Literature: Introduction To English Literature By: Jehan Sher
Literature: Introduction To English Literature By: Jehan Sher
Literature
The term or word literature has been derived from Latin word ‘literatis’ which has been
formed from ‘littera’ which means letter.
Oxford Advance Learner Dictionary gives four meaning:
1- At the writing of a country or a period.
2- Books dealing with special subject like World War II, travel poultry forming.
3- Printed material describing or advertising something e.g. pamphlets, literature about
TV, refrigeration, machine.
4- The written books value as work of art. (drama, fiction, essay, poetry, biography,
contrasted, with technical books and journalism)
In Dictionary of Literary Terms A.F Scott define literature as writing in verse or prose of
acknowledged excellence whose value lies in their intense, personal expression of life
literature, is an artistic expression of thought, replete with feeling imagination.
According to Emerson it is a record of the thoughts. To the classical writer, it is the
criticism of life. To romantic it is the expression of emotion.
Literature is different from and higher in the other branches of learning: In sense, it
is the whole while most of the other major branches of learning deal with parts of what
literature deals with science deal with what is philosophy deals with ought to be or should
be. History deal with what has been, literature deals with all these, like science it deals with
what is i.e. it deals with the truth of literature is a higher truth, being ideal like history it with
what has been, but also continue it with ‘what should have been’ what thought to have
been and thus its complements history like philosophy it deal with what should or taught to
be, but by combining it with what is and what has been complements philosophy, its subject
is life. Painting and sculpture, literature is an art of creation with the help of imagination like
journalism it informs communication and delights. Like Sociology, it is the study of society.
Like Anthropology, it is the study of man. Like Economics and Political Science, literature
also service humanly like theology, literature has through mysticism, help us it’s understand
the creator and to establish relationship between the creator and the creature. Again a
religious reformer, a literary reformer, like Dickens also wants to reform society by attacking
social events like psychology, literature also deals with human psychology. So we see that
literature enjoys on established superiority over all the other branches of learning both
through its similarities and dissimilarities with these branches of learning. It is not a branch
of fine art but a branch of useful arts and useful degree with Plato’s statement that it’s not a
useful art and agrees with Wordsworth who says that it (particularly poetry) is the breath
and finer spirit of all learning.
The major qualities or characteristics of literature follow, Firstly, literature has artistic
quality. It is an expression of life, the expression of some truth. Secondly it is suggestive. It
doesn’t say things but suggest them it appeals to our emotions and imagination rather than
intellect. Thirdly it is permanent and universal. It’s for all time and all place. Its appeal is not
for single age or for a single place, but for everyone, everywhere and in every age.
Literature is basically of two types: Classical and Romantic. The word classical is a
form of ‘classic’ which has been derived from the Latin ‘classicus’. Roman society was
divided into five classes and the uppermost class was named ‘classicus’ which means the
The Romantic is taken from ‘Romance’ which was the name given to a highly
fantastic story popular in the bordering area of span. They were fantastic, with rural setting
and so nature surroundings, dealing with love and imagination. From there the name was
borrowed and given to the type of literature which shows imagination, natural description,
love, strangeness is added to beauty, love for the past, subjectivity, expression of emotion
etc.
Literature has various forms. These forms are either narrative: The forms of stories,
descriptive, i.e. in the form of dramas or having dramatic elements. The forms of literature
are poetry, drama, novel, essay, criticism and biography. All these literary form are, in turn,
sub divided into categories and forms and thus a network of literary forms is established.
They are shown by the following chart:
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Composed By: Irfanullah 2 M.A English (previous)
Introduction to English literature by: Jehan Sher
Poetry
It’s derived from the Greek word ‘poetria’ means ‘making’ ‘poetes’ means the maker or the
one who makes.
According to Oxford Advance Learner Dictionary, its means the quality of producing
feelings. But keeping the Greek source of the word in view, we can say that poetry is the art
of creating something ideal and so higher because it’s the result of feelings, emotion and
imagination which are superior human qualities.
Poetry has been defines variously. Dr. Johnson; it’s the metrical composition. Lord
Macaulay; it’s the art of doing by means of words what a painter does by means of colours.
Carlyle; its musical thought. Shelley, it’s the expression of emotions. Coleridge, it’s the best
words in best order. Wordsworth; it’s the breath and fine spirit of all learning, to him again,
it’s the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings recollected in tranquility. William Hazlitt;
it’s the language of imagination and passion. Mathew Arnold; it’s the criticism of life.
I define it; the expression of one’s ideas, the narration of events or the views about
something or someone in poetic language.
The essential of poetry are imagination, expression of emotions, meter, rhythm,
diction, figure of speech and human appeal along with other things.
Poetry enjoys a distinguished position in the forms of literature. It can be
distinguished from other form of literature in the following ways:
1- Poetry is different from drama in its nature as well as the use of language. Drama is
objective, while poetry is subjective or objective. The language of drama may be
either that of poetry or of prose while poetry must be poetic. Then in drama there is
only action and no narration whereas it’s not so in poetry.
2- Poetry is different from novel in its nature as well as the use of language. Like novel,
there may be a story, if it’s in the narrative form. Again, like novel it’s also imaginary
and an art of creation. But unlike novel it may be either short or long, whereas novel
must be necessarily long.
3- Poetry is different from criticism, whereas the function of criticism is to comment
upon the function of poetry is to create. It’s invention, whereas criticism is exploring.
Literature is basically of two types: Classical and Romantic. The word classical is a
form of ‘classic’ which has been derived from the Latin ‘classicus’. Roman society was
divided into five classes and the uppermost class was named ‘classicus’ which means the
best. From there the name was taken and appealed to the type of literature, which is for the
sake of life, which shows high seriousness, in which the rules laid by the classical rules of
ancient master are followed, in which there is a greater importance to head than heart and
which is realistic, e.g. poetry of Milton, Pope, Dryden, T.S Eliot etc. Classical has the second
meaning as well and it also refers to the greatest artist, e.g. Shakespeare is an English
classic, though one of the father of romanticism in English literature.
The Romantic is taken from ‘Romance’ which was the name given to a highly
fantastic story popular in the bordering area of span. They were fantastic, with rural setting
and so nature surroundings, dealing with love and imagination. From there the name was
borrowed and given to the type of literature which shows imagination, natural description,
love, strangeness is added to beauty, love for the past, subjectivity, expression of emotion,
violation of classical rules, humanism, idealism, revolutionary note, medievalism, Hellenism,
1) Subjective poetry
1- Lyric: It’s derived from the Greek ‘lurikos’ means singing to a lyre. Originally the
term referred to a song sung with the music of a lyre. Today it means a short poem directly
expressing. The poet’s own thoughts and emotions. Ballad, ode, elegy, and sonnet are the
special forms of lyric. According to A.F Scott, it’s the short poem possessing musicality, light
tone, beauty of words and ideas, decorative devices, light rain, simplicity and expression of
emotion. If philosophy enters a lyric it become unphilosophycal or less philosophical. But
what we said above is not totally applicable, to the Romantic lyric, e.g. romantic poets lyrics
are much difference due to the change of the change that lyric along with many other poetic
forms, undertook. In the age of revival, lyric become more lyrical philosophy in it also
2- Sonnet: The word ‘sonnet’ has been derived from the Italian ‘sonetto’ a
dominative of ‘suono’ which means sound. The word ‘suono’ itself has been derived from
the Latin ‘sonus’.
