Red Mud Treatment

Technologies
MID SEMESTER REPORT

PriyeshKhandelwal (2016A1PS0781G) &Prakhar Mishra (2016A1PS0570G) | CHE F266

19-10-2018
TABLE OF CONTENTS -

Acknowledgement……. 2

Abstract…. 3

Introduction…… 4

Review of Literature………. 5

Global Reserves…….. 7

Types of Bauxite…… 10

The Bayer Process…… 12

Neutralization of Red Mud……. 14

Research Papers Studied on Bioremediation…. 17

Conclusion……. 24

References….. 25

PAGE 1
 Acknowledgement

We respect and thank Dr. Saroj S. Baral , for providing us an

opportunity to do the project work on “Red Mud Treatment
Technologies” and giving us all support and guidance which made us
work on the project duly. We are extremely thankful to him for providing
such a nice support and guidance, although he had busy schedule
managing the department affairs.

We are thankful to and fortunate enough to get constant

encouragement, support and guidance from all Teaching staffs of
Chemical Department which helped us our project work.

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Abstract:

The study project will focus on the review of disposal and storage of
bauxite and its environmental aspects, present status, challenges and
opportunities in neutralization of bauxite residue. The
remediation/rehabilitation trends and describes the success of a soil-free
approach in the world. In Spite of over a century of effort looking for
uses, over 1200 patents and hundreds of technically successful trials, less
than 4 million tonnes of the 150 million tonnes of bauxite residue
produced annually is used in a productive way. The aim of the project
will be to find out the barriers and why the technical successes do not
always translate into large-scale uses. We will focus on neutralization of
bauxite residue by the help of biological processes and its revegetation.

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Introduction:

Red mud, also known as red sludge, bauxite residue, or alumina refinery residues
(ARR), is a highly alkaline waste product composed mainly of iron oxide that is
generated in the industrial production of alumina. Annually, about 77 million tons
of the red special wastes are produced, causing serious disposal problem in the
mining industry. The scale of production makes the waste product an important
one, and issues with its storage are reviewed and every opportunity is explored to
find uses for it. Over 95% of the alumina produced globally is through the Bayer
process; for every tonne of alumina produced, approximately 1 to 1.5 tonnes of
bauxite tailings/residue are also produced. Annual production of alumina in 2015
was approximately 115 million tonnes resulting in the generation of about 150
million tonnes of bauxite tailings/residue.

This alumina refinery waste is highly alkaline in nature with a pH of 10.5–12.5 and
is conventionally disposed of in mostly clay-lined land-based impoundments. The
alkaline constituents in the red mud impose severe and alarming environmental
problems, such as soil and air pollution. Keeping in view sustainable re-vegetation
and residue management, neutralization/treatment of red mud using different
techniques is the only alternative to make the bauxite residue environmentally
benign. Hence, neutralization techniques, such as using mineral acids, acidic waste
(pickling liquor waste), coal dust, superphosphate and gypsum as amenders, CO2,
sintering with silicate material and seawater for treatment of red mud have been
studied in detail.

An important milestone in the red mud treatment came out with the research on
bioremediation of the residue. Colonies of certain bacteria and fungi led to the

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improvement of pH of red mud residue and hence reducing its harmful effects.
Hence the effect of bio-inoculants on red mud has been studied.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The environmental problem of Red Mud disposal is more acute in Japan, U.S. and
the European countries compared to Afro-Asian countries. In 1965, there were
public protests in France, which induced experts to give their decision for a red
mud dumping project in Bay of Cassis (Mediterranean Sea) (Dass et aL, 1995)

Red mud till today is mostly disposed off in two conventional ways. Firstly in
countries like Japan, Germany, France, etc it is directly disposed off into the sea
due to lack of land area available for dumping. In other countries however where
the dumping area is available it is disposed off in pools or lagoons made for this
purpose and the slurry is left open for sun drying, and overflowing water taken
back into the plant based on the conditions. The main reason for implementing
this method is low cost and easy implementation. It is widely followed by nearly all
the Indian plants except a few who have adopted dry disposal only recently,
(Thakur et al. 1995).

Whenever these wastes are disposed off, it causes harm to the surroundings. The
environmental chemistry and toxicity of aluminium in red mud is significant
under such alkaline conditions. This may create different impacts under different
environmental conditions. The conditions to consider are annual rainfall, wind
velocity, soil permeability, average temperature and so on for land disposal while
for sea disposal it depends upon length of inlet pipe, depth at the point, variety of
fish culture and under currents, if any. Amelioration of red mud disposal sites is
essential to use red mud as a soil conditioner.

