2

“ Any one can become Angry – that is easy. But to be angry with
the right person, to the right degree, at the right time, for the right
purpose, and in the right way – this is not easy”
Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
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MANAGING FLOW

Warehousing
Transport
Fleet management
Procurement
Import and export
The idea of a supply chain highlights the structure of a chain.

A chain consists of links that are connected together. If we place a chain under
pressure the chain will break at its weakest point.

In other words a supply chain is as strong as its weakest link.

Within each of the operational activities we will have to manage the activities of
people to ensure flow.

For many, supply chains are about trucks, ships and warehouses, but the secret of
success rests with our ability to get things done through people.
Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
27/06/17
6
Reality dictates that all the supply chain activity requires money to fund operations. Whilst
the
focus on cost may vary at different times, as a manager we will have to demonstrate
transparency in our actions to ensure financial integrity.
Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
27/06/17
7

• Managing a flow of goods and materials from the suppliers towards the beneficiaries
• Managing the flow of information both up and down the supply chain.

supply chain response time Imagine “stapling” yourself to a product at the supply end and staying
with it all the way through the journey until you reach the beneficiary. During this journey three
things could happen to you.

moved from one place to another being processed (eg Repacking)

could be held as inventory (multiple times)
Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
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8

If we add all these times together, moving time plus processing

time plus storing time it gives us the overall time to travel
through the supply chain. This is called the supply chain response
time.

In a supply chain there is also a second type of time that is

important. This is the time from when it is identified that a
beneficiary needs a product until they receive it. Let’s call this the
beneficiary delivery time. This time will in fact consist of some
information time and some movement time.
Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
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Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
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Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
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Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
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The solution to this situation is to hold stock at a point in the supply chain that enables us to deliver the goods
within the delivery time. In order to have the stock available we will have to forecast the requirement, or
anticipate it. Sometimes the difference between the supply chain response time and the beneficiary delivery
time is called the uncertainty gap and we have to produce forecasts for the duration of this time. In many
cases this uncertainty gap could be quite long creating difficulties in producing a forecast that is accurate.

If our forecast is wrong then the result will either be:

• Excess stock as a result of the forecast being greater than the actual requirement
• Shortages as a result of the forecast being lower than the actual requirement.
The stock point is often referred to as the decoupling point because it decouples the supply part of the supply
chain for the demand part.
Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
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Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
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14
PUSH AND PULL ACTIVITY

In the early stages of a disaster the whole supply chain consists of push activity.
Products may have been obtained from suppliers and placed into emergency
stocks based upon forecasted requirements. They will then be pushed into the
impacted areas and onwards to the beneficiaries. The risk in this situation is
that we push the wrong goods or wrong quantities down the supply chain with
resultant shortages or blockages.

As the disaster response progresses we will begin to get more information

about what is required. The assessment teams will generate a further push of
products into the receiving warehouse. This assessment is a type of forecast, so
again it is possible that the goods being pushed may not be the required ones.
Gradually the logistician will be able to support the programme decision to
move the supply chain into a new structure consisting of push and pull activity.
Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
27/06/17
15

The push activity comes from the supply side, but if we can establish effective
communication the movement out of the receiving warehouse can be based upon pull.
This stage of operations is named call forward. Programme managers call forward goods
from stock to satisfy the beneficiary needs.

As the operation progresses further and more reliable information becomes available it
will be possible to convert the supply chain completely to pull. At this stage the request
for goods is based upon specific requirements which are then processed through the
supply chain and once the goods are received they are moved straight through to where
they are required without holding them in stock.
Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
27/06/17
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Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
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Dr Shibu K Mani, JTCDM ([email protected])
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supply chain configurations:

•Preparedness “what-ifs”
•Push
•Call Forward
•Pull
Lecture Note : Logistics (Dr Shibu K Mani, [email protected])

Session 1 Introducing Logistics and the Supply Chain

Objectives

 To help participants understand that the problems and issues within the field of

humanitarian logistics are invariably complex and require clear reasoning and analysis

in order to derive an appropriate course of action.

 To explain the functions of the supply chain systems in the field of humanitarian

logistics.

 To explain management and operations in the field of humanitarian logistics.

Humanitarian Space

Figure 1 gives a visual interpretation of this concept, where we refer to the area within the triangle

as the humanitarian space. Note that the principles form an equilateral. Maintaining its balance is

what agencies strive for. Any compromise on a principle would affect the size and shape of the

triangle, affecting the outcome of the crisis and the agencies’ ability to operate.