Oxford Advance Lerner Dictionary explains it by standing that it is a kind of poem
containing 14 lines, each of ten syllables, and with a formal pattern of rhymes. Longman
companion to English literature defines it as a short poem of 14 lines and a rhyme scheme
restricted by one or other of a variety of principle. According to Goodman, it’s a form of lyric
and of all the form of lyric it’s the most carefully ordered and bound by definite and rigid
rules.
Sonnet has two forms: Italian and English. The Italian from is also known as the as
Petrarchan sonnet. It comprises an octane or the part of eight lines and a sestet or the part
of six lines. In most of the eases there are different themes in the octane and sestet which
are separated by caesura, the stop in the 8th line. The rhyme scheme of such a sonnet is
abba, abba, cde, cde. The name Petrarchan is given to this form of sonnet because it was
invented by Petrarch, the Italian poet who addressed his sonnets to his beloved, Laura.
The English form of sonnet is also called Shakespearean sonnets, because it reached
its maturity in the hands of Shakespeare who composed such sonnets (154 in numbers) in
which a greater number have been address to the fair youth and a few to the dark lady.
Such a sonnet comprises three quatrains and a couplet at the end. The theme is often
presented in the couplet. This form was introduced into English poetry by Earl of Surrey,
before Shakespeare but its reached maturity in the hand of Shakespeare.
As for the origin and development of sonnet, we have the earliest example of this
poetic form in, Europe in the 13th century. But it didn’t reach to England in the 16th century.
The early sonneteers in English are Thomas Wyatt, Henry Howard, and the Earl of
Surrey. Wyatt revived the Italian or Petrarchan form of sonnets which The Earl of Surrey
incented the English or Shakespearean form. In the sonnets of Surrey, we see the note of
sorrow due to his love for Elizabeth Fitzgerald or Geraldine, as he calls her.
In the Elizabeth age, the proper sonnet was revived by Sidney in his “Astrophel and
Estella” In his sonnets we see his love for Penelope, the wife of Lord Rich by then “Astrophel
and Estella” is his sonnet sequence, i.e. collection of sonnets.
After Sidney we have Spencer with his sonnet sequence tilled “Amoretti” it is a
collection of 88 sonnets. They show his love for Elizabeth Boyle, his beloved whom he
married afterwards. Then there have 154 sonnets of Shakespeare, addressed to the fair
4- Elegy: It has been derived from the Greek word ‘elegeia’ which is formed
‘elegos’, meaning a mournful poem.
According to Oxford Dictionary, its means a poem or song of sorrow, especially for
the dead. A.F Scot in his dictionary of literary terms defines elegy is a song of lamentation
over someone. Longman Companion, elegy is usually taken to be a poetic lament for one
who has died, or at least a grave, reflective poem. Longman Companion to English literature
tells us that in ancient Greek and Latin poetry, elegy followed a particular meter pattern and
had no necessary connection with the death of someone i.e. it quote Ovid, the Latin poet,
who used it for love poetry. In English poetry, Donne has used it for satire. But most of
English poets have used it for lamentation over the dead.
Elegy is invented by Bion, a Greek poet who composed elegy on the death of Adonis
Moschus, another Greek poet and a follower of Bion, composed an elegy on the death of
Bion.
In English literature, we have Milton’s “Lycidas” an elegy composed on the death of
Edward king, then we have the famous elegy i.e. Grey’s Elegy, Shelley’s “Adonais” is an elegy
composed by him on the death of Keats. In the Victorian age, we have Tennyson’s “In
Memoriam” a unique elegy of our a hundred lyrics composed by him on the death of Arthur
Hallam. Then we also have Mathew Arnold’s “Rugby Chapel” in this age. In it he expresses
his sorrow over the death of his father Dr. Arnold, the founder of Rugby school.
In the 20th century we have W.H Auden’s elegy on the death of Keats. Dylan Thomas is
another example in the regard. In modern elegy, nature causes to mourn over the death of
the dead person. Moreover the death is no more shown to be a great loss for mankind.
As for the kinds of elegy, there are two categories of them. In the first category we
have the traditional and modern elegy while in the second category we have classical and
romantic elegy.
In traditional elegy, nature is made to mourn for the death of the death person.
Secondly the death of a dead person is presented as a great loss for mankind. In modern
elegy on the other hand we don’t see the mourning nature and the death of the person as a
great loss for mankind.
2) Objective
Objective poetry means that type of poetry which is impersonal rather the personal, means
in which the poet doesn’t express his own emotions. It is also called dramatic poetry and the
term dramatic in this sense is general rather than particular in which it stands for one of the
sub group of objective poetry.
Objective poetry is of two type, i.e. Narrative and Dramatic. Narrative refers to that
type of poetry which narrates rather than events and describes i.e. which is in the form of
story. Dramatic poetry is the type of poetry which has the quality of drama. The divisions of
objective types are shown in the following chart:
a) Epic: it’s derived for the Greek word ‘epikos’ which is made from the Greek word
‘epos’ which means word, narrative, poem.
Oxford Dictionary defines it as a long poem, about the deed of one or more great
heroes, or a nation’s past history. The same dictionary also defines it also a long full, story
etc. Dealing with heroic deeds and exciting adventures. Longman Companion to English
terms defines it as a narrative of heroic action, often with a principal hero, usually mythical
in its content, offering inspiration and ennoblement within a particular culture or natural
tradition. The word to Longman Companion also denotes quality of heroism and adventure.
A.F Scot in his dictionary of literary terms defines that it’s usually held synonymous with
heroic poem. I define it as a long story in verse, dealing with national theme and the heroic
actions of heroes, a product of sustained imagination.
Epic is basically a story. Being long and being in verse are its attributes. Lets us see
how it’s similar to or different from other stories. Now let compare and contrast epic with
other stories:
o With Ballad: it is similar to ballad in being product of imagination and in being
compose in the poetic language. But it differs from ballad in its length. Epic is a long
story in verse while ballad is a short story in verse.
o With Allegory: epic is similar to allegory in its being a product of imagination. But it
differs from allegory in its nature. Epic comprises a single story that we read while in
allegory there are also other stories running beneath the surface story. Allegory may
be either in prose or in verse, while epic is necessarily in poetic language. In allegory
we often have satire and so an attack on man, while in epic we see the elevation of
man
o With Tragedy: tragedy elevates man, its subject, a product of sustained imagination.
