : Definition of combinational logic, Canonical forms, Generation
of switching equations from truth tables, Karnaugh maps – 3, 4 and 5 variables, Incompletely
specified functions (Don’t care terms), Simplifying Max term equations, Quine – McClusky
minimization technique- Quine – McClusky using don’t care terms, Reduced Prime Implicant Tables
(Text 1, Chapter 3).

Definition of Combinational Logic:

1. Explain the definition of combinational logic. Dec. 2010, 06ES33, 04 Marks
2. Define Combinational logic. List the various steps in designing a combinational logic system.
June. 2012, 10ES33, 04 Marks
➢ Combinational logic deals with the technique of combining the basic gates into circuits that
perform some desired function.
Examples: Adders, Subtractors, Decoders, Encoders, Multiplexers, Dividers, Display drivers, and
Keyboard encoders.
➢ Logic circuits, without feedback from output to input, that contain no memory, and outputs
depends on only current inputs, are said to be combinational circuits. Combinational logic can be
modeled as shown below.

➢ Let X be the set of input variables: (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ,……, 𝑥𝑛 ) and Y be the set of output variables: (𝑦0 ,
𝑦1 ,……, 𝑦𝑚 ).
➢ The combinational function (F), operates on the input variable set X, to produce the output
variable set Y. The output is related to input as: Y = F(X).
➢ The relationship between the input and output variables can be expressed in equations, logic
diagrams, or truth tables.
➢ A truth table specifies the input conditions under which the outputs are true or false (1 or 0).
Switching equations are then derived from truth tables and realized using gates.

➢ The general logic design sequence is given below.

Problem Statements to Truth Tables:

➢ Before any combinational logic system can be designed it must be defined. Proper statement of a
problem is the most important part of any digital design task.
➢ Once correctly and clearly stated, any problem can be converted to the necessary logic for
implementation.
➢ The problem is then rewritten in the form of a truth table. From the truth table, the switching
Availaibleequations
at: VTUcan beHUB (Android
written and App)
simplified and the logic diagram drawn.

Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 1
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

Construction of truth table:

1. Define the following: i) Truth table; ii) Combinational circuit; iii) Canonical SOP; iv)
Canonical POS; Dec.2016/Jan.2017, 15EC33, 04 Marks
2. Write the steps for converting a verbal problem statement into truth table.
Dec. 2011, 06ES33, 05 Marks
Truth table: Describes the behavior of Boolean function and it has 2𝑛 rows and n+1 columns for n
variable function f(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ,…….. 𝑥𝑛 ). In which, first n columns are provided for complete listing of all
the combinations of the n independent variables, and the last column represents the value of function
for each combination.
➢ Each variable can have only two possible values 0 or 1, so there are 2𝑛 combinations for n
variables. Thus the table has 2𝑛 rows. Such table denoting Boolean function is called truth table
or table of combinations.

Steps:
1. Indentify number of input and output variables
2. List all possible combination of inputs.
3. Write output for each combination of inputs

➢ Consider an example: f(x, y, z) = (x̅ + y)z

➢ Since f is function of 3 variables, there are 23 = 8 combinations, so the table has 8 rows and
n+1=4 columns as shown below:

Deriving Switching Equations:

➢ The logic can be described in several ways: i) Truth table, ii) Logic diagram, iii) Boolean
equations.
➢ Boolean equations can be derived directly from truth table or from logic diagram. Likewise a truth
table or logic diagram can be constructed from the Boolean equations.
➢ Switching equations are Boolean equations derived directly from the truth table, which describes
the behavior logic system.