Fig 1 Humanitarian space and Principles

DEFINING “HUMANITARIAN” While there are many interpretations of what is or could be considered

to be a humanitarian action, three widely accepted principles – humanity, neutrality, and impartiality

– must be present to constitute a humanitarian operation. These principles were developed by Henry

Dunant after the battle of Solferino (1859), initially to protect the rights of soldiers. In 1864 they

became part of the Geneva Convention, and in 1875 were the seeds for the Red Cross Movement.

These principles should be observed by humanitarians in their decision-making. Widely shared by

most organizations, they form part of today’s policy that sets the parameters for action, and delineates

the roles of agencies.

Humanity :

This implies that human suffering should be relieved wherever found. It is the very reason why

humanitarian organizations are deployed. Keeping in mind that in order to relieve suffering,

humanitarian assistance brings scarce resources into societies affected by disaster and often

experiencing social change, where the process of change itself often involves conflict. One challenge

for agencies is to identify and access groups in need. In the Balkans, the UNHCR understood the needs

in the region and had resources there to help, but there were problems of access due to security and

fighting which restricted its ability to serve victims equitably.

Neutrality

This implies that relief should be provided without bias or affiliation to a party in the conflict. On the

basis of neutrality, agencies may choose not to participate in local issues if there is an eminent risk of

getting trapped by political agendas.

Impartiality

This indicates that assistance should be provided without discrimination and with priority given to the

most urgent needs. Impartiality in operations can be evaluated more precisely in terms of non-
discrimination between groups, proportionality in relation to need, and non-subjective recognition of

needs as identified by the community

Introducing Logistics and Supply Chains

According to international databases, the number of people affected by natural disasters the

world over is increasing steeply and the frequency of natural disasters has also increased. In

the discipline of disaster management, based on experiences in the field of operations

(particularly in the relief phase), many enabling topics or themes have been emerging of late.

One such area of interest is Humanitarian Logistics.

Humanitarian Logistics focuses on the demand and supply required to meet the needs of

disaster-affected people, through which suffering is alleviated and mortalities are avoided.

When the question “What is logistics?” was posed in the middle of the 20th century, the answer

was found by referring to a 1917 book, and it went like this: “It is about mobilizing means for

the conduct of military action.” Today, the term has come to be used in the civilian context,

particularly in the business world, in relation to improving operations and the effectiveness of

the economy. One widely-used current definition of logistics is: The process of planning,

implementing, and controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow and storage of raw materials,

in-process inventory, finished goods, and related information flow from point of origin to point

of consumption for the purpose of conforming to customer requirements. Further down the

timeline, the term logistics has also come into disaster response and the definition is evolving

still. However, even experts have found it increasingly difficult to define the term precisely.

Most agree that it would depend on how we define the context in which we are operating.

In the 1980’s, another question had been raised: “What exactly is supply chain management

(SCM) and how is it different from logistics management?” The review of literature shows that

some people use the terms synonymously, whereas others consider SCM as broader than
logistics management. One definition of SCM is that it is ‘the integration of business processes

from end user through original suppliers that provides products, services and information that

add value for customers’. The more convincing definition of the supply chain emerging,

however, could be: “A network of organizations that are involved, through upstream (i.e.,

supply sources) and downstream (i.e., distribution channels) linkages, in the different

processes and activities that produce value in the form of products and services in the hands

of ultimate consumers.”

When we dealt with natural hazards in Module 2 of this course, the take-away message was:

 The earth system is dynamic.

 Small changes to it can lead to larger consequences and they may not be within the

framework of linearity.

 The non-linearity is directly linked with the uncertainty.

So dealing with uncertainties is increasing the concern of disaster SCM and the uncertainties

are making the distribution invariably complex.

Getting different actors to work together by sharing processes and distribution channels

requires a vision that goes beyond mere logistics. It requires an integrated SCM approach to

effectively coordinate inter-agency performance, eliminate redundancies, and maximize

efficiencies. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, we saw an evolution from logistics as an activity

(i.e., bringing products from point A to point B) to supply chain management as a necessary

function in integrating complex global networks of design, procurement, manufacturing,

distribution and sale. Like the private sector, the personnel/organizations involved in relief

operations have had to look beyond basic logistics and use the supply chain management

approach to coordinate the different players involved in a relief operation. For convenience, in
these sessions we will use the term Humanitarian Logistics which will broadly include supply

chain concepts as well.