But unlike tragedy it’s narrative rather than dramatic. The action is narrated and not
acted. Like comedy, it’s a product of imagination. But unlike comedy it elevates man
and unlike comedy, epic narrates rather than develop the story through action.
o With History: if epic is the story, history is also a story. But history’s real while epic is
realistic. History is about the homosapien while epic is about the homofictous. Epic is
the product of research.
o With Novel: both novel and epic are long stories, product of imagination, about
man, than what make them differ? First language, epic is in verse while novel in
prose. Second it’s older than the other. It’s to novel as a grandfather is to his
grandson. It’s a cause and novel is effect. Third novel is in one book divided into
chapters while epic is divided into books.
o With Fable: it’s also a story. But here the characters are animals and birds while in
epic the characters are mainly human beings.
o With Romance: it’s also a story, like epic it’s a product of imagination. But romance is
a product of fancy. It’s highly fantastic rather than realistic. Then it has no plot but is
only a story. These things make romance from novel. Romance maybe either in verse
or prose, whereas epic is in verse language.
There are essentials or elements which are necessary for epic, particularly the
serious or classical epic. They are the major and minor elements. As for the major elements
they are divided into pairs composing related elements. They are: i) grand action ii) grand
character, which constitute the second pair. If the action is grand, the actor of it or the
character must be grand because a grand action can’t be performed by trivial character.
Similarly when the theme is grand, the style to show it must also be grand because a grand
theme can’t be elaborated.
Apart from these major elements, there are also other elements of epic which are its
major elements. There are also other elements of epic which are its minor elements. They
are the use of imagination, the national character of epic sits theme and subject matter, and
the use of the supernatural a single, unified and whole action, the presence of distinguished
heroes a greater length, digressions, division into books use of epic similar and invocation to
the muses and statements of the theme in the start.
Epic are of different types. The types of epic can be discussed in three categories
We have classical and romantic epic. In the third category we have the primary and the
secondary epic.
Epic of growth is the name given to the type of epic which had its origin in the folk
lore. Certain stories about a hero or events may develop in the folk lore and then some time
a genius may come forward, affect those stories, organize them into a whole and give them
a form and unity to make it an epic. In Greek literature we have homer’s “Illiad” as an
example of the epic of growth while in English literature we have the Anglo-Saxon epic
“Beowulf” is an example of it.
Epic of art is the name given to a kind of epic which is not originated in the folk lore
but is an art of creation. It is written by some genius who invents the story and presents to
us. It’s an imitation of epic of the epic of growth in which the poet imitates the earlier model
and tries to excel it. In the classical literature, we have Virgil’s “Aenied” as an example of
such epic. In English literature, John Milton “Paradise Lost” is the example of the epic of art.
The broader category of types of epic is that of the classical and romantic epic.
Classical epic is a long story in verse, with grand theme, grand style, grand action and grand
character, imagination, supernatural elements, digressions, epic similes and invocation and
statement of theme in the start. If obeys the epic rules thoroughly. The epic of growth and
epic of art are the types of classical epic. Homer’s “Illiad” and “Odyssey”, Virgil’s “Aenied”,
Dante’s “divinia Comedia”, the Indian “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”, the French
“Chanson de Roland”, the Anglo-Saxon epic “Beowulf”, John Milton “Paradise Lost” and
Arnold’s “Sohrab and Rustam” are the example of classical epic.
Romantic epic is a long story in verse but it has some elements of epic while not
other. Here we have in expression of the poets own emotion which makes it subjective.
Here we see great important to beauty. It also has allegorical elements, elaborate
description of nature and a more ordinary style. Than that of the classical epics are the
b) Ballad: It’s derived from the old French word “ballade” which in turn has been
derived from the provincial word “ballada”. It has again derived from the low Latin word
“ballare” which means to dance.
It’s a short story in verse. Originally, ballad was a song accompanied by dance, latter
on the term was applied to a narrative poem, usually passing by words of mouth, sung by
minstrels. Finally the term was applied to a short story in verse. In their earlier phase,
ballads were often in the form of dialogue, hence having dramatic element. They were
about some local events.
From the very definition of ballad, it’s clear that ballad is basically a story. Let us
relate and differentiate it from other stories on literature.
As for the birth and growth of ballad in English literature, we know that ballad had
been popular since the earlier time. But the impulse to makes them was the strongest in the
15th century. To this age belong the first known ballads in English literature, i.e. the ballad of
“The Nut Brown Maid” and the ballad of “Chewy chase”. ‘The Nut Brown Maid’ is the story
of a lady and her lover who pretends to be an outlaw in order to test her love. In the ballad
of ‘Chewy chase’ was composed on the battle between Percy of England and Douglas of
Scotland. Percy kills Douglas and then weeps on his dead body, admiring his heroism. To this
c) Metrical Romance: It’s has been derived from ‘meter’ which means a foot
or collection of syllables, stressed and unstressed, in a line of poetry. Hence its means
poetic, Romance means highly fantastic story.
Metrical Romance may be defined as a highly fantastic story in poetic language. As
metrical romance is basically a story, so we see what similarities and dissimilarities does it
show with other stories?
o With Novel: It’s a story and product of imagination, but is different form novel in its
language which is poetical, in the absence of plot from it and the absence of relation.
o With Epic: It’s a story like epic; it’s in poetic language and is a product of imagination.
But it’s being highly fantastic differentiates it from epic which is realistic, dealing
with national hence and themes.
o With Ballad: It’s an imagination story. But it differs from ballad in its being highly
fantastic as well as in its size.
o With Fable: It’s kind of story but fable is different because in fable we have animals
and birds as characters while in metrical romance it’s not so.
o With Myth: It’s a story and different form metrical romance because the characters
in it are not the supernatural beings.
o With Drama: It’s different from metrical romance in its being narration, rather than
action and in its language which is of poetry while that of drama may be the Laing of
prose as well as poetry.
d) Idyll: it’s has been derived from the Greek “eidullion” which means a little
picture. It’s an idealist story of happy, innocence, in pastoral form, often in verse. It’s a form
of poetry neither proper narrative nor proper lyrical but in between the two.
Idyll was invented by Theocritus a Greek poet, who gave the name ‘Idylls’ to his
poem composed on the rural life of
icily. So, originally it was a poem more or less like an eclogue but different from eclogue
because eclogue could be in the form of dialogue form. Later on, it was see in its true,
simplified form as we see in pastoral life.
In English literature we see the qualities of idyll in the poetry of Chaucer as well, but
the proper Idyll was composed by Tennyson. His “Idyll of the King” is the poems about King
Arthur. His “Merle de Arthur” and “The passing of Arthur” are such examples. The
characteristics of idyll are brevity, description of scenery, the depiction of lower class people
and then manners, pictorial effect and simplicity of language. In the Idylls of Tennyson we
see violation of classical pattern in the abscise of pastoral qualities. But the contact with
medieval feelings in them often reminds us of the classical Idyll.
2) Soliloquy: It’s derived from the Latin word “soliloquium” it’s again coined by
Saint Augustine form the words “solus” which means “alone” and “logue” means to speak.
According to A.F Scot soliloquy means speaking one’s thoughts aloud with no one to
hear or being regardless of the presence of the hearers. To him, it’s a declamation in this
manner in a play, as we see in Shakespeare. Soliloquy is an emotional speech by a character
in a play to himself.