Boolean Formulas and Functions:

➢ Boolean expressions or formulas are constructed by connecting Boolean constants and variables
with Boolean operations and are used to describe Boolean functions.
Eg: f(x,y,z) = (x̅ + y)z OR f = (x̅ + y)z :
✓ The expression (x̅ + y)z describes the function f.
✓ x, y, z: are independent variables
f: dependent variable
Availaible at: VTU HUB (Android App)
Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 2
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

✓ The value of the function (f) is easily determine for any set of values of x, y, and z by
applying the definition of AND, OR and NOT operations.
3. Define the following.
i. Literal
ii. Product of sums
iii. Canonical product of sums
iv. Sum of minterms
v. Essential prime implicant. June. 2012, 10ES33, 05 Marks

➢ Based on the structure, Boolean expressions are categorized into:

1. Normal formulas, which has two forms:
i. Sum of products
ii. Product of sums
2. Canonical formulas, which has two forms:
i. Minterm canonical formulas
ii. Maxterm canonical formulas

Normal Formulas:
Sum-of-products form or Disjunctive normal form or Disjunctive normal formula: A
Boolean formula that is written as a single product term or as a sum (disjunctive) of product terms.
Example: f(w,x,y,z) = x̅ + w y̅ + w̅ y̅ z
Literal: Defined as each occurrence of either a complemented or an uncomplemented variable in
describing formula. The above equation consists of six literals: x̅, w, y̅, w̅, y̅, z
Product Term: Defined as either a literal or a product (conjunction) of literals. The above
equation consists of three product terms: x̅, wy̅, w̅y̅z

Product-of-sums form or Conjunctive normal form or Conjunctive normal formula: A

Boolean formula that is written as a single sum term or as a product (conjunctive) of sum terms.
Example: f(w,x,y,z) = z(x + y̅)(w̅+x̅+ y̅)
The above equation consists of six literals: x̅, w, y̅, w̅, y̅, z
Sum Term: Defined as either a literal or a sum (disjunction) of literals. The above equation
consists of three sum terms: z, (x + y̅), (w̅+x̅+ y̅)

Canonical Formulas:
1. Define canonical Minterm form and canonical Maxterm form. Dec. 2012, 10ES33, 05 Marks
2. Explain canonical form of Boolean equations with an example. Dec. 2011, 10ES33, 04 Marks

➢ Boolean formulas are used to describe Boolean functions ie truth tables; hence there is
relationship between truth tables and Boolean expressions, i.e., evaluating the formula under all
possible assignments of independent variables.
➢ In canonical formulas, Boolean formulas are written from truth table. There are two types of
expressions obtained directly from truth table: i) Canonical minterm formula, ii) Canonical
maxterm formula.
➢ These are special cases of disjunctive normal formula and conjunctive normal formula.

Minterm: It is the product term for output 1, in which all the variables of a function appears exactly
once either in complemented form or uncomplemented form. The variable appears complemented if
the value of variable is 0, and uncomplemented if the value of variable is 1.
m-Notation: The letter m symbolize a minterm, the notation 𝑚𝑖 is used to denote minterm
Availaible at: VTU
constructed from theHUB
row whose(Android App) is i
decimal equivalent

Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 3
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

Standard Sum-of-Products or Canonical Sum-of-Products or Canonical Minterm Form or

Disjunctive Canonical Formula: Describes the Boolean function obtained by sum of minterms.

Maxterm: It is the sum term for output 0, in which all the variables of a function appears exactly
once either in complemented form or uncomplemented form. The variable appears complemented if
the value of variable is 1, and uncomplemented if the value of variable is 0.

M-Notation: The letter M symbolize a maxterm, the notation 𝑀𝑖 is used to denote maxterm
constructed from the row whose decimal equivalent is i.

Standard Product-of-Sums or Canonical Product-of-Sums or Canonical Maxterm Form or

Conjunctive Canonical Formula: Describes the Boolean function obtained by product of maxterms.

Incompletely Specified Function: In which out for some input combinations are not specified, it can
be either 0 or 1. It can be represented as ‘ϕ’ or ‘X’.