Halsband and Halsband(1971), Paffenhoefer(1971 and 1972), Cole(1973), Blackman

and wilson(1973), Rosenthal et al. (1971, 1972 and 1973) were the firsts to study the
physiological effects of red mud on marine organisms. In northern sea, algae was
getting affected at a lower rate compared to fishes. However up to a concentration
of 1g/l, it was not damaging either organism. The iron hydroxide part of red mud
was particularly responsible for inhibiting growth in C. helgolendices cultured on
phytoplakton. It was established in general that waste was found harmful to fish or
shell fish will similarly affect other organisms also. Killing of fish and shell fish at
any stage in their life cycle contaminated them with persistent toxic substances so

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they became unsafe to eat and were temporarily unsaleable. (Cole, 1973) Another
impact is that certain metals may accumulate in fish, which might not impact
physiology of fish but made fish quite unsafe for human consumption.

Williams and Hamdy (1982) introduced biological activities in red mud in order to
neutralize their extra alkali. In an envisaged programme, alfaalfa hey was mixed up
with red mud, which stimulated bacterial growth resulting in production of
organic acid within the system. This acid neutralized excess alkali and made it
amenable for earthworm and plant growth.

Koch and Bell (1983) used red mud along with lie and saw dust to make low pH
soils suitable for plant growth. Red mud at around 18% concentration was found to
be quite effective in reducing acidity and level of available aluminium in the
overburden spoils of coalmines. The red mud had some inherent fertility especially
in phosphorous but also had high adsorption capacities when phosphate was
added as fertilizer. However since its neutralization capacity was less than that of
CaCO3, it was found to be uneconomical under higher concentrations.

Patel et al. (1986) studied the concentration of pollutant fluorides in effluents and
by product of alumina industry in India. Samples were obtained from different
alumina and smelter plants and collection was carried out also after sufficient time
gaps. It was a study of impact of micro pollutants in red mud on soil and waters.

Mussels et al (1993) did a review to assess the feasibility of bioremediation of

bauxite residue by making estimates of the possible substrate and inoculums
required to achieve neutrality. Various possible avenues of microbial
neutralization were assessed in terms of the practicality of application of bauxite
residue. These involved the ability of an organism to survive and grow in red mud
and their production of neutralizing agent mainly organic acid and carbon dioxide.

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GLOBAL RESERVES
The top 5 countries, Guinea, Australia, Brazil, Vietnam and Jamaica, hold over 70%
of the world's documented bauxite reserves.

Of these counties only Australia, Brazil and Jamaica have realized their potential as
bauxite mining or alumina producing nations. While still a major bauxite producer
sovereign risk has stunted development of the industry in Guinea to a fraction of
its full potential.

Strict nationalistic policies in Vietnam have resulted in the industry only just
beginning to emerge. Indonesia also possesses significant bauxite holdings and has
become a major exporter to China.

According to industry sourcesIndia, with total bauxite reserves of about 3 billion

tonnes (or 4.87 billion tonnes), accounts for almost 9.76% of the world's 65 billion
tonnes bauxite reserves and is ranked seventh among the countries with highest
bauxitereserves. Indian bauxite reserves are expected to last over 350 yearswith
probable reserves estimated at ~1200 million tonnes. With over7% growth per
annum, one of the highest in the world, the Indian aluminium market is booming.
Total aluminium consumption in the country is around 1100 kt at present, which
has grown significantly from 2002level of 600 kt. Though India's per capita
consumption of aluminium is quite low (b1 kg) compared to the per capita
consumption of othercountries like the US and Europe (25 to 30 kg). Analysts say
bauxite production in Indiashould grows at 17.7% though 2020, with an
estimated 8.2% contribution to the global output, this year alone.

PAGE 7
Bauxite production and relative proportion of main countries in 2008 (Saxena, Mohini.,Gowari, V.S., Gupta, T.N).