Science, technology, and human rights intersect in a variety of important ways that have

significant implications for both the scientific enterprise as well as society’s ability to benefit

and to be protected from any harmful practices in research, development and their applications.

All people have the right to “enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its applications.”

While we may be gradually moving towards an understanding of the concept of a right to enjoy

the benefits of scientific progress and its applications, the question of how the right should be

implemented in practice, still remains unanswered.

The word ‘right’ is often used in SCM (in association with time, people, place, quantity, quality

and so on). At this point, it would be useful to summarise the key aspects of the humanitarian

charter and minimum standards in disaster response to enable us to move beyond the narrower

sense of ‘right’ to a broader sense (mentioned in the previous paragraph). The SPHERE project

is looking into sectors and their integration for proper response (Water and Sanitation, Food

and Nutrition, Shelter and Health). SPHERE was always supposed to do two things: firstly, to

improve the quality of humanitarian action and secondly, to move it from being a supply chain

assistance-dominated endeavour to a movement concerned with the rights and dignity of those

caught up in war and disaster. The project has clearly indicated what SPHERE is not:

• SPHERE was never intended to stand alone.

• Without access to victims, SPHERE is impotent.

• Without agency concern for people’s rights and dignity, SPHERE is powerless.

• Without effective agency recruiting, training, SPHERE is weak.

• SPHERE is as good as its users make it.

The points just above and the keywords mentioned earlier (such as uncertainty), should allow

us to start understanding the complexity associated with the relief supply chain. The faster we

grasp the idea of complexity, the easier it will be to deal with the issues associated with

distribution and coordination.

Let us have a mission statement in our mind -- something like this: “To develop an

understanding of the significance of supply chain management and logistics to achieve effective

humanitarian operations.”

Essential readings

Sen, R. and Chakrabarti, S. (2008). Disaster, nonlinearity and chaos: An analysis. Current

Science 94 (5): 644-647.

Walker, P. and Purdin, S (2004). Birthing Sphere. Disasters 28(2): 100-111.

Whybark, D. (2007). Issues in managing disaster relief inventories. Int.J.Production

Economics: 108: 228-235.

Web resource:

Sphere hand book: (Available at: http://www.sphereproject.org/resources/download-

publications/?search=1&keywords=&language=English&category=22&subcat-

22=23&subcat-29=0&subcat-31=0&subcat-35=0/)

AAAS Science and Human Rights Coalition (Available at:

http://srhrl.aaas.org/coalition/article15/index.shtml

Suggested Readings:
Khan, Omera (Editor); Zsidisin, George A. (Editor) (2011). Handbook for Supply Chain Risk

Management. Ross Publishing Inc., p 121.

Klaus, P. (2010). Logistics as a science of networks and flows. Logist.Res: 2:55-56.

Session 2: Supply Chain Fundamentals

While the impact of disasters is increasing, the funding to respond to disasters does not seem

to be increasing at the same rate. The operating conditions faced by humanitarian logistics are

quite complex. They include supply and demand uncertainty, high decentralization, and

multiple parties with different objectives. In this context, the need for an efficient allocation of

scarce resources is rapidly becoming one of the main priorities of humanitarian organizations.
Operations Research (OR), a well-established discipline which deals with the allocation of

scarce resources, offers the tools to support humanitarian supply chains to improve their relief

and development operations. Humanitarian logistics is very different from commercial and

military logistics. It must deal with situations where both demand and supply are unknown and

dynamic. Humanitarian logistics must balance equity and efficiency, yet it is hard to measure

impact. In addition to unknown demand and supply, humanitarian supply chains face high

uncertainties related to available resources. Low volunteer skills, high rotation of personnel,

and poor local infrastructure add to the challenging operating conditions of humanitarian

supply chains.

The supply chain process integrates, coordinates and controls the movement of materials,

goods and related information from suppliers and donors to meet beneficiary requirements in

a timely manner. At the heart of this process is the capability to manage flow, both of goods

and information. The operational activities involved are:

 Warehousing

 Transport

 Fleet Management

 Procurement

 Import and Export.

The idea of a supply chain highlights the structure of a chain. A chain consists of inter-

connected links. If we place a chain under pressure, the chain will break at its weakest point.

In other words, a supply chain is only as strong as its weakest link. For many, supply chains

are about trucks, ships and warehouses, but the secret of success rests with our ability to get
things done through people. Within each of the operational activities, we will have to manage

the activities of people to ensure flow.