Soliloquy is different from dramatic monologue because in it only the character of
the speaker is revealed while in dramatic monologue we have the revelation of other
characters as well. It’s different from epic and ballad in being a form of dramatic poetry. It’s
different from lyric, sonnet, ode, etc in being a form of objective poetry. It’s different from
aside its length.
Soliloquy is different from drama because it’s a part of drama. It’s shorter. In shows
character of one man, the only speaker, while in drama we have many speakers and many
characters. There we have dialogue which it’s the speaking talking of a single man.
Soliloquies are found in abundance in the plays of Shakespeare. The soliloquies in his
great tragedies are the masterpiece in this art. We have the soliloquies in Hamlet, Ophelia
and the king in ‘Hamlet’. We also have soliloquies in ‘Macbeth’, i.e. the on beginning with
“tomorrow, tomorrow and tomorrow…..”
3) Poetry in dramas: Many playwrights have written their plays in verse. The
first English tragedy, “Gorbodue” by Norton and Sackville is a verse play, written in blank
verse. Blank verse in dramas reached perfection in the plays of Christopher Marlow and
Shakespeare. Dr Johnson was the first critic of Shakespeare, calls the later a poet of nature
(i.e. human nature) mainly because if the use of verse by Shakespeare in his plays. If there is
the use of prose in his plays, it’s used for the talking of the lower class characters. All the
eminent characters in his plays use poetic language for their talking or speeches. We have
the soliloquies of Hamlet and Macbeth, the speech of Antony and Brutus as well as the
utterance of all the other prominent characters in poetic language.
But with the passage of time, blank verse ceased to be the medium of plays, plays in
prose become prominent as we see in cause of G.B Shaw. In modern age, T.S Eliot revived
2) Setting: According to Oxford Advance Learner dictionary setting means the frame
work in which something is fixed or fasted. In literature, setting means the place where the
action takes place.
Nothing takes place nowhere. Therefore, whenever there is an action, there must be
some setting for it. In a drama, a novel, an epic, a ballad, a lyrical ballad or any other form of
literature that shows action, there must be setting.
Setting has different kinds belonging to various categories:
o Setting may be either fixed or changing. Fixed setting is also called pour setting and
changing setting is also called rich setting. An example of fixed or poor setting is that
4) Structure: The structure of the poem means the organization of its parts and
units into an order that is coherent and meaningful in terms of the content as a whole. The
structure of a narrative poem is simplest structure is that of a story (narrative poem) in
which there is a coherence of events. The structure of a narrative poem is simpler than that
of a lyric or a dramatic poem. Sometime we have the conversational structure, as the
question, answer structure in Keats’s ‘La Belle Dame Sans Merei’. Sometime we have
different stanzas in a poem carrying different thoughts and subject, as and Yeast’s ‘The Four
Ages of Man’ in which the first stanza is about the body, the second about heart, the third
about mind and the fourth about the death of men.
In poem one or another type of structure may be used. But in certain forms of
poetry we have definite patterns. Narrative poems, for example adhere to the chronological
ordering of events, in the sonnet we have an octave and seslet or there quatrains and a
couplet. Sometime there is the elaboration of an anology, i.e. an extended comparison that
explain one thing in the terms of another (e.g. in Shelley’s “A widow bird sat mourning for
her love”) such a poem end when the elements of analogy exhaust.
There is always a continuous development in structure. New structures are invented;
old structures are combined into new ones.
We have different categories of the kinds of structure:
We have simple and complex structure. The example of simple structure is that of narrative
poem and the example of complex structure is that is dramatic monologue.
We have the single patterned structure and one of different patterns, for example, in the
Petrarchan sonnet we have an octane and a seslet while in a lyric we may have different
patterns of structure.
We have the structure with no change of mood and one with the change of mood. For
example, there is no change of mood in classical elegy while I the romantic elegy we have
one.
5) Genre: It’s derived from the Latin word ‘Gener’ which is the stem of ‘Genus’
which means birth genre means a kind of style. In English literature it’s the name given to a
literary form such as epic, lyric, tragedy, comedy etc. it means a mode of writing that follows
certain literary rules or conventions that have come down to the poet (or writer) though
6) Tone and Attitude: It’s derived from the Greek word ‘tones’ which means
stretching, tension. ‘tonos’ is taken form ‘ teino’ which means to stretch.
Tone refers to the author’s prevailing spirit, his mental attitude or his moral outlook
appearing in the work itself and determining and tone, i.e. tone is determine by his attitude
and outlook. But tone also means the aspect of speaking voice which helps us to understand
the attitude of the speaker. So, tone and attitude are concomitant and complementary for
each other.
The tone of the speaker in a poem is either joy or sorrowful. It may be better or
soothing and mild, somber a light, angry or loving, nasty or sobre, pessimistic or optimistic
and light or meditative.
For the proper understanding of a poet, it’s also important to understand the tone
and attitude of the speaker or the poet. The tone of a speaker is understood by the words
he uses, and one his understood, it’s easier to understand his attitude.
The tone in a poem is a product of many things e.g. the choice of words and details,
association of imagery, rhythm and sound effects, speaker, and situation.
Very kind of tone can be attributed to various ages in the history of English literature,
for example we see the tone of love in one or another from in the Elizabethan poetry, the
tone of seriousness and sobriety in the metaphysical poetry and age of Milton, the time of
bitterness in the neo-classical age, the tone of emotionalism in the romantic age, the tone of
seriousness in the Victorian age and the tone of disillusionment and bitterness in the
modern age.
Similarly, different kind of tone can be attributed to different forms of poetry, for
example, we have the tone of seriousness in epic and sonnet, light tone in lyric and
meditative tone in the dramatic monologue. Sometimes the tone of a poet or speaker in a
poem is just the reverse of his attitude. This is seen in the ironic tone in poetry.
8) Subject and Theme: Subject of a poem mean what it’s written about and
theme means what is taken out of it. Theme is the central idea or the crux of the subject. In
this sense subject is the whole while theme is the part, but the very basic part, the basis.
If a poem is narrative its subject is the events that are narrated. If it’s dramatic, its
subject is that which is shown through the analysis of the character or his action. If it’s
descriptive, its subject is the thing or things for the description of which the poem is
composed.
To show the difference between subject and theme through example, we first refer
Homer’s ‘Illiad’. Its subject is the Trojan War resulting from the elopement of Hellen with
Paris and leading to the defeat of the Trojans, the burning of troy and the murder of Hellen.
But its theme is the wrath of Achilles. Then we comes to “Paradise Lost” its subject is the fall
of Satan resulting from his rebellion against God, leading to the fall of Adam from heaven.
But its theme is the justification of the ways of God to man. Similarly, the subject of Keats’s
“Ode on a Grecian Urn” is the urn and the Greek art. But its theme is the immortality of art
and beauty or truth to life in art. It’s expressed in the end by “Beauty is truth and truth is
beauty”
So we can say that though both are complementary, theme and subject don’t refer
to the same thing but to different things.
