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Assignment
On
Motivation Theories
(With Motivation overview-Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Douglas McGregor X & Y
Theory & Herzberg’sTwo Factor Theories)
Course Code: Organizational Behavior
Course Title: MBA-503
Submitted To:
DR. Asoke Kumar Saha
Professor
Adjunct Faculty
East West University
Submitted By:
Rabeya Khanam
ID. 2021-1-95-013
Masters of Business Administration
East West University
Submission Date: 16 April 2021
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Table of Content
Name of the content Page Number
Executive Summary 03
Definition of Motivation 04
Positive motivation: 05
Negative Motivation 05
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 05-06
Maslow’s needs are physiological needs 06-07
McGregor’s Theory X and Y 07-08
ERG Theory 08-09
Herzberg’s two-factor model 09-10
Hygiene factors 10-11
Acquired-Needs Theory 12-13
McClelland’s Need Achievement Theory 13
Expectancy Theory 13-14
Conclusions 14
References 15
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Executive Summary
The main idea behind this report to understand the prime theories of motivation in an
organization which includes Maslow’s Theory, McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y and
Herzberg’s Two factor theory and others theories. The assignment explains the details of
these theories along with their research methodologies applied ant criticisms.
The assignment starts with a brief introduction of motivation and its requirement in an
organization and then explains the three important theories of motivation and their criticisms.
Maslow’s need hierarchy theory explains the five level of need requirement of an individual.
Maslow’s theory is based on the different needs of different people, and their motivational
needs are also different.
Herzberg’s two factor theory is based on hygiene and motivational factors. As per Herzberg
[Link] hygiene factors are extrinsic factors which are the basic needs of employees and
motivational factors are intrinsic factors. Herzberg and his team applied random data
collection approach of 250 employees, and is considered to be the replica of Maslow’s need
hierarchy theory with a narrow scope. But this theory formed the foundation for many
important theories of human resource.
McGregor Theory X and Theory Y, is based on assumptions to treat employees by applying
theory X or Theory Y but McGregor was always in favor of application of Theory y.
ERG theory, developed by Clayton Alderfer, is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs. Alderfer An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior
and Human Performance. Instead of the five needs that are hierarchically organized, Alderfer
proposed that basic human needs may be grouped under three categories, namely, existence,
relatedness, and growth.
David McClelland’s acquired-needs theory is the one that has received the greatest amount
of support. According to this theory, individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of
their life experiences.
The assignment with the help of predetermined theories in the past tries to analyze and
understand the motivational theories and their application in an organization.
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Definition of Motivation
Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is
what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book
to gain knowledge. Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive
forces that activate behavior.
The three components of motivation, Arnold et al (1991)
Direction – what a person is trying to do.
Effort – how hard a person is trying?
Persistence – how long a person keeps on trying
Some definitions are discussed as follows:
Locke (as cited by Saari and Judge, 2004, p396) defined motivation as “a pleasurable or
positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job experiences”. This
definition draws attention to two aspects, in particular, namely the emotional attachment an
employee has to their job, and the deliberate review of an employee’s work by the employer.
According to David and Anderzej (2010), motivation can be understood as cognitive decision
making in which the intension is to make the behavior that is aimed at achieving a certain
goal through initiation and monitoring. At work places, reviews are done using appraisals and
appraisals at work have predetermined standards, and their outcome may provoke an
emotional reaction in the employee, and this reaction will determine how satisfied or
dissatisfied an employee is. Good marks in reviews may reflect that an employee is satisfied
and bad marks may reflect the opposite. In every employee, motivation maybe because
outside factors (extrinsic) such as rewards or within an individual (intrinsic), desire to do
better.
Motivation is an internal process that makes a person move toward a goal. Instead,
motivation can only be inferred by noting a person's behavior. Researchers have proposed
theories that try to explain human motivation. These theories include drive reduction theories
and Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. A Motive is an impulse that causes a person to act.
Motivation is an internal process that makes a person move toward a goal. Motivation, like
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intelligence, can’t be directly observed. Instead, motivation can only be inferred by noting a
person’s behavior.
Positive motivation:
Positive motivation or incentive motivation is based on reward. The workers are offered
incentives for achieving the desired goals. The incentives may be in the shape of more pay,
promotion, recognition of work, etc. The employees are offered the incentives and try to
improve their performance willingly.
According to Peter Drucker, the real and positive motivators are responsible for placement,
high standard of performance, information adequate for self- control and the participation of
the worker as a responsible citizen in the plant community. Positive motivation is achieved
by the co-operation of employees and they have a feeling of happiness.
Negative Motivation:
Negative or fear motivation is based on force or fear. Fear causes employees to act in a
certain way. In case, they do not act accordingly then they may be punished with demotions
or lay-offs. The fear acts as a push mechanism. The employees do not willingly co-operate,
rather they want to avoid the punishment.