PAGE 8
World Bauxite Reserves – Key Counties

Brief details of the bauxite in key counties are provided below:

 Guinea: High alumina content. Major concentration areas: Lower Kindia

and Boke (around 5 billion), Central Labe (500 million), Gaoual (500
million); and Upper Dabola (around 1.9 billion).
 Australia: Abundant reserves of easily mined surface deposits. Major
concentration areas include: 1) the Gulf of Carpentaria, 2) Darling Ranges,
3) Mitchell Plateau and Cape Bougainville.
 Brazil: 90% of Brazil’s bauxite is distributed in Para State in northern Brazil.
 Vietnam: Mainly distributed in DakLak, DakNong, Kon Tum and Lam Dong
provinces in central and southern Vietnam. Deposits are mainly lateritic
(Al2O3 36-39% or sedimentary (Al2O3 39-65%).
 India: Widely distributed, however 60% of all identified reserves are in
Orissa and Andhra Pradesh along East Coast.
 Indonesia: Mainly distributed in Bangka Island, Belitung Island, West
Kalimantan and Riau Province (Bintan Island).

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TYPES OF BAUXITE
Bauxite deposits are commonly referred to by a number of different terminologies
relating to either their mineralogy or geological formation.

Alternately they may be described by likening them to other well-known deposits

elsewhere around the globe.

According the to their mineralogy:

1. Trihydrate or gibbsitic bauxite: consisting chiefly of gibbsite

2. Mixed bauxite: typically consisting of significant proportions of both
gibbsite and boehmite.
3. Monohydrate bauxite: consisting mainly of boehmite or diaspore.

According to their geological formation

1. Lateritic: formed in situ from weathering of aluminous parent rocks in

tropical and temperature regions. Consisting mostly of gibbsite or a mixed
gibbsite and boehmite content.
2. Karst: partially transformed or transformed bauxite materials washed and
accumulated in eroded limestone cavities where further transformation can
occur. Commercially significant karst bauxites occur in Europe, the Middle
East, China and Jamaica.

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According to other well-known deposits:

1. Suriname type: a pseudonym for trihydrateorgibbsitic bauxite

2. European type: composed mainly of boehmite
3. Jamaica type: applied to very fine grained high-iron gibbsitic bauxite
containing minor quantities of boehmite.

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The Bayer Process:
Alumina is the main components of bauxite, so bauxite is refined in order to produce
Alumina. The Bayer process is the principal way for producing alumina by refining
Bauxite. Bayer process was invented by Austrian chemist, Carl Josef Bayer in 1887, while
working in Saint Petersburg, Russia for developing a method to supply alumina to the
textile industry. The Bayer process started gaining importance after the invention of
Hall-Heroult aluminium process. Till today the process is unchanged and is used to
produce nearly all the world’s alumina supply

Bauxite other than with 30-60percentage of aluminium oxide contains mixture of silica,
iron oxides and titanium dioxide.

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Bayer process of producing alumina can be divided into following four steps:

i. Digestion:A hot caustic soda (NaOH) solution is used to dissolve the aluminium-
bearing minerals in the bauxite (gibbsite, böhmite and diaspore) to form a sodium
aluminate supersaturated solution or “pregnant liquor”.

Gibbsite:
Al(OH)3 + Na+ + OH- → Al(OH)4- + Na+

Böhmite and Diaspore:

AlO(OH) + Na+ + OH- + H2O → Al(OH)4- + Na+

.Conditions within the digester (caustic concentration, temperature and pressure) are
set according to the properties of the bauxite ore. Ores with a high gibbsite content can
be processed at 140°C, while böhmitic bauxites require temperatures between 200 and
280°C. The pressure is not important for the process as such, but is defined by the steam
saturation pressure of the process. At 240°C the pressure is approximately 3.5 MPa.

The slurry is then cooled in a series of flash tanks to around 106°C at atmospheric
pressure and by flashing off steam. This steam is used to preheat spent liquor. In some
high temperature digestion refineries, higher quality bauxite (trihydrate) is injected into
the flash train to boost production.  This "sweetening " process also reduces the energy
usage per tonne of production.

Although higher temperatures are often theoretically advantageous, there are several
potential disadvantages, including the possibility of oxides other than alumina dissolving
into the caustic liquor.

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ii. Filtration: In this step the mixture is clarified to remove impurities. Other than
alumina and silica, all other components present in Bauxite do not get dissolved. The
solids which are not dissolved get settled down at the bottom forming red mud. This red
mud is then discarded from the solution commonly by using rotary sand trap.