10) Symbolism: The word is taken form ‘symbol’, which has been derived from the
Greek word ‘sumbolon’ which means watchword. The Greek ‘sumbolon’ is taken form
‘sumbalem’ which means to agree.
A symbol is something standing for something else, e.g. the cross stands for
Christianity, rose for beauty etc.
When something is said or stated and the other is meant, we have symbolism. In
symbolism the symbols are used for other things. Symbolism involves two things, i.e. the
symbols and the referents. The thing said or started is called the symbol and the thing
meant is called referent. For example, rose is a symbol and beauty is referent.
Symbolism is also the name given to recent school of French poets including
Malarma, Verlaine and Rimbaud, who aimed at representing ideas and emotions by
suggestions rather than by direct expression.
Symbolism has different kinds. It may be simple or complex, traditional or personal,
rose ,lamb etc. are traditional symbols and the use of such symbols lead to traditional or
simple symbolism. Yeats winding stairs, Byzantium, Tasso’s sword etc are personal or
complex symbols and their use lead to personal or complex symbolism.
Symbolism movement started in France. In England W.B Yeats is the exponent or
leader of symbolism. He has used both personal and traditional symbols.
Modern English literature exhibits certain influences ion it and that of symbolism is a
major one. Modern English poetry is highly symbolic. In modern English literature we see
symbolism in almost all literary forms, e.g. in poetry as in that of Yeats and Eliot, in noel as
in those of Golding and Foster and in short stories as those of Earnest Hemmingway.
11) Irony: It’s derived from the Greek word ‘eironeia’ which means simulated
ignorance. Irony means contrast between appearance and reality either of what is said or of
a situation a character fate or chance. It has different type’s i.e. verbal irony, dramatic irony,
irony of situation, irony of fate.
o Verbal irony: when something is said and the opposite is meant we have verbal
irony. For example, the first sentence of Jane Austen’s “Pride and prejudice” in the
poetry we have it in the poetry of Chaucer in abundance.
o Irony of character: When there is contrast between the appearance and reality of a
character, e.g. in the character of Tom Jones in Fielding’s “Tom John”
o Irony of situation: When a character expects one situation and just the reverse
occurs, e.g. the marriage of Emma with Mr. Knightly in Jane Austen’s “Emma”
12) Satire: It’s derived from Latin word ‘satuia’ which latter on become ‘satira’ which
means full? Satire means holding of folly to predicate. It’s an attack on the social evils
though different forms of literature. Satire in the earlier period was considered as a
separate literary form. But latter on it ceased to be a literary form and be was considered a
literary device.
Satire must have two important elements:
o It should have the criticism of ridiculous.
o It must contain humor.
The presence of folly and the forcefulness or outspokenness. Among its other essentials
we have a direct route to its target.
Satire was born in Greek in the Hellenic age. Aristophanes is the first satirist. We
have his satire of Socrates and his philosophy in “The Clouds”. After Aristophanes we have
Horace and Juvenal in the Roman literature. The satire of Horace is mild while that of
Juvenal is harsh and punching.
In English literature we have satire for the first time in the Middle English period in
the poetry of Langland. Then we see it in the works of Chaucer. In 15th century we have
satire in Lydgate and Dunbar. In the 16th century we have it in the plays of Ben Jonson. In the
17th century we have it in the works of Cleveland and in Marvell in the metaphysical school.
Satire reached its perfection and abundance in the 18th century. We see in the works of
Pope, Dryden and Swift among the others. The satirists of the age, except Pope, were paid
by Tories or Whigs to attack them opponents.
In the Romantic age we have satire in Byron. In his English bard scotch reviewers “he
has attacked the reviewers” we also have satire in the age in the novel of Jane Austen. In the
Victorian age we see satire in the novels of Dickens, Thackeray and Carlyle among other. In
the modern age we again have abundant satire. We see it in Eliot, Yeats, Golding, Forster,
Peacock and many others. Nearly every modern attacks the society of the age.
So we see that satire started with the birth of literature and as long as there is man
and he is imperfect, satire shall be there.
13) Allegory: It’s has been derived from the Greek ‘allegoria’ which is made of
‘alos’ which means other and ‘agoren’ which means to speak.
Allegory may be defined as the expression of one thing in the guise of another. It’s a
story in at least are other story. In past, allegory was considered as a literary form. Today it’s
thought as a literary device.
Allegory may be either in prose or in verse. Example of prose allegory is John
Bunyan’s “The Pilgrim’s progress” while that of allegory in verse of these kinds are often
included in an allegory, e.g. as we have in “The Fairer Queene”.
Novel
It has two meanings: By literal sense “something new”. As novel is a comparatively newer
literary form, so it’s given the name.
It’s advanced or a developed form of Novell or Novella, kind of short story written by
Boccaccio an Italian poet.
The word is derived from Latin ‘novellas’ which means new things.
According to Oxford Advance Learner’s dictionary gives two meanings to the word novel:
Anything strange, anything not seen before.
A story in prose, long enough to fill one or more volumes, about either imagery or historical
people.
A.F Scott, in his dictionary of literary terms defines novel as a fictitious prose narrative
dealing with human beings and their actions over a period of time and displacement variety
of human characters in relation to life. According to Dr. Tillyard, a novel is not least saying
2000 words. According to Henry Fielding, a novel is a comic epic in prose.
I define it as long as story in prose presenting life through its realistic portrait.
1. With other stories: From the aforesaid definitions of novel, it’s clear that novel is
primarily a story. We see that there are other stories in literature as well. So, let us see
how novel is similar to those stories and how does it differ from them.
2. With Epic: Like novel it’s a story. Both are similar being in length. Being a product of
imagination and dealing with human beings and their actions. But unlike epic, novel is
written in verse. Then it’s not about the national events and national characters. It has
no invocation at the star. Then it’s younger or newer than epic.
3. With Drama: Both deal with human beings in a realist way, but they are different:
o In the use of language, Drama may be either in prose or in verse, while novel
necessary in prose.
o The action in drama develops through dialogue while in novel we have the
narration of the action.
o The playwright is less free while the characters in a play are freer while it’s the
sense in novel.
4. With allegory: Both are stories but novel is different form allegory in being a single
story that we read them having others stories below the surface. Allegory may be in
prose and in verse while novel is in prose. The characters in allegory are personified
abstrictions while those in novel are human beings or like real people.
5. With history: Both are stories, but they are different in their natures. History is real
while novel is realistic. We have the historical novel which is more prone to history,
which complements history by giving life to it and adding imagination to history?
6. With Biography: Both are story, but being real it’s different from novel. It deals the
whole life of one man while novel deals with a part of the lives of many people, either
historical or fictitious.
Kinds of novel:
Though born very recently, novel has developed more than other form of literature. This
enormous development of this form has led to the diversity of kinds. The various type of
novel is as per its structure, its setting, its purpose and as per its narration. We have the
following main forms or types of novel:
2. Omniscient novel: It’s the most common type of novel. Most of the great
novelists of English have adopted this type of novel. It’s a kind of novel in which the story is
narrated by the novelist or some imagined feelings narrator. This form was invented by
Fielding and was carried on by novelist like Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy,
Carlyle etc. it’s also called the traditional novel. It has been revived in modern age by
novelists like Forster, Golding, etc. after the stream of consciousness novel along with which
it’s also being carried on today.