The following figure (Fig.1) depicts a typical relief supply chain:

Fig. 1. Typical relief supply chain (Source: Wassenhove, and Martinez, 2012)

Understanding the structure of the supply chain is important. The connecting processes

involved between supply and demand broadly include:

 Managing a flow of goods and materials from the suppliers towards the beneficiaries.

 Managing the flow of information both up and down the supply chain.

Supply chain flows and pillars

The five B’s of disaster supply chain flows (Fig. 2) need to be supported by a coherent business

model and an appropriate design of the system executing the flows from end to end. Whereas

a coherent business model is hard enough to define for commercial businesses, it is even more

difficult for humanitarian organizations to figure out what exactly the goal is. One can certainly
formulate general objectives like ‘saving lives’ or ‘helping people in need’, but how exactly

does one measure the success of a humanitarian intervention? Businesses are driven by

customers (demand), while humanitarian organizations are mostly driven by donors (supply).

Beneficiaries (customers) have very little power. This lack of customer pressure makes it

harder for humanitarian organizations to pursue their objectives (e.g., donors or beneficiaries?).

There are three basic design pillars to a supply chain as shown in the same figure upon which

the flows rest:

Fig. 2. Supply chain flows and pillars. (Source: Tomasini and Wassenhove, , 2009)

Processes and Product Structures: The conceptual design of products and processes has a large

impact on supply chain performance potential. For instance, modularity enables the response

to be adaptable to the specific needs of the environment. Modularity can apply to value-added

processes such as logistics, as well as to new products or services.

Organizational Structures: Decisions on how the organization is structured – for example, who

gets what information, who decides on what -- and how people are evaluated and rewarded,

also have a huge impact on supply chain performance. These flows have time embedded within

them. If designed properly, organizational structures enable the response to be aligned among
the different stakeholders. Organizational structures range from total vertical integration to

networked companies and encompass a range of relationships to develop the necessary trust

over time. Performance management and reward schemes are critical in influencing the

behaviour of the system and can act as the glue that keeps the whole value system together.

Technologies: Technologies, in particular information and communications technologies, can

be a powerful lubricant for supply chains. Appropriate information systems enable the response

to be more agile -- that is capable of adjusting itself to dynamic changes in the environment as

the disaster develops.

Having looked at the design pillars, it’s time now to get into the conditions and their linkages

with respective pillars. That is, having a supply chain which is adaptable, agile and aligned --

a so-called Triple-A supply chain.

Agility is the ability to quickly respond to short-term changes in demand or supply and to handle

external disruptions. This is the very nature of humanitarian supply chains where the time

cycles are very short, new and unprecedented demands occur frequently and external factors

place physical, if not political or financial, constraints on the system.

Adaptability is the ability to adjust the supply chain design to meet the structural shifts in

markets and modify supply network strategies, products and technologies. As disasters, by

definition, create flux within societies, structural and physical shifts are expected and desired

for rehabilitation to start. Therefore humanitarian supply chains are designed to be, above all,

adaptable to the environments in which they operate.

Alignment creates conditions for better performance and requires exchanging information with

all relevant partners (vendors to consumers). It also defines the responsibilities of all

stakeholders to create a sense of unity and identity, including aligned incentives. This presents
the biggest challenge for any humanitarian supply chain -- there is opportunity, here, to learn

from the experiences of the private sector.

Supply chain response time

The flows of material, services and information have time embedded within them. The

processes involved for goods to flow through the entire chain from the supply to the demand

side are:

 Movement from one place to another.

 Processing (e.g. Repacking).

 Holding as inventory (multiple times).

If we add all these times together -- moving time plus processing time plus storing time -- it

gives us the overall time required to travel through the supply chain. This is called the ‘Supply

Chain Response Time’.

Beneficiary delivery time

In a supply chain, there is also a second type of time that is important. This is the time from

when it is identified that a beneficiary needs a product until they receive it. Let’s call this the

Beneficiary Delivery Time. This time will, in fact, consist of some information time and some

movement time. The movement time that is contained within the Beneficiary Delivery Time is

the final part of the Supply Chain Response Time. The information time, however, is not part

of the Supply Chain Response Time and can be undertaken while the product is being stored,

moved or processed.

