Skimming

Stress: Accused of killing longevity

Many people seem older than they are. Research into the causes of premature aging has
shown that stress has a lot to do with it, because the body wears down much faster during
periods of crisis. The American Institute of Stress investigated this degenerative process and
concluded that most health problems are caused by stress.
Researchers at the Heidelberg University Hospital conducted a study in which they
subjected a young doctor to a job interview, which they made even more stressful by forcing
him to solve complex math problems for thirty minutes. Afterward, they took a blood sample.
What they discovered was that his antibodies had reacted to stress the same way they react
to pathogens, activating the proteins that trigger an immune response. The problem is that
this response not only neutralizes harmful agents, it also damages healthy cells, leading
them to age prematurely.
The University of California conducted a similar study, taking data and samples from thirty-
nine women who had high levels of stress due to the illness of one of their children and
comparing them to samples from women with healthy children and low levels of stress. They
found that stress promotes cellular aging by weakening cell structures known as telomeres,
which affect cellular regeneration and how our cells age. As the study revealed, the greater
the stress, the greater the degenerative effect on cells.

How does stress work?

These days, people live at a frantic pace and in a nearly constant state of competition. At
this fever pitch, stress is a natural response to the information being received by the body as
potentially dangerous or problematic.
Theoretically, this is a useful reaction, as it helps us survive in hostile surroundings. Over the
course of our evolution, we have used this response to deal with difficult situations and to
flee from predators.
The alarm that goes off in our head makes our neurons activate the pituitary gland, which
produces hormones that release corticotropin, which in turn circulates through the body via
the sympathetic nervous system. The adrenal gland is then triggered to release adrenaline
and cortisol. Adrenaline raises our respiratory rate and pulse and prepares our muscles for
action, getting the body ready to react to perceived danger, while cortisol increases the
release of dopamine and blood glucose, which is what gets us “charged up” and allows us to
face challenges.

Cave Dwellers Modern Humans

Were relaxed most of the time. Work most of the time and are alert to any and all
threats.
Felt stress only in very specific situations. Are online or waiting for notifications from their cell
phones twenty-four hours a day.
The threats were real: A predator could end their The brain associates the ping of a cell phone or an e-
lives at any moment. mail / social media notification with the threat of a
predator.
High doses of cortisol and adrenaline at moments of Low doses of cortisol flow constantly through the
danger kept the body healthy. body, with implications for a range of health
problems, including adrenal fatigue and chronic
fatigue syndrome.

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These processes are, in moderation, beneficial—they help us overcome challenges in our

daily lives. Nonetheless, the stress to which human beings are subjected today is clearly
harmful. Stress has a degenerative effect over time. A sustained state of emergency affects
the neurons associated with memory, as well as inhibiting the release of certain hormones,
the absence of which can cause depression. Its secondary effects include irritability,
insomnia, anxiety, and high blood pressure. As such, though challenges are good for
keeping mind and body active, we should adjust our high-stress lifestyles in order to avoid
the premature aging of our bodies.
Source:
Garcia, H. & Miralles, F. (2017). IKIGAI: The Japanese Secret to a Long and Happy Life. Translated by Heather Cleary. NY: Penguin
Books.

SKIMMING

The terms skimming and surveying are sometimes used interchangeably; however, I use
surveying to mean reading those parts of the text, such as the table of contents, text boxes,
and headings, which stand out from the main text. The main purpose of surveying is to
decide if a text is suitable for use. I use the term skimming to refer to reading selectively from
a text which may not have features such as headings and text boxes. The main purpose of
skimming is to get an overview of the content. Surveying and skimming can be done
together as they serve similar purposes. They allow you to: 

1. identify whether a text is relevant 

2. gain an overview of the author’s argument 
3. identify which parts of a text are most relevant
4. prepare yourself for intensive reading.

Skimming can be done in different ways, depending on the type and length of text. To skim a
single paragraph, begin by reading the first sentence, which is most likely to state the topic
of the paragraph.

Tips 
If you are not able to identify the main point of the paragraph from the first sentence, or if the
first sentence indicates that there is more important information coming, run your eyes
quickly over the middle part of the paragraph looking out for:

1. signposting expressions that signal key points such as ‘however’ and ‘furthermore’ 
2. adjectives and adverbs that indicate importance, such as ‘significant’, ‘main’ or
‘interestingly’.

If these are not present, read the last sentence in the paragraph, which often acts as a
conclusion. 