3. Epistolary novel: The word has been taken from ‘epistol’ which means letter. It’s a
form of novel which the story is carried on through letters. This form was invented by
Samuel Richardson. His ‘Pamela’ and ‘Clarrisa’ are the example of epistolary novel. Though
this form as such was not carried on in the latter age, it developed to the psychological and
then the stream of consciousness novel. Hence its importance.
4. Psychological novel: A kind of novel in which, though we have the story, the main
focus shifts from outside to the inside, from external action or events to the psycho or mind
of the character. This kind of novel was originated by Gorge Eliot in the Victorian age. Her
Adam Bede, ‘The Mallon the floss’ are psychological novels.
o One led by Virginia Woolf in which we still have story, plot and character in the
traditional sense.
o The other kind, as those of James Joyce and Dorothy Richardson.
There is no story, no plot and no character in the traditional sense but only the minds and
soul of the character. It is about this kind of novel that is said that there we have the killing
of the story and character. Stream of consciousness novel is in the form of unrelated
episodes of mental thinking.
7. Gothic novel: The term gothic has been borrowed from architecture and applied
to novel. Om architecture, gothic is that type which is fearful. Gothic novel is form of novel
in which we have the element of fear through fearful character. In it we have events with
the use of the supernatural to increase the element of fear. The example of Gothic novel is
in the novels of Mrs. Redcliff.
8. Social Reform novel: It’s a kind of novel as per its theme and function. Its that
type of novel which is invented for social reform. The novels of Charles Dickens provide the
best example of this form. He has attacked various social evils in his novel in order to reform
the society of them.
9. Regional novel: It’s a type of novel as per setting. In it we have a particular region
to be the setting of the novel. An example of it’s the wessex novels of Hardy, in which the
sitting is wessex.
10. Domestic novel: It’s a novel as per the subject matter. In such a novel we have the
domestic subjects, for example we have the novel of Jane Austen what deal with marriage
and love which are domestic subjects of interest to woman.
11. Doctrinaire novel: It’s a kind of novel as per its purpose and subject such as novel
deals with the propagation of a doctrine, political or religious. An example of such novel is
provided by E.M Foster’s “A Passage to India” dealing with internationalism.
12. Political novel: It’s also a type of novel as per its function and subject. We have the
propagation of a political doctrine or political subjects in this type of novel Foster’s ‘A
Passage to India’ is an example in this regard as well.
13. Historical novel: It’s again a type of novel as per its subject. It’s a blend of history
and fiction. In such a novel, the plot is taken form history but a plot in such a novel is
imaginary sir Walter Scott’s novels are the example of such novel.
14. Sex dealing novel: It’s a type of novel as per the purpose, subject and theme of
novel such a novel deals with sex as an important element in human life. The examples in
this regard are provided by the novels of D.H Lawrence which deal with free sex as a means
to attain complete peace of mind.
There are certain aspects of the novel which distinguish it from other literary forms. Some of
them have been discussed in the detail by E.M Foster in his “Aspect of the Novel” the other
we are going to discuss is taken from other books like “The novelist on novel” etc. Following
are the aspect of the novel.
Story
Story is the most important aspect of novel. It’s the backbone of novel. Every novel is
primarily a story. E.M Foster doesn’t wish it to be such an important aspect of novel. Plot is
a development of the story. Characters are bound to follow the story. Setting is for the
development of the action which is a form of story. Philosophy, theme, fantasy, prophecy
etc. all are closest and known in the contact of story. Man is by nature a love of story and
novel is a story of man and for man.
Story has come to their world with the creation of man. The first story is the story of
Adam’s fall which led to the existence of man on the planet. Human life in itself is a story
and is even going to lead to another story after its end. And novel studies human life.
The first recoded story, recorded in the books of literature in fact is the story Osiris
an Egyptian god. Its deals with this coming to this world, his death and regeneration. Then
we have this story of Tammuz, a god in Syria and of Tammuz and Ishtar in Babylonia. From
there the story invented and become the Adonis legend in Greece. But Greece we also have
Homer’s “Illiad and Odyssey”. The first examples of epic and so of poetry as well as story.
After the Hellenic age, we have story in Roman literature, as for example Virgil’s ‘Aenied’. In
English literature stories like that of ‘Beowulf’ in Anglo-Saxon age, the stories through the
metrical romances in the middle ages, prose romance, the stories in Chaucer like his
“Canterbury tales’, Triolus and Cryssede’ etc. in the 16 th century we have stories as the one
in “The Faerie Queene” and the prose romances, in the 17th century again story existed in
England, as the one in “Paradise Lost”. In the neo-classical age we have the prose romance
and then the birth of novel from this time onwards we have a smooth and regular
development of story in the shape of novel. Through the romantic age with the novels of
Scott and Jane Austin. The Victorian age with those of Dickens, Carlyle, Hardy and George
Eliot and it reaches the modern age in which, after suffering from a setback from the hands
of the stream of consciousness novelist, story has once again been revived and we have
stories in the novels of many great novelists like Foster and Golding.
Plot
Plot means the story with cause effect relationship. For example “The king died. The
queen died” is a story while “The king dead and the queen died of a broken heart” is a plot
because here, the first event i.e. the death of the king is a cause while the second event, i.e.
Diversion Conversion
o We have the main plot and sub plot. Main plot deals with the main action while in
sub plot we secondary action in the strict sense. Some plots have the skillful blending or
connection of the main and its sub plots. They are preferred over those not connected the
sub plots. They are preferred over those not connected.
Fantasy
It’s another important aspect of novel according to E.M Foster. It’s important for
novel is a realistic rather than a real, it become history. If it’s totally unreal or fantastic, it’s a
romance. Novel must have the elements of both and so fantasy is important for novel.
Secondly as novel is a child of romance, it has the element of fantasy inherited form
romance, its moths. The introduction of the fantastic produces a special effect in novel
because of the element of fantasy in it. Fantasy implies the supernatural but need not
explain it.
Theme
It’s the central idea of the crux of the whole matter in novel. Its different form
subject matter in being its part, rather its basic part.
There are three kinds of theme:
o The main theme on which there is greater focus and which a greater part of the plot
is assigned.
o The minor theme on which there is no greater focus.
o The major theme, in some cases, many connected themes combines to constitute
the major theme of the novel. This we have in Foster’s “A Passage to India” in which
the theme like that of personal relationship, union versus separation of love versus
hatred etc. combine to form the major theme, i.e. the lack of universal love the
major theme in such cases is closely connected to the minor theme.
Narration
It’s important element of novel because novel is basically a story and story is
narrated. There are various methods of narration adopt by different novelist:
o The epistolary method in which the story develops through letters, as we see in the
novels of Richardson.
o The omniscient way in which the story is narrated by the novelist or some imaginary
fictitious narrator. The method we see in the novels of Fielding, Jane Austin etc.
o The method of the narrator by the hero as we see in Defoe’s “Robinson Crusoe” and
Dickens “The Great Expectations”.
o Narration by two narrators this we see in Emily Bronte’s “Wouthering Heights”.