There is an important relationship between the Supply Chain Response Time and the

Beneficiary Delivery Time. If the Beneficiary Delivery Time is equal to or greater than the

Supply Chain Response Time, we can wait for the request for the product, order it from the
supplier, move it through the supply chain and deliver it without having to hold stock at any

point. When the Beneficiary Delivery Time is shorter than the Supply Chain Response Time,

we would not be able to wait for the request for goods from the beneficiary in order to process

it and move it through the supply chain quickly enough for the goods to arrive by the desired

time. The solution to this situation is to hold stock at a point in the supply chain that enables us

to deliver the goods within the delivery time. In order to have the stock available, we will have

to forecast or anticipate the requirement. Sometimes the difference between the Supply Chain

Response Time and the Beneficiary Delivery Time is called the ‘uncertainty gap’ and we have

to produce forecasts for the duration of this time. In many cases, it is difficult to accurately

estimate or forecast this uncertainty gap. If our forecast is wrong, then the result will either be:

 Excess stock as a result of the forecast being greater than the actual requirement.

 Shortages as a result of the forecast being lower than the actual requirement.

The stock point is often referred to as the ‘decoupling point’ because it decouples the supply

part of the supply chain for the demand part.

Push and pull activity

In the early stages of a disaster, the whole supply chain consists of Push activity. Products may

have been obtained from suppliers and placed into emergency stocks based upon forecast

requirements. They will then be pushed into the impacted areas and onwards to the

beneficiaries. The risk in this situation is that we push the wrong goods or wrong quantities

down the supply chain with resultant shortages or blockages.

As the disaster response progresses, we will begin to get more information about what is

required. The assessment teams will generate a further push of products into the receiving
warehouse. This assessment is a type of forecast, so again it is possible that the goods being

pushed may not be the required ones. Gradually, the logistician will be able to support the

programme decision to move the supply chain into a new structure consisting of Push and Pull

activity.

The Push activity comes from the supply side but if we can establish effective communication,

the movement out of the receiving warehouse can be based upon Pull. This stage of operations

is named ‘call forward’. Programme managers call forward goods from stock to satisfy the

beneficiary needs.

As the operation progresses further and more reliable information becomes available, it will be

possible to convert the supply chain completely to Pull. At this stage, the request for goods is

based upon specific requirements which are then processed through the supply chain. Once the

goods are received, they are moved straight through to where they are required, without holding

them in stock.

The supply chain configurations can be grouped in to the following categories along with their

sub-components:

 Preparedness

o Port and airport location, access and capacities.

o Transport options.

o Sites that could be used for warehouses.

o Availability of supplies and suppliers.

o Communication infrastructure.

o Availability of means of transport.

 Push

o The immediate and potential future needs of the beneficiaries.

o A review of the supply chain plans developed as part of supply chain

preparedness, and/or a supply chain assessment. This will include:

1. Condition and capacity of facilities, e.g. airports and ports.

2. Conditions of potential warehouse facilities.

3. Condition of road, rail, and river networks.

4. Availability of usable vehicles.

5. Condition of power supplies.

6. Security situation.

 Pull

o In this configuration, emphasis is placed on finding out precisely what

beneficiaries need and then obtaining them in a timely manner that

allows rapid transit through the supply chain. A cautionary note is

important at this stage. Whilst we have explored the benefits of moving

to a Pull configuration, if this is undertaken too soon, it is likely to be

counterproductive. Only when the circumstances are right can the

programme make this decision. The logistician has an important role in

providing inputs to the decision and supporting the smooth transition.

o The Pull configuration requires a short Supply Chain Response Time,

so it is likely that more goods will be sourced locally to reduce transit

 times. This will, of course, alter the configuration of your supply

pipeline.

 Call forward configuration

o The state of your pipeline of supply.

o The other actors in the field.

o Security issues.

o The market for resources and local supply of goods.

o Availability of resources.

o The front lines, geographical areas of need and any constraints that may

prevent the movement of goods through sensitive areas.

This information will be the result of your relationship-building activity and your ability to

build information lines with the local community.

The plan for the humanitarian aid supply chain operation will contain actions or processes that

need to be sequenced. The timing of these decisions will therefore be important. For example,

the acquisition of transport will be critical in the distribution of goods but it may take some

time for this to be available and will determine when the operation can commence. You will

need to regularly review these important items to check that they are on schedule. The

following diagram (Fig. 3) depicts the components, drivers and their linkages:
 Fig. 3 Integration of topics to manage the flow in a supply chain. (Source: Fritz

Institute)

The logistics operations of IFRC can be seen within the framework given below (Fig.

4):

Fig. 4 Supply chain system framework of IFRC fort the humanitarian logistics operations

(Source: IFRC FEDNET)

Bibliography:

Fritz Institute (u.d): Lecture note on Managing Flow.

Tomasini, R. and Wassenhove, L.V. (2009). Humanitarian Logistics. INSEAD business press.