➢ Consider the truth for some function of three variables A, B and C:

Inputs 𝒎𝒊 - 𝑴𝒊 - Output
Minterm: Maxterm
A B C Notation Notation F
0 0 0 ABC 𝑚0 A+B+C 𝑀0 0
0 0 1 ABC 𝑚1 A+B+C 𝑀1 0
0 1 0 ABC 𝑚2 A+B+C 𝑀2 1
0 1 1 ABC 𝑚3 A+B+C 𝑀3 0
1 0 0 ABC 𝑚4 A+B+C 𝑀4 1
1 0 1 ABC 𝑚5 A+B+C 𝑀5 1
1 1 0 ABC 𝑚6 A+B+C 𝑀6 0
1 1 1 ABC 𝑚7 A+B+C 𝑀7 1

➢ The output function (F) can be written as:

Standard SOP or Canonical SOP: F = A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C
Canonical Minterm Form: F = 𝑚2 + 𝑚4 + 𝑚5 + 𝑚7 = ∑m(2, 4, 5, 7)

Standard SOP or Canonical SOP: F = (A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)

Canonical Minterm Form: F = 𝑀0 + 𝑀1 + 𝑀3 + 𝑀6 = πM(0, 1, 3, 6)

➢ For complete Boolean functions, the minterm and maxterm canonical formulas are unique i.e., for
any complete Boolean function, there is only one minterm canonical expression and only one
maxterm canonical expression.
➢ If two dissimilar-looking Boolean functions are manipulated into the same minterm or maxterm
canonical formulas, then it can be concluded that the two expressions are describing the same
function.
➢ The canonical formulas are serves as the starting point for formal techniques to determine simple
expressions that describe a function.

Manipulations of Boolean Expressions:

➢ A Boolean function can be described by different expressions. By applying the postulates and
theorems of a Boolean algebra, it is possible to manipulate a Boolean expression into another form
Availaible at:theVTU
describing HUBfunction.
same Boolean (Android App)
Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 4
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

➢ The type manipulation that must be performed depends on some objective that is to be achieved.
1. It may be desirable to obtain an expression having the fewest literals that describes a function.
2. Objective might be to obtain a canonical form when the given formula is not in canonical form.

Implies:
➢ Consider two complete Boolean functions of n variables 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 . The function 𝑓1 implies the
function 𝑓2 if,
1. There is no assignment of values to the variables that makes 𝑓1 = 1 and 𝑓2 = 0.
2. Whenever 𝑓1 = 1, then 𝑓2 must also equals to 1
3. Alternatively, whenever 𝑓2 = 0, then 𝑓1 must also equals to 0.
Example 1: Consider the functions 𝑓1 (x, y, z) = xy + yz and 𝑓2 (x, y, z) = xy + yz +x̅z
Example 2: Consider the functions 𝑓3 (x, y, z) = (x + y)(y + z)( x̅ + z) and 𝑓2 (x, y, z) = (x + y)(y + z)

The function 𝑓1 implies 𝑓2 , but 𝑓2 not implies 𝑓1 The function 𝑓3 implies 𝑓4 , but 𝑓4 not implies 𝑓3

➢ Since the terms and expressions describes the functions, the concept of implies may also applied
to terms and expressions.
➢ In case of SOP form, each of its product terms implies the function i.e., when the product term has
the value 1, the function must also have the value 1 (2nd condition).
➢ In case of POS, each of its sum terms are implied by the function i.e., function implies the sum
term. Whenever the sum term has the value 0, the function must also have the value 0 (3 rd
condition).