The story in the novel is narrated either from inside or outside. When a novelist like
Gorge Eliot events the mind of the characters, we have the narration from inside when a
novelist like Hardy, narrates the story without focusing on the psycho of the characters then
we have narration from inside.
Setting
Setting means the place where the action takes place. As novel deals with mean in
action, there must be setting in it because nothing can take place nowhere. Setting may
remain fixed or change. For example fixed setting is that of “Lord of the flies” while that of
changing setting is the setting of a novel also leads to the limitation of the range of a
novelist, as we see in case of the novels of Jane Austen.
Range
Range of a novel is also called world of the novelist. Range is either limited of
unlimited. The limited range is seen in the case of Jane Austen while the unlimited range is
seen in the novel in Fielding and Dickens. Unlimited range demands a great skill than that
demanded by limited setting. Range of a novel is determined by many factors like
characters, theme, viewpoint, setting, experience etc.
Development of novel
Novel has its origin in the prose romance; travelogues adventure stories, prose
allegories, prose romances and metrical romances.
Novel was the result of the development of prose romance form metrical romance
and the lading of the prose romance to adventure stories. It was born in the 18 th century. In
the 19th century we have the novels of Jane Austen and the birth of historical novel by Scott.
In the Victorian age we have the novels of Dickens and Hardy. Gorge Eliot started the
psychological novel. In the 20th century we have the modern or the stream of consciousness
novel in which there is no plot and no character in traditional sense. But here we also see
the development of the traditional novel as in the novels of novelist like Foster and Golding.
37
m
The word drama is a Greek word means a deed, an action on the stage. It’s derived from
Tragedy
It’s has been derived from the Greek word ‘tragoidia’ which means good song. The word
‘tragoidia’ is made of ‘tragos’ which means ‘he-goat’ an ‘oide’ which mean song.
There are the reasons for giving the name to it:
It’s originated in hymns sung by singers. Who were the skins of he-goats and moved around
the temple of Dionysus in Greece. Dionysus was the Greek god of vegetation life, rebirth and
sex. The Greeks celebrated Dionysus festival in spring as he was a god of vegetation. Then as
he was a god of sex as well, so the singers of hymns in his honour, were the skin of he-goat,
the most sexual animal and a symbol to tragedy is that in the Dionysus festival there used to
be a competition of the playwright who wrote the best play with an unhappy ending was
awarded with the prize in shape of a he-goat.
According to Oxford dictionary tragedy means a play with sad ending. Aristotle was
the first to give an authentic definition to tragedy. He says: “tragedy is an imitation of action
that is serious, complete in itself, of a certain magnitude in language beautified by various
kinds of embellishment, through action and not narration, and through scenes of pity and
fear, leading to the catharsis of such like emotions”. This is so authentic and complete
definition of tragedy that we don’t need any other definition to know what is tragedy.
Tragedy is different from the other forms of drama. It’s different from comedy:
o In the sense that it has an unhappy ending while comedy has happy ending.
o Tragedy is serious while comedy is comic and humorous.
o Tragedy deals with man above the average and so elevates man, while comedy deals
with man below this average and so degrades him by bringing his follies to the
surface.
o Tragedy is older than comedy when drama was born it was tragedy.
Tragedy is different from tragic-comedy in being to tragic and have no comic elements.
It’s different from historical play because it deals with something fictitious while history play
is based upon history.
Kinds of Tragedy
The kinds or types of tragedy can be discussed in two categories:
We have classical and romantic tragedy. Classical tragedy is that type of tragedy in which
the rules fail down by the great classics like Aristotle are followed these rules include the
various unities and the rules regarding its purpose. The first rules in this regard are that of
the unity of structure to the unity of tone and effect which was followed in the Greek plays.
1) Pure Tragedy: It’s the form of tragedy which can be classified only into tragedy
and not farther, T.S Eliot’s “Murder in the Cathedral” is its example.
2) Love Tragedy: It’s a tragedy which deals with love Shakespeare’s “Romeo and
Juliet” and “Troilus and Crysseda” are its examples.
3) Revenge Tragedy: It’s mainly revenge, i.e. it main theme is revenge. It was
indicated by Seneia, the Roman poet. The first English tragedy ‘Gorbodue’ by Marion and
Sackville is a revenge tragedy. Among the other examples we have kid’s “The Spanish
tragedy” and Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”.
4) Melodrama: It’s a type of tragedy having the scenes of fear and death
Shakespeare’s ‘Macbeth’ and ‘Hamlet’ has the elements of melodrama. The introduction of
the supernatural in such plays also enhances over fear. The atmosphere of tension is
enhanced in a melodrama.
5) Heroic Tragedy: It’s a type of tragedy which is understood by the rules of epic. It’s
different from the older tragedies. Invented in the Neo-classical age, it’s defined by Dryden
as an imitation, in little, of a heroic poem.
6) She-tragedy: It’s a type of tragedy in which the main character is a woman rather
than a man. It’s a parody of heroic tragedy which was an artificial product of an artificial age,
e.g. Dryden’s “All for Love’.
Essentials of Tragedy
The following are the essential of tragedy:
1) Theme
2) Plot
3) Action that is serious and complete
4) Characters
5) Simultaneously
6) Conflict, both interior and external
7) Dialogue
8) Humourless or Tragic flaw and error of judgment
9) Dramatic unities for (classical tragedy)
10) Unity of atmosphere or of tone and effect
11) Tragic hero to be above the others in degree, not in kind
12) Catharsis, which is the function of tragedy
13) Excessive suffering of the hero
14) Unhappy ending
15) Melodramatic sense
16) Character to be subordinate to action
17) A sense of loss for the readers or audience
18) Suffering of a good man
Development of tragedy: Tragedy was born in the Hellenic age Aeschylus the real father of
tragedy and so drama in the world followed by Sophocles and Euripides in the Hellenic age.
In the Roman age we have the revenge tragedy invented by Seneca.
In English ‘Gorbodue’ is the tragedy, followed by Marlow kid, Shakespeare and
Jonson among other in Elizabethan age. In the 18th century we have the heroic, sentimental
tragedy and her tragedy. In 19th century drama was dormant. But towards all the end of it
we have the plays of G.B Shaw. In 20th century we have the revival of verse drama by T.S
Eliot.
Comedy
It has been derived from French ‘comedie’. This in turn is taken from the Greeco-Latin
‘comoedia’. The word ‘comoedia’ is made of ‘komos’ which means ‘revel’ and ‘oide’ which
means a song.
According to Oxford Advance learner dictionary comedy means a branch of drama
which deals with everyday life and humorous events. It also means a play of light amusing
type for the theater.
Comedy may be defined as a play with a happy ending, amusing in nature, criticizing
life attacking follies and making as laugh through laughing at us.