The filtration process converts the aluminium oxide to soluble sodium aluminates,
2NaAlO2, as per the equation:

Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O.

iii. Precipitation: The clear remaining mixture is added to precipitators by using heat
exchangers, which turns the mixture from heat to cool liquor. Silica is precipitated from
the mixture because heating. Crystals of aluminium hydroxide are discovered in this
step. Some amount of aluminium hydroxide discovered in this step is used as a water
treatment chemical

iv. Calcination: 90 percentage of the gibbsite manufactured is converted into alumina by

washing, drying, and then heating aluminium hydroxide in a rotary klins or fluid flash
calciners at temperature 1010-1260 degree Celsius.

2 Al (OH) 3 → Al2O3 + 3 H2O.

More than 90 percent of alumina manufactured is used to produce aluminium by Hall-

Heroult Process. Alumina, a white powder, is the product of this step and the final
product of the Bayer Process, ready for shipment to aluminium smelters or the chemical
industry.

NEUTRALISATION OF RED MUD

This alumina refinery waste is highly alkaline in nature with a pH of 10.5-12.5 and is
conventionally disposed of in mostly clay-lined land-based impoundments. The
alkaline constituents in the red mud impose severe and alarming environmental
problems, such as soil and air pollution. Keeping in view sustainable re-vegetation
and residue management, neutralization/treatment of red mud using different
techniques is the only alternative to make the bauxite residue environmentally
benign.

PAGE 14
Untreated or un-neutralized bauxite residue may have following adverse effects
(Power et al., 2009):

1) A highly alkaline, poorly compacted mud overlay is created;

2) It is highly lethal to natural ecosystems and hazardous tohumans and wildlife
due to the contamination of surface andground waters by leaching of caustic
liquor and associatedtoxic metals and alkaline dust;
3) Red mud ponds are difficult to close and rehabilitate becauseof the need to
remove a high amount of both supernatant and entrained caustic liquor;
4) Proper planning and engineering would be required to avoidcatastrophic failure
of impoundments;
5) The high construction and maintenance cost of the pond.
The treatment of red mud is the only alternative and one of the most important
ways of reducing the environmental impacts ofalumina industry (Cooling, 2007).
Towards this, a more sustainablemethod is neutralization of red mud and its
adequate treatment to allow its reuse, and this will certainly play an important
part in bauxite residue management due to increasing environmental awareness
and regulation (Brunori et al., 2005).
Neutralization will convert the highly alkaline state of red mud to a state that is no
longer highly alkaline and is less hazardous and safer to handle.The neutralization
of red mud to pH around 8.0 is optimum, because the chemically adsorbed Nais
released, alkaline buffer minerals are neutralized and toxicmetals are insoluble at
this pH.

NEUTRALIZATION TECHNIQUES

1) Acid neutralization:

Neutralization using acids can be a cheaper option if sufficiently large quantities

of waste acid are available. Studies have been carried out for the feasibility of
treating bauxite refining residue with acid on Kwinana red mud slurry (Hughes
and Thornber, 1991). Carbonic acid (H2CO3) has also been used for treating red
mud. Besides, acidic industrial wastewater has also been applied (Wong and Ho,
1994). Red mud has been treated with hydrochloric acid to dissolve only the
sodium content in red mud and make construction bricks from the treated
material after mixing it with kaolinitic clay.

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2)Neutralization using amenders:

The caustic properties of red mud can be ameliorated using low cost materials
having acidic properties (which may be called amenders).Neutralization with low
cost chemicals or amenders can ameliorate
red mud to develop vegetation cover on the surface of large disposal ponds and
abandoned bauxite mine pits. Vegetation cover will not only prevent deterioration
of soil erosion, but also act as a method of suppressing dust generation due to the
dried red mud.Neutralizing agents, such as coal dust, superphosphate and gypsum,
have the capacity to ameliorate the caustic (alkaline) properties.

3) Neutralization using CO2

Atmospheric carbon dioxide or CO2 from industrial emissions can be a significant

source of acid for neutralizing red mud (Enick et al., 2001). Gas phase CO2 or CO2-
containing flue gas can be bubbled through aqueous slurries to form carbonic acid
in the aqueous phase. The carbonic acid would react with the basic components of
red mud, lowering its pH. By mixing carbon dioxide into the bauxite refining
residue, the pH level is reduced to levels normally found in alkaline soil.