Subsumes:
➢ A comparison between two product terms or two sum terms is also possible. The term 𝑡1 is said to
subsumes a term 𝑡2 if and only if all the literals of the term 𝑡2 are also literals of the term 𝑡1 .
Example: Consider the product terms 𝑡1 = 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 and 𝑡2 = 𝑥 𝑧 the product term 𝑡1 subsumes the
product term 𝑡2 . Similarly, consider the two sum terms 𝑡3 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 and 𝑡4 = 𝑥 + 𝑧, the sum
term 𝑡3 subsumes the sum term 𝑡4
➢ If the product term 𝑡1 subsumes a product term 𝑡2 , then 𝑡1 implies 𝑡2 , since whenever 𝑡1 has value
1, 𝑡2 also has the value 1 (2nd condition). Similarly, if the sum term 𝑡3 subsumes a sum term 𝑡4 ,
then 𝑡4 implies 𝑡3 , since whenever 𝑡3 has value 0, 𝑡4 also has the value 0 (3rd condition).
➢ By the absorption law, if one term subsumes another term in an expression, then the subsuming
term can be deleted from the expression without changing the function being described. i.e., the
term 𝑡1 can be deleted in SOP expression and the term 𝑡3 can be deleted from POS expression.
Availaible at: VTU HUB (Android App)
Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 5
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

Implicants, Prime Implicants and Irredundant Disjunctive Normal Formulas:

Implicant:
➢ A product term is said to be an implicant of a complete function, if the product term implies the
function i.e., whenever the product term is 1 the function is also 1.
➢ Each of the product terms in a disjunctive normal formula (SOP) describing a complete Boolean
function is an implicant of the function, since these product terms contribute to describing the
functional values of 1. Thus, minterms of a function are its implicants.
Example: Consider the expression: F = X + YZ and its truth table as given below.

Inputs Intermediates Output

X Y Z 𝐗 𝐘 𝐘𝐙 XZ 𝐗𝐘 F
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
➢ The product term X = 1, for XYZ = 000, 001, 010, and 011 also the function F = 1, for XYZ =
000, 001, 010, 011. Hence the term X is an implicant of the function.
➢ Similarly, the product term YZ = 1, for XYZ = 001, and 101 also the function F = 1, XYZ = 001,
101
Hence the term YZ is an implicant of the function.

Prime Implicant:
➢ An implicant is said to be a prime implicant if it doesn’t subsumes an implicant of the same
function with fewer literals..
Example: Again consider the same truth table.
➢ The product term XYZ is an implicant of the function since it is minterm that describes the 6th row
of the truth table. It subsumes: YZ, XZ, and XY. If at least one of these three terms is an implicant
of the function, then XYZ is not a prime implicant.
✓ The term xz is not an implicant of the function, since it does not imply the function when
(X,Y,Z) = (1,1,1), XZ = 1 and F = 0
✓ Similarly, the product term XY is not an implicant of the function, since when (X,Y,Z) =
(1,0,0), XY = 1 and F = 0.
✓ But the product term YZ is an implicant of the function, since when (X,Y,Z) = (0,0,1), and
(1,0,1), YZ = 1 and F = 1.
✓ Hence the product term XYZ is not a prime implicant of the function.
➢ Similarly, consider the term YZ, is an implicant of the function. It subsumes: Y and Z. Both Y and
Z are not implicants of the function. Hence the term YZ is an prime implicant of the function.
➢ Similarly, X is also prime implicant of the function.
➢ Thus, a prime implicant of a function is a product term which implies the function with additional
property that if any literal is removed from the term, then the resulting term no longer implies the
Availaible
function.at: VTU HUB (Android App)

Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 6
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

Irredundant Disjunctive Normal Formulas:

➢ An Irredundant Disjunctive Normal Formula describing a complete function is defined as an
expression in sum-of-products form such that,
1. Every product term in the expression is a prime implicant.
2. No product term may be eliminated from the expression without changing the function
described by the expression.
➢ It is a minimal two-level gate realizations having AND-gates on the first level and a single OR
gate on the second level.
Example: f = X + YZ

Implicates, Prime Implicates and Irredundant Conjunctive Expressions:

Implicates:
➢ A sum term is said to be an implicate of a complete Boolean function, if the function implies the
sum term i.e., whenever the sum term is 0 the function is also 0.
➢ Each of the sum terms in a conjunctive normal formula (POS) describing a complete Boolean
function is an implicate of the function, since these sum terms contribute to describing the
functional values of 0. Thus, maxterms of a function are its implicates.
Example: Consider the expression: F = (X + Z)(X + Y) and its truth table as given below.
Inputs Intermediates Output
X Y Z 𝐗 𝐘 (𝐗 + 𝐙) (𝐗 + 𝐘) (Y + Z) (𝐗 + 𝐘) F
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
➢ The sum term (X + Z) = 0, for XYZ = 100 and 110 also the function F = 0, for XYZ = 100 and
110. Hence the term (X + Z) is an implicate of the function.
➢ Similarly, the sum term (X + Y) = 0, for XYZ = 110 and 111 also the function F = 0, for XYZ =
110 and 111. Hence the term (X + Y) is an implicate of the function.

Prime Implicate:
➢ An implicate of a complete Boolean function is said to be prime implicate, if it doesn’t subsumes
other implicate(s) of the same function with fewer literals.
Example: Again consider the same truth table.
➢ The sum (X + Y + Z) is an implicate of the function since it is maxterm that describes the 5th row
of the truth table. It subsumes: (X + Z), (X + Y) and (Y + Z). If at least one of these three terms is
an implicate of the function, then (X + Y + Z) is not a prime implicate.
✓ The term (Y + Z) is not an implicate of the functions, since it does not implied by the
function, when XYZ = 000, (Y + Z) = 0 and F = 1
✓ Similarly, the sum term (X + Y) is an not implicate of the function, since when XYZ =
101, YZ = 0 and F = 1.
Availaible at: VTU HUB (Android App)
Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 7
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

✓ But the sum term (X + Z) is an implicate of the function, since when XYZ = 100 and 110,
(X + Z) = 0 and F = 0.
✓ Hence the sum term (X + Y + Z) is not a prime implicate of the function.
➢ Similarly, consider the term (X + Z), is an implicate of the function. It subsumes: X and Z. Both X
and Z are not implicates of the function. Hence the term (X + Z) is an prime implicate of the
function.
➢ Similarly, (X + Y)is also prime implicate of the function.
➢ Thus, a prime implicate of a function is a sum term which implied by the function with additional
property that if any literal is removed from the term, then the resulting term no longer implied by
the function.

Irredundant Conjunctive Normal Formula:

➢ An Irredundant Conjunctive Normal Formula describing a complete function is defined as an
expression in product-of-sums form, such that:
1. Every sum term in the expression is a prime implicate.
2. No sum term may be eliminated from the expression without changing the function described
by the expression.
➢ It is also a minimal two-level gate realizations having OR-gates on the first level and a single
AND gate on the second level.
Example: F = (X + Z)(X + Y)

Availaible at: VTU HUB (Android App)

Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 8
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

Karnaugh Maps
1. Define K-map, incompletely specified function, essential prime implicants and gray code.
Dec.2016/Jan.2017, 15EC33, 04 Marks
➢ K-map is a graphical representation of truth table or diagrammatic representation of Boolean
function. It is an useful tool to determine implicants and implicates of a Boolean function. It was
developed by Veitch and modified by Karnaugh.
➢ It is a geometrical configuration of 2𝑛 cells such that each of the n-tuples corresponding to a row
of a truth table uniquely locates a cell on the map. The function values assigned to the n-tuples are
placed as entries in the cells.
➢ The two cells are physically adjacent within the configuration if and only if their respective n-
tuples differ in exactly one element. ie the cells are said to be adjacent if and only if one variable
changes from its complement to uncomplement or uncomplement to complement.