Though employees work up-to a level where punishment is avoided but this type of
motivation causes anger and frustration. This type of motivation generally becomes a cause
of industrial unrest. In spite of the drawbacks of negative motivation, this method is
commonly used to achieve desired results. There may be hardly any management which has
not used negative motivation at one or the other time.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow is among the most prominent psychologists of the twentieth century. His
hierarchy of needs is an image familiar to most business students and managers. The theory is
based on a simple premise: Human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked. Maslow,
A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–396; Maslow,
A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper.
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There are some needs that are basic to all human beings, and in their absence nothing else
matters. As we satisfy these basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher order needs. In
other words, once a lower level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a motivator.
Maslow’s needs are physiological needs
Physiological needs refer to the need for food, water, and other biological needs. These needs
are basic because when they are lacking, the search for them may overpower all other urges.
Imagine being very hungry. Are they free from the threat of danger, pain, or an uncertain
future?
On the next level up, social needs refer to the need to bond with other human beings, be
loved, and form lasting attachments with others. In fact, attachments, or lack of them, are
associated with our health and well-being. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The
need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529. The satisfaction of social needs makes esteem needs
more salient.
It is possible to imagine that individuals who go hungry and are in fear of their lives might
retain strong bonds to others, suggesting a different order of needs.
Maslow stated that there are five levels of needs with regards to motivation and he gave
distinct names to each level. The first level is known as physiological need. According to
Maslow, the first stimulation of demand in a human mind is the attainment of basic needs like
clothes, food etc. for his survival.
With regards to an organizational setting, the first level can be fulfilled by providing the
employee with a proper working environment, office equipment, etc.
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The second level has been recognized as the security needs where the individual will crave
for certain levels of security like health insurance, anti-theft, etc. (Kaur, 2013)
In an organizational setting, an employee can be catered to for the fulfilment of the second
level of need by ensuring that he has a stable job, a fixed salary, safe working conditions, etc.
The third level of need recognized by Maslow is known as the love & belonging need where
an individual is stimulated by the needs of love, appreciation, togetherness, etc.
Moreover, researchers failed to support the arguments that once a need is satisfied it no
longer serves as a motivator and that only one need is dominant at a given time. Neher, A.
(1991). Maslow’s theory of motivation: A critique. Journal of Humanistic Psychology
Rauschenberger, J., Schmitt, N., & Hunter, J. E. (1980). A test of the need hierarchy concept
by a Markov model of change in need strength. Administrative Science Quarterly.
Despite the lack of strong research support, Maslow’s theory found obvious applications in
business settings. Understanding what people need gives us clues to understanding them. The
hierarchy is a systematic way of thinking about the different needs employees may have at
any given point and explains different reactions they may have to similar treatment.
An employee who is trying to satisfy esteem needs may feel gratified when her supervisor
praises an accomplishment. However, another employee who is trying to satisfy social needs
may resent being praised by upper management in front of peers if the praise sets the
individual apart from the rest of the group.
McGregor’s Theory X and Y
Douglas McGregor (1960) produced his analysis of the different views about people and how
they should be motivated. Theory X is the traditional view that the average human dislikes
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work and wishes to avoid responsibility and that, therefore, ‘most people must be coerced,
controlled, directed, threatened with punishment to get them to put forward adequate effort
towards organizational objectives’.
In contrast, theory Y emphasizes that people will exercise self-direction in the service of
objectives to which they are committed and that commitment to objectives is a function of the
rewards associated with their achievement.
Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human beings: one basically negative,
labeled Theory x, and the other basically positive, labeled theory y.
Theory X and Theory Y are theories of human work motivation and management. They were
created by Douglas McGregor while he was working at the MIT Sloan School of
Management in the 1950s, and developed further in the [Link]'s work was rooted
in motivation theory alongside the works of Abraham Maslow, who created the hierarchy of
needs. The two theories proposed by McGregor describe contrasting models of workforce
motivation applied by managers in human resource management, organizational behavior,
organizational communication and organizational development. Theory X explains the
importance of heightened supervision, external rewards, and penalties, while Theory Y
highlights the motivating role of job satisfaction and encourages workers to approach tasks
without direct supervision. Management use of Theory X and Theory Y can affect employee
motivation and productivity in different ways, and managers may choose to implement
strategies from both theories into their practices.
ERG Theory
ERG theory, developed by Clayton Alderfer, is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs. Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs.
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. Instead of the five needs that are
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hierarchically organized, Alderfer proposed that basic human needs may be grouped under
three categories, namely, existence, relatedness, and growth.
Existence corresponds to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs, relatedness corresponds
to social needs, and growth refers to Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization.
ERG theory’s main contribution to the literature is its relaxation of Maslow’s assumptions.
For example, ERG theory does not rank needs in any particular order and explicitly
recognizes that more than one need may operate at a given time. Moreover, the theory has a
“frustration-regression” hypothesis suggesting that individuals who are frustrated in their
attempts to satisfy one need may regress to another. For example, someone who is frustrated
by the growth opportunities in his job and progress toward career goals may regress to
relatedness need and start spending more time socializing with coworkers. The implication of
this theory is that we need to recognize the multiple needs that may be driving individuals at
a given point to understand their behavior and properly motivate them.