4) Seawater neutralization

Seawater neutralization does not eliminate hydroxide from the system but
converts the readily soluble, strongly alkaline wastes into less soluble, weakly
alkaline solids. The carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity of the waste is removed
mainly by reaction with calcium to form aragonite and calcite. Seawater
neutralization makes the red mud noncaustic but does not reduce its acid-
neutralizing capacity. This allows the red mud to be used without the need for
further chemical treatment. It has been established that reductions in both pH and
aluminium from the seawater neutralization process are due

PAGE 16
to the formation of ‘Bayer’ hydrotalcite Mg7Al2OH18CO3/,
Mg7Al2OH18SO4·xH2O. This is the primary mechanism involved in the removal of
aluminium from solution.

5) Treatment of red mud through the sintering method

The neutralization or treatment of red mud using the sinteringroute is also one
feasible option .In the presence of an additive that provides silica, such as fly ash,
red mud can be sintered at a high temperature, which appreciably lowers the pH
value to an acceptable limit. The study on the neutralization of red mud using the
sintering route carried out by Rai et al. (2013d) showed that temperature is the
most important factor and a pH value of about 8.9 can be obtained by mixing 25–
50% of red mud with 50–75% of silicate material (i.e. fly ash) at a temperature of
1100°C.

Research Papers Studied on Bioremediation of

Red Mud -
Bauxite amelioration of bauxite residue waste of
industrial alumina plants (Hamdy and Williams, 2001)
Six 10- l samples from Alcoa bauxite Residue Lake deposit at Mobile, AL were
collected in sterile laminated stainless steel containers. The first and second
samples were obtained from the bauxite residue lake deposit near the dike and
below the residue surface (0–5 and
5–20 cm, respectively), the third and fourth were 20 m away from the dike and also
below the surface (1–5 and 5–20 cm, respectively). The fifth sample was fresh
slurry, secured directly from the processing plant, and the sixth was lake water
from the impound bauxite residue lake.

PAGE 17
This was followed by microbial analyses, repair of metabolically resting bacteria
and hay analyses and bioremediation of bauxite residue in columns.

Results –

Low levels of injured bacterial cells in the bauxite residue actively grew using hay
and/or various added nutrients. A lowering in pH from 13 to 7 occurred as the
organisms grew from less than 10 to more than 10 9 cells/g bauxite residue and
formed organic acid. A variety of bacterial cultures were isolated from treated
bauxite residue that included the species of Bacillus, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc,
Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium and Enterobacter.
Scanning electron micrographs demonstrated that untreated particles of the
bauxite residue were clumped together, and in treated bauxite residue these
particles were highly dispersed with micro colonial structures. The treated residue
supported growth of several earthworms and plants that survived in it for almost
over 300 days.

a) Effect of medium –

PAGE 18
b) Effect of Nutrients -

c) Effect of Bermuda Grass Hay and other added nutrients

PAGE 19
An evaluation of successful reclamation of bauxite
residue through afforestation activities in south India
(Suresh Chauhan and C. S. Silori, 2011)

PAGE 20
A pilot plant was implemented to improve the physio chemical characteristics of
bauxite residue (red mud) in order to make it more suitable for afforestation
activities. Prior to this, extensive experimentation on various reclamation trials
involving combinations of soil amenders along with bacteria and mycorrhizae and
selection of suitable tree and grass species was undertaken at the nursery stage for
one year. Five tree species and four grass species were finally selected for the
afforestation program. In the process, three out of five tree species,
Prosopisjuliflora, Acacia nilotica and Pongamiapinnata responded very well in
combination with 55% red mud + 25% FYM + 15% gypsun + 5% vegetative dry dust
+ bacteria + mycorrihzae, whie two species Melia azedarach and Acacia tortilis did
not survive and thus were replaced by Albizialebbek and Leucaenaleucocephala
during pilot implementation in 1.08 ha research plot of red mud at Hindustan
Aluminium Company Limited at Belgaum, Karnataka, South India. Among the
grass species, all the selected species namely: Brachiariamutica,
Brachiariabecumbens, Stylosanthesscabra and Sesbaniasesvan responded well at
the nursery stage and thus were experimented at the research plot along with the
tree plantation. Continuous monitoring on growth pattern of tree and grass
species, and soil characteristics revealed remarkable changes in the
physiochemical properties of red mud. Apart from this, toxicity of the planted
species and other naturally grown herbaceous flora on the research plot of red
mud was also tested for their edibility properties and the results were found
encouraging.