One-variable & Two-variable maps:

➢ One variable map consists of 21 = 2 cells as shown below:
K – Map: K – Map:

➢ Two variable map consists of 22 = 4 cells as shown below:

K – Map: K – Map:

Three-variable & Four-variable maps:

➢ A three variable map consists of 23 =8 cells as shown below:

Availaible at: VTU HUB (Android App)

Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 9
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

➢ A four variable map has 24 =16 cells as shown below:

Five-variable & Six-variable maps:

➢ A five variable map has 25 = 32 cells as shown below:

➢ A six variable map has 26 = 64 cells as shown below:

Availaible at: VTU HUB (Android App)

Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 10
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

Product Term and Sum Term Representations on K-map:

➢ A cell of a map with 1 entry is referred to as a 1-cell and a cell with 0 entry is referred to as 0-cell.
It possible to determine the implicants and implicates of a function from the patterns of 1’s and 0’s
appearing on maps.
➢ Any set of 1-cells which form a 2𝑎 x 2𝑏 rectangular grouping describes a product term with (n – a
– b) variables, where a and b are nonnegative integers. Similarly any set of 0-cells describes sum
term
➢ Rectangular groupings of these dimensions are referred subcubes.
Pairs: Pair is a group of two adjacent cells of dimensions 20 x 21 or 21 x 20 and removes 1
variable.
Quads: Quad is a group of four adjacent cells of dimensions 21 x 21 and removes 2 variables.
Octants: Octant is a group of 8 adjacent cells of dimensions 21 x 22 or 22 x 21 and removes 3
variables.
Isolate: Isolate is a group of one cell of dimensions 20 x 20 and removes no variable.
➢ The corresponding product associated with the subcube has an uncomplemented variable if the
value of variable is 1 and complemented variable if the value of variable is 0. The eliminated
variables are those that change values.
➢ Similarly, corresponding sum term associated with the subcube has an uncomplemented variable
if the value of variable is 0 and complemented variable if the value of variable is 1.

K-Map to Obtain Minimal Expressions For Complete Boolean Functions:

➢ Rectangular configurations of 1-cells on a k-map represent a single product term. Similarly,
rectangular configurations of 0-cells on a k-map represent a single sum term.
Availaible at: VTU HUB (Android App)
Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 11
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

Prime Implicants:
➢ The product term corresponding to the sub-cube which is not contained in any other sub-cubes is
called Prime Implicants. Consider the below map,

➢ The product term corresponding to sub-cube A is XYZ, it is an implicant of the function since it is
a minter. Similarly product term corresponding to sub-cube B is YZ and to C is XY.
➢ The sub-cube A is totally contained in sub-cube B and its product term XYZ subsumes the term YZ
and it is implicant of the function. Hence the term XYZ is not a prime implicant.
➢ The sub-cubes B and C are not contained with any other sub-cubes, hence their corresponding
product terms YZ and XY are prime implicants.

Essential Prime Implicants:

➢ A 1-cell that can be in only one prime implicant sub-cube is called an essential 1-cell and the
corresponding prime implicant is called an essential prime implicant. ie Essential prime implicant
has at least one 1-cell, which is not associated with prime implicant sub-cubes.
➢ The significant of the essential prime implicants is, it must appear in all the irredundant
disjunctive normal formulas of the function and hence, in a minimal sum.
➢ Prime Implicants are said to be essential prime implicants if it does not subsumes prime implicant
of the same function.

Essential Prime Implicates:

➢ A 0-cell that can be in only one prime implicate sub-cube is called an essential 0-cell and the
corresponding prime implicate is called an essential prime implicate. ie Essential prime implicate
has at least one 0-cell, which is not associated with prime implicate sub-cubes.
➢ The significant of the essential prime implicates is, it must appear in all the irredundant
conjunctive normal formulas of the function and hence, in a minimal product.
➢ Prime Implicates are said to be essential prime implicates if it does not subsumes prime implicate
of the same function.

Minimal Sums (Disjunctive normal formula):

➢ The procedure for determining the minimal sums:
1. Draw the map of a function and form subcubes of 1’s.
2. Determine essential prime implicants by detecting essential 1-cells.
3. Determine prime implicants which covers the remaining 1-cells.
➢ The minimal sum is obtained summing the terms associated with all the subcubes selected.