Wassenhove, L.V. and Martinez, A.J.P (2012). Using OR to adapt supply chain management

best practices to humanitarian logistics. International Transactions in Operational Research:

19 (1-2): 307–322.
Session 3 Coordination

Most existing supply chain research focuses on managing and/or optimizing the commercial

supply of goods and services. Although the humanitarian relief supply process is an important

domain for supply chain management, it has received little attention.

The unpredictability of global emergencies (for example, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,

floods) and the vital necessity of adequate and timely delivery, make material flow

management in the relief chain a unique and challenging task. Its ultimate objective is to

deliver the correct amount or number of people, goods and monetary resources to locations

worldwide in a timely manner (Beamon, 2004).

Effective distribution depends on relief chain structures, distribution network configuration,

inventory control, disaster assessment, cooperation and coordination, procurement

uncertainties and limitations and performance measurement.

Life cycle of a relief mission

The following figure illustrates the typical relief mission life cycle and relative resource

requirements. We can see that the life cycle has four distinct phases:

(1) Assessment: Minimal resources are required to identify what is needed, based on disaster

characteristics.

(2) Deployment: Resource requirements ramp up to meet a need.

(3) Sustainment: Operations are sustained for a period of time.

(4) Reconfiguration: Operations are reduced, then terminated.

Fig.1 Disaster relief mission cycle (Beamon, 2004)

Let us consider one important aspect here -- coordination. Humanitarian operations

take shape at different levels. The same holds true for coordination. It can take place at three

levels:

 International level: This includes the UN Security Council, national governments,

headquarters of the participating agencies, and their respective donors.

 National level: This includes local authorities, military, civil society and the local

representatives of the agencies and NGOs.

 Field level: This includes humanitarian field staff and beneficiaries.

Disaster life cycle and coordination

The following figure shows the disaster life cycle with the coordination curve incorporated

and with specific terminologies linked to the logistics operations. The stages are:

(Task Intensity)
(1) Ramp Up

(2) Sustain

(3) Ramp Down

Each stage demands a different type of coordination, based on the objectives and stakeholders

involved. (Coordination Intensity).

Fig. 2 Coordination relief life cycle (Tomasini and Wassenhove, 2009)

In the Ramp Up stage, time is critical and there is a pressing need to remove the bottlenecks

so that the humanitarian community can get to the scene of the disaster quickly. The Sustain

stage of the intervention describes a consensus environment that requires individual agencies

to sign off on acceptable coordination solutions. When organizations have access to

compatible or shared communications equipment, liaison and inter-agency meetings and pre-

mission assessments, we call this ‘coordination by consensus’. For example, as the

bottlenecks are cleared and all humanitarian organizations are operational, their focus will

shift to fulfilling their own specific mandate (for example, foodstuffs, health and water), and
ensuring a sustained operation. The Ramp Down stage (light coordination) involves only the

collection and dissemination of information through frequent contact between the different

actors. In the Ramp Down phase, when each individual agency is focused on managing the

handover and exit, coordination will happen only occasionally and, in a sense, by default.

Matching the correct type of coordination to the right stage in the life cycle will enable

agencies to:

 Allocate resources such as money and skilled professionals. The latter is particularly

important because the skills needed differ depending on the stage of the life cycle.

 Identify the coordination objectives for each stage and define the performance

measurements to be used. Coordination objectives change from one stage to another,

depending on the intensity of the task. For example, how should coordinators be

evaluated as intensity diminishes through the life cycle? Measurements could include

how well they maintain the status quo or how effective they were in implementing the

exit strategy.

 Decide on the extent of their involvement. Different teams of skilled specialists are

needed at different stages of the disaster.

 Adopt the most efficient approach to implement and monitor the coordination style.

For example, some people are able to analyse situations quickly and persuade others

to cooperate with new solutions; others may be better at implementing procedures; or

perhaps they are good at drawing operations to a close.

Successful emergency coordination is a mix of different styles (command, consensus,

default) for the different stages (Ramp Up, Sustain, and Ramp Down) of the disaster life

cycle and needs to happen at different levels (international, national, and field).
Bibliography:

Beamon, B.M. (2004). Humanitarian Relief Chains: Issues and Challenges. Proceedings of

the 34th International Conference on Computers and Industrial Engineering, San Francisco,

CA, USA.

Tomasini, R. and Wassenhove, L.V. (2009). Humanitarian Logistics. INSEAD business

press.(Chapter 4).