A.F Scott defines comedy as a drama dealing with humorous, familiar events and the
behavior of ordinary people speaking the language of day to day life. Its purpose is to amuse
and its treatment of character often has touches of exaggeration and caricature. It may have
a serious purpose as in ‘Aristophanes’ plays and it may deal with the universal predicament
as we see in the play of chekove.
The function of comedy is the criticism of life and the reformation of society by
attacking follies and dealing with man below the average. Its other function is
entertainment.
Comedy is different from the other dramatic forms. It’s different from tragedy in
having a happy ending secondly its different from tragedy by bringing man down to a lower
scale. Thirdly it’s humorous.
Comedy is different form tragic-comedy because it’s comic through and through
whereas tragic-comedy has its elements tragic-comedy is a hybrid of tragedy and comedy.
Comedy is different from historical play because it doesn’t depend upon history for its plot
or characters which are imaginative. Secondly comedy is humorous and comic which history
play may not be such. Thirdly for comedy the comic elements and follies are necessary while
for historical drama they aren’t.
L o
a) Comedy of humours: humour means a salient trait of character, e.g. various pride
etc. The ancient believed that human body was made of four elements, i.e. air, fire,
History play
It’s a form of drama which is based on upon history. Here it takes some historic events or
person and treats it or him in imaginative way. In this sense it’s a combination of the real
and unreal of fact and fiction. In it the historical events are taken for the plot but
imagination is mixed with them. Similar is the case with characters as well. The imagination
here is more important than the real. Like the historical novel, historical drama also
complements history. It also gives life to history. For example of historical drama we have
the historical plays of Shakespeare like his “Henry iv” and Marlow’s “Tamerlane”.
Elements of Drama
Elements of drama are discussed follow:
Theme
It’s the central idea that is conveyed in a drama. Its different from subject matter in
being its cruse. For example the theme of ‘Hamlet’ is revenge while its subject is the murder
of Hamlet’s father and the ghost of his father telling him to take the revenge of its original.
But he delays in talking the revenge. Similarly the theme of ‘Romeo and Juliet” is the love
between Romeo and Juliet.
Theme may be main theme story while minor theme is that of a secondary action or
story. For example, the main theme of ‘Hamlet’ is revenge while its minor themes are delay,
love, intrigues etc.
Character
It’s an important element of drama. In case of drama they are more important than in case
of novel or any other narrative because in drama the action develops through their action
and dialogue. Being the performers of the action, they are the backbone of drama. The
character in a drama must be human being. Supernatural can be introduced but only if they
are extremely necessary and if they are made convincing.
Suspense
It’s a necessary element for drama. It means the curiosity of the readers or the audience
about what is going to happen next. Suspense creates interest in the play and its increase
the interest. Suspense should begin develop and end simultaneously with the action. If the
action ends and the suspense remain the play is not good. Similarly if suspense ends before
the action, the play is again not good. In a good play suspense and action develop and end
the same time. In most plays, suspense is born a little or somewhat after the beginning of
the action.
Plot of Drama
Plot means a story with cause effect relationship. It was first discussed by Aristotle and he
had the plot of drama tragedy in particular in front of him when he was discussing it.
According to him plot should have the unity of action. He has given comparatively little
importance to the unity of time and hasn’t discussed the unity of place at all. But it has been
attributed to him latter on he tells us that the plot should be a coherent whole neither too
neither short nor too long and having nothing superfluous. The plot of drama is different
that of novel in the following ways:
We keep presentation on stage in mind. The plot of novel is narrated while that of drama is
acted.
A playwright is not allowed to comment. A playwright is less free in this regard.
The characters of drama are more independent in and more responsible for the
development of action as compared to the characters in a novel
Kind of plot: there are various categories of the types of plot:
1. They differ in then length or magnitude. In this regard we have four types of plot:
I. Those showing the activity of a single character in a single closed situation.
The point of the change of direction is called peripity by Aristotle. It’s the result of
anagnorisis, i.e. coming from ignorance to knowledge, according to him complex plot is
though superior by Aristotle because in it the unexpected happiness and emotions comes to
us in expectedly. It evolves complication which may be either continuous as in case of
Shakespeare or incidental as in case of G.B Shaw. In it the line of action comprising one
cause and one effect each separate and unite. The point of their union is called conversation
when at the end all the lines of action unite at the point of conversion. The complication is
resolved. It’s shown though a diagram.
Beginning Ending
Diversion Conversion
Conflict
It’s the most important elements of drama. It may be either inner or outer. The inner
conflict is that which occurs in the mind of the character. Outer or external conflict may be
between man and man, between man and traditions, between the opposing groups of men
between one man on one hand and many on the other hand, between man and nature and
between man and destiny beside the other kinds of outer conflict, in Shakespeare’s
‘Hamlet” we see the external conflict in his mind. It’s seen in his remarks or his soliloquies
like the one starting with “To be or not to be that is the question…” the outer conflict here is
between Hamlet and Claudius, between him and Fortinbras and between him and Polonius
and then Laertes, the son of Polonius. The inner conflict in Eliot’s “Murder in the Cathedral”
is in the mind of Thomas Backed about his facing martyrdom while the outer conflict in the
play is between him and the king and the knight. For example of the outer conflict between
groups is the one between the workers and the factory owners in Galsworthy’s “Strife”.
Dialogue
It’s an essential element of drama _____________ be the form of drama, dialogue is the
central importance in it because the action of a play develops through dialogue. Its gives
freedom to the characters and binds the playwright. It’s also the important because it shows
the mind of the characters and the inner conflict in the play. A novelist can use dialogue of
he wishes. But a playwright is bound to use it whether he wishes or not.
Hamartia
The term is a Greek word first used by Aristotle in his ‘The Poetic’. Its means an error of
judgment or a wrong decision resulting from a flaw in character. It’s what leads to the tragic
flaw of the tragic hero.
To give his example from various tragedies we see it in “Oedipus Rex” where the hamartia
and Oedipus is his running away from the home of the Shepherd which result in his killing
his father and marrying with his own mother and his tragic end. In Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”
the flaw lies in the delay of Hamlet. Macbeth’s hamartia is his killing of Duncan, the king due
to his ambition while leads to his tragic fall. Hamartia is an important element for tragedy
rather than comedy.
Unities
It’s an important element for classical dramas. The first unity is the unity of structure of
tone and effect which means that a tragedy should be tragic and a comedy comic tell the
end. But the more common unities which the term unities refer to are the unities of action
of tune and of place. Unity action or organic unity means:
o The action should be a complete wholly.
o There should be nothing superfluous or that everything should be relevant.
o There should be cause effect relation in the action.
o The action should be of proper length.
The unity of time means that the action of a play should take place during a specific and
limited duration. Aristotle has specified a single revolution of the sun, i.e. 24 hours for it.
Unity of place means that the action should take place means that the action should take
place in limited setting. It should occur within specific boundaries rather than in different
places.
These unities are followed by the classical playwrights while the romantic
playwrights like Shakespeare have violated them.
The End
Composed By: Irfanullah 47 M.A English (previous)