Minimal Products (Conjunctive normal formula):

➢ The procedure for determining the minimal products:
1. Draw the map of a function and form subcubes of 0’s.
2. Determine essential prime implicates by detecting essential 0-cells.
Availaible at:prime
3. Determine VTU HUBwhich
implicates (Android App) 0-cells.
covers the remaining

Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 12
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

➢ Then minimal Product is the product of the sum terms associated with all the subcubes selected.

Incomplete Boolean Functions And Don’t Care Conditions:

➢ In incomplete Boolean functions, the function values are not specified for some combinations of
inputs, it can be a 0 or 1. It can be represented as ‘ϕ’ or ‘X’ in the output column.
➢ The rows of the truth table in which the functional values are not specified are called don’t care
conditions.
Example: F(X,Y,Z) = ∑m(0,1,7) + ∑d(3,5) or F(X,Y,Z) = πM(2,4,6) + πd(3,5)
The corresponding table is give below:

Inputs Outputs
X Y Z F 𝐅
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 X X
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 X X
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0
➢ From the truth table, the complement of the incomplete Boolean functions is also an incomplete.

Minimal Expressions of Incomplete Boolean Functions:

➢ The K-maps containing three possible entries 0’s, 1’s, and X’s. The cells containing X entries are
referred as don’t care cells.
➢ The prime implicants of an incomplete Boolean function are obtained by regarding all the don’t
care conditions as having functional values of 1.
➢ Similarly, the prime implicates of an incomplete Boolean function are obtained by regarding all
the don’t care conditions as having functional values of 0.

Minimal Sums: To obtain minimal sums, while forming subcubes don’t cells are considered as 1-
cells. It is not necessary to form a subcubes include all don’t cares.

Minimal Products: To obtain minimal products, while forming subcubes don’t cells are considered
as 0-cells. It is not necessary to form a subcubes include all don’t cares.

Availaible at: VTU HUB (Android App)

Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 13
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

Quine McClusky Tabulation Method

➢ The Karnaugh map method for obtaining simplified Boolean expressions is a very effective
method for functions with no more than six variables.
➢ However, a general procedure which is applicable to functions of any variables is desirable. Such
a procedure should ne algorithmic so that it can be programmed for a digital computer. One such
procedure was originally suggested by Quine and later modified by McClusky.
➢ The Quine McClusky method consists of two phases. In the first phase, the set of all prime
implicants (or implicates) of the function is systematically obtained. In the second phase, the set of
irredundant expressions for the function is determined. From the set minimal expression is
selected.

Prime Implicants:
➢ All the implicants of a complete Boolean function can be generated from its set of minterms by
repeatedly applying the relationship AB + A̅B. Where A denotes a single variable and B denotes
product of variables. This provides for combining two product terms to form a new single product
term.
➢ The application of this relationship involves repeated comparisons. For this minterms are initially
placed in a list. Two minters that differ exactly in one literal are related by AB and A̅B and hence
combine to form new term B. This new term B is then placed in a second list.
➢ The two minters AB and A̅B are implicants of the function, and neither of these minters is a
prime implicant of the function since they each subsume the generated term B. This is indicated
by placing a check mark next to the two generating terms.
➢ The comparison process is carried out on all pairs of minterms of the initial list. The existence of
a check mark doesn’t disqualify a minterm from further comparisons with other minterms in
order to generate additional terms.
➢ The new list of terms consisting of one less variable is then subjected to above comparison
process. That is, if two terms have the forms AB and A̅B where A is a single variable and B is a
product of variables, then the two terms are combined to form a new single term B that is entered
in a third list.
➢ Again the two generating terms are checked to indicate that they are not prime implicants.
Duplicate terms are not entered in the new list.
➢ The comparison process is continued on each new list until no new list is generated. All terms
contained in the set of lists are all the implicants of the function and those that are not checked are
the prime implicats.