The reclamation of red mud pond was essentially based on experimentation of the
vegetative treatment at nursery stage and scaling it up at the red mud pond site on
pilot basis. The entire approach thus, included two major phases, spanning over 5
years from 2002 to 2007. The first phase consisted of nursery experiments with
selected plant species grown under different set of treatments and the second
phase was to execute the nursery level results to the pilot stage implementation.

Results-
Survival of tree species

PAGE 21
Tree Height

Average density of plants and leguminous species

PAGE 22
Average Height of grass and leguminous species

PAGE 23
Changing Pattern in physical and chemical properties of the red
mud:

In order to analyze the change in properties of red mud three different samples
from different depths were taken for analysis (15 cm, 30 cm and 45 cm). The results
indicated positive changes in both physical and chemical properties of the red
mud. pH values declined, micronutrients and total bacterial population reported
noticeable increase which ultimately made the edaphic environment suitable to
grow the vegetation and sustain it. Sand contents increased while slit and clay
contents decreased at all the three depths.

Conclusion:

PAGE 24
Red mud possesses a severe threat to environment if not handled carefully. There
have been incidences like ajka alumina plant accident in Hungary and Norwegian
Hydro in Brazil where this highly alkaline waste has led to deaths and led to severe
economic losses. Poor drainage and water logging during the wet season and salt
scaling during the dry season are problems associated with red mud disposal. The
dust (predominantly Na2CO3) formed on the dry residue surface can pose a health
risk to humans or wildlife when dispersed by wind. Because of seepage of alkaline
liquor into the ground, there may be possible contamination of groundwater.

The treatment of red mud is the only alternative and one of the most important
ways of reducing the environmental impacts of alumina industry. In this, a more
sustainable method is neutralization of red mud and its adequate treatment to
allow its reuse, and this will certainly play an important part in bauxite residue
management due to increasing environmental awareness and regulation.
Bioremediation gives a further alternative and a more eco friendly and economical
one.

The main problem with red mud treatment or the main reason why this is a
problem is the market, A market which wants as cheap aluminium as possible. In
response to which, aluminium industries trying to reduce their cost. For which in
place of treating red mud, neutralizing it, they prefer to dump it. A loss of land,
loss of groundwater and a loss to environment results. The fact can never be
denied that market is important but on what cost. There should be a limit to it. A
fine boundary should be defined about where to stop seeing everything in
economical front and start seeing in eco-friendly front as it is not there in case of
red mud.

References:

PAGE 25
1) Dass A and Malhotra SK (1990) Lime-stabilized red mud bricks. Materials

and Structures 23: 252–255.

2) Mussels G., Sparkling G., Summers J (1993). ‘‘Bioremediation of bauxite residue

in Western Australia.’’- An initial feasibility study, No. 26. Alcoa of Australia ISSN
1320-4807.

3) Hamdy M.K. and Williams F.S. (2001). ‘‘Bacterial amelioration of bauxite residue
waste of industrial alumina plants.’’, J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotech. No.27, 228–233.

4) Krishna P., Reddy M. and Patani S.K(2005). ‘‘Aspergillustubingensis reduces the

pH of the bauxite residue (red mud) amended soils.”,Water, Air, and Soil Pollution
No. 167, 201 –209.

5) Rai s., WasewarK.L., Mukhopadhy J., YooC.K. and Uslu H. (2012).

“Neutralization and utilization of red mud for its better waste management” Arch.
Environ. Sci. no.06, 13-33

6) Thomson T, Ellwood D and Longyear M 1979. Change from homo to heterolactic

fermentation by Streptococcus lactis resulting from glucose limitation in anaerobic
chemostat cultures. Jouranal of bacteriology 138: 109-117

7) Williams F and Hamdy M 1982. Introduction of biological

activity in bauxite residue. Light Metals: 249-263.

8) Halsband E and Halsband I 1972. Chem Abstr. 76 663n.

9) Chauhan Suresh and Silori C.S. (2011). “An evaluation of successful reclamation
of bauxite residue through afforestation activities in south India.” The Indian
Forester Published on: 4 april, 2011.
10) Shengguo Xue1 & Feng Zhu1 “A review of the characterization and revegetation of
bauxite residues (Red mud)” 2013

11) Sneha Samal a,⁎, Ajoy K. Ray b, Amitava Bandopadhyay c “Proposal for resources,
utilization and processes of red mud in India — A review” 2015

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