To skim a longer text which is divided into paragraphs, you normally read: 

the first paragraph (or introductory section) completely

1. the first sentence or line of each paragraph in the main body of the text
2. the last paragraph (or concluding section) completely.

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Skimming is getting the essence from reading material without reading all the words and
boils down to knowing what parts to read and what parts to pass by. Following are some tips
and techniques for recognizing what is important to read in the act of skimming.
Know what you want
Before you start skimming, ask yourself what you want to get from the book or article under
your nose. Think of two or three terms that describe what you want to know, and as you
skim, keep an eye out for those two or three terms. Aimlessly skimming with no particular
purpose can cause drowsiness, and eventually, sleep.
Read vertically as well as horizontally
When skimming, you move your eyes vertically as much as you move your eyes horizontally.
In other words, you move your eyes down the page as much as you move them from side to
side. Skimming is a bit like running down stairs. Yes, you should take one step at a time, and
running down stairs is reckless, but you also get there faster by running.
Think like the author
Every article, book, and Web page is written to make a point of some kind, and if you can
detect the author’s strategies for making his point, you can separate the important from the
unimportant material in the course of your reading. You can focus on the original, meaningful
material and skip over the material that just supports the author’s argument without
advancing it.
Detecting the author’s strategies requires you to put yourself in his place. Besides noticing
the material on the page, notice how he presents the material. See whether you can
recognize how the author places background material, secondary arguments, tangential
information, and just plain frippery.
Pre-read before you start skimming
Examine an article before you read it. By prereading an article before you skim, you can
pinpoint the parts of the article that require your undivided attention and the parts that you
can skip.
Try to detect the main idea in the introductory paragraphs
The introductory paragraphs usually express the main idea, argument, or goal of an article or
chapter. Read these paragraphs closely. They tell you what the author’s aim is, which can
help you decide early on whether the article or chapter is worth reading in detail.
Read the first sentence in each paragraph
The introductory sentence of each paragraph usually describes what follows in the
paragraph. When you skim, read the first sentence in each paragraph and then decide
whether the rest of the paragraph deserves a read. If it doesn’t, move on.
Don’t necessarily read complete sentences
When skimming, you don’t even have to read complete sentences. If the start of a sentence
holds no promise of the sentence giving you the information you want, skip to the next
sentence. Read the start of sentences with an eye to whether they will yield useful
information, and read them all the way through only if they appear to be useful at first glance.
Source: [Link]

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Exercise 

Imagine that you are researching the factors that influence a person’s choice of life partner
and that you have found the text below. The first and last paragraphs have been reproduced
along with the first sentences of the middle five paragraphs. Read the extracts and answer
questions 1–4. 

1. Is this article relevant to your research topic?

2. Do the authors present the theory in a favourable light?
3. Which part of the text might you use to complete the sentence: ‘According to social
exchange theory, one of the factors that may influence a person’s choice of life
partner is the extent to which they can exchange resources such as “….” ’? 
4. Which paragraph would you read completely if you wanted to know more about how
people decide whether a relationship is better or worse than other relationships they
have had in the past?

‘Is there a relationships marketplace out there, where we humans can satisfy our needs to
interact, be intimate, ‘love and be loved in return’? While social exchange theory is one of a
family of theories based on behaviourism, it is also an approach to studying interpersonal
relationships that incorporates interaction. Further, it deals directly with close relationships. 

If two people are to progress in a relationship it will be because they gain from the way that
they exchange benefits (i.e. rewards). […]

A relationship is an ongoing everyday activity. […]

Broadly speaking, resources exchanged include: goods, information, love, money, services
and status (Foa and Foa, 1975). […] 

Thibaut and Kelley’s (1959) The social psychology of groups was a major work that
underpinned much subsequent research. […]

A final important concept in social exchange theory is the part played by each person’s
comparison level or CL – a standard against which all of one’s relationships are judged. […] 

Does exchange theory have a future? In summary, the answer to this question is yes. A
strong feature of exchange theory is that it accommodates variations in relationships,
including:

1. differences between people in how they perceive rewards and costs (you might think
that free advice from your partner is rewarding, others might not); 
2. differences within the person based on varying CLs, both over time and across
different contexts (I like companionship, but I prefer to shop for clothes alone). 

The theory is frequently used. For example, Rusbult has shown how investment includes the
way that rewards, costs and CLs are related to both satisfaction and commitment in a
relationship (Rusbult, Martz & Agnew, 1998).’ 

Source: Extracts from Vaughan & Hogg, Psychology © 2011 Pearson Australia pp 544–545, 537–538, 498.

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