Algorithm for Generating Prime Implicants:

Binary Notation Method:
1. Express each minterm of the function in its binary representation and find index of the minterms.
Number of 1’s is the index value.
2. List the minterms by increasing index and separate the set of minterms of equal index with lines.
3. Let i = 0.
4. Compare each term of index i with each term of index i + 1 and combine the minterms if they
differ in exactly one bit position, place the newly formed term (in 0 – 1 – X notation) in the
section of index i of a new list, unless it is already present. In either event, place a check mark
next to the two terms that combined (if not already checked). In the comparison process, a
checked term doesn’t disqualify it from further comparisons. After all pairs of terms with indices i
Availaible
and i + 1at: VTU HUB
are inspected (Android
in the original list, a lineApp)
is drawn under the last term in the new list.

Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 14
 Regulation – 2018 Digital System Design-18EC34

5. Increase i by 1 and repeat Step 4. The increase of i is continued until all terms are compared. The
new list contains the implicants of the function that have one less variable than those implicants in
the generating list.
6. Each section of the new list formed has terms of equal index. Steps 3, 4, and 5 are repeated on this
list to form another list. The two terms combine if they have their don’t cares in the same relative
positions and if they differ in exactly one bit position.
7. The process terminates when no new list is formed.
8. All terms without check marks are prime implicants.

Decimal Notation Method:

1. Arrange the minterms in increasing order of index and group the minterms of equal index value.
2. Subtract each minterm of index i from each minterm of index i + 1 and combine the minterms if
the difference is non-negative (positive) power of 2. The combined term can be written as:
minterm of i, minterm if i+1 (difference). Place the newly formed term in the section of index i of
a new list, unless it is already present. In either event, place a check mark next to the two terms
that are combined (if not already checked). In the subtraction process, a checked term doesn’t
disqualify it from further subtraction. After all pairs of terms with indices i and i + 1 are inspected
in the original list, a line is drawn under the last term in the new list.
3. Increase i by 1 and repeat Step 2. The increase of i is continued until all terms are subtracted. The
new list contains the implicants of the function that have one less variable than those implicants in
the generating list.
4. Each section of the new list formed has terms of equal index. Steps 2 and 3 are repeated on this
list to form another list. The two terms combine if they have numbers in the parenthesis are same
and subtraction of minterms of ith group from i+1th group yields non-negative power of 2 number.
The combined term can be written as: minterms of i, minterms if i+1 (1st difference, 2nd
difference).
5. The process terminates when no new list is formed.
6. All terms without check marks are prime implicants.
Procedure to Write Prime Implicants in Algebraic Form:
7. Transform the decimal representation of a term into 0-1-X notation as shown in below table.
In decimal representation, the numbers in parenthesis indicates the weights of the
eliminated variables. The weights which sum to the smallest minterm number in the term
determines the position of 1’s in 0-1-X representation.
Table: Transforming decimal representation of terms into 0-1-X representation
Example 1: 9, 13 (4)
A B C D ⟵ Variables
3 2
2 2 21 20 ⟵ Weights of binary representation
X ⟵ ‘X’ for position of weight 4
1 1 ⟵ 1’s for the positions that sum to the smallest minterm number
0 ⟵ 0’s for all remaining positions
ACD ⟵ Algebraic form
Example 2: 5, 7, 13, 15 (2, 8)
A B C D ⟵ Variables
3 2
2 2 21 20 ⟵ Weights of binary representation
X X ⟵ ‘X’ for positions of weights 2 and 8
1 1 ⟵ 1’s for the positions that sum to the smallest minterm number
⟵ 0’s for all remaining positions
Availaible at: VTU HUB (Android App)
BD ⟵ Algebraic form

Prepared by: Halesha H R & Aruna R Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 15