Herzberg’s two-factor model
The two-factor model of satisfies and dissatisfies was developed by Herzberg et al (1957)
following an investigation into the sources of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of
accountants and engineers.
It was assumed that people have the capacity to report accurately the conditions that made
them satisfied and dissatisfied with their jobs.
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Herzberg’s two-factor theory has been strongly attacked by, for example, Opsahl and
Dunnette (1966).
It has also been suggested that wide and unwarranted inferences have been drawn from small
and specialized samples and that there is no evidence to suggest that the satisfiers do improve
productivity. In spite of these criticisms the Herzberg two-factor theory continues to thrive;
partly because it is easy to understand and seems to be based on ‘real life’ rather than
academic abstractions, and partly because it convincingly emphasizes the positive value of
the intrinsic motivating factors.
It is also in accord with a fundamental belief in the dignity of labour and the Protestant ethic
– that work is good in itself. As a result, Herzberg had immense influence on the job
enrichment movement, which sought to design jobs in a way that would maximize the
opportunities to obtain intrinsic satisfaction from work and thus improve the quality of
working life.
Frederick Herzberg approached the question of motivation in a different way. By asking
individuals what satisfies them on the job and what dissatisfies them, Herzberg came to the
conclusion that aspects of the work environment that satisfy employees are very different
from aspects that dissatisfy [Link], F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The
motivation to work. New York: John Wiley; Herzberg, F. (1965).
The motivation to work among Finnish supervisors. Personnel Psychology, 18, 393–402.
Herzberg labeled factors causing dissatisfaction of workers as “hygiene” factors because
these factors were part of the context in which the job was performed, as opposed to the job
itself.
Hygiene factors
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Hygiene factors included company policies, supervision, working conditions, salary, safety,
and security on the job.
To illustrate, imagine that you are working in an unpleasant work environment. Your office is
too hot in the summer and too cold in the winter. You are being harassed and mistreated.
You would certainly be miserable in such a work environment. However, if these problems
were solved (your office temperature is just right and you are not harassed at all), would you
be motivated? Most likely, you would take the situation for granted. In fact, many factors in
our work environment are things that we miss when they are absent but take for granted if
they are present.
Herzberg’s research is far from being universally [Link], L. L., & Elsalmi, A.
M. (1968). Empirical research on the bases and correlates of managerial motivation.
Psychological Bulletin, 70, 127–144; House, R. J., & Wigdor, L. A. (1967). Herzberg’s dual-
factor theory of job satisfaction and motivation: A review of the evidence and a criticism.
Personnel Psychology, 20, 369–389. One criticism relates to the primary research
methodology employed when arriving at hygiene versus motivators. When people are asked
why they are satisfied, they may attribute the causes of satisfaction to themselves, whereas
when explaining what dissatisfies them, they may blame the situation. The classification of
the factors as hygiene or motivator is not that simple either. For example, the theory views
pay as a hygiene factor. However, pay may have symbolic value by showing employees that
they are being recognized for their contributions as well as communicating that they are
advancing within the company.
Similarly, the quality of supervision or the types of relationships employees form with their
supervisors may determine whether they are assigned interesting work, whether they are
recognized for their potential, and whether they take on more responsibilities.
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Despite its limitations, the theory can be a valuable aid to managers because it points out that
improving the environment in which the job is performed goes only so far in motivating
employees.
Undoubtedly, contextual factors matter because their absence causes dissatisfaction.
However, solely focusing on hygiene factors will not be enough, and managers should also
enrich jobs by giving employees opportunities for challenging work, greater responsibilities,
advancement opportunities, and a job in which their subordinates can feel successful.
Acquired-Needs Theory
Among the need-based approaches to motivation, David McClelland’s acquired-needs theory
is the one that has received the greatest amount of support. According to this theory,
individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences. These needs are
the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for power. All individuals
possess a combination of these needs, and the dominant needs are thought to drive employee
behavior.
McClelland used a unique method called the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to assess
the dominant need. Spangler, W. D. (1992). Validity of questionnaire and TAT measures of
need for achievement: Two meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 140–154. This
method entails presenting research subjects an ambiguous picture asking them to write a story
based on it. Take a look at the following picture. Who is this person? What is she doing?
Why is she doing it? The story you tell about the woman in the picture would then be
analyzed by trained experts. The idea is that the stories the photo evokes would reflect how
the mind works and what motivates the person.
Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 33–52. As adults, they are preoccupied with doing
things better than they did in the past.
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Presidential effectiveness and the leadership motive profile. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 60, 439–455; Spreier, S. W. (2006). Leadership run amok. Harvard Business
Review, 84, 72–82.
McClelland’s theory of acquired needs has important implications for the motivation of
employees. Managers need to understand the dominant needs of their employees to be able to
motivate them.
While people who have a high need for achievement may respond to goals, those with a high
need for power may attempt to gain influence over those they work with, and individuals high
in their need for affiliation may be motivated to gain the approval of their peers and
supervisors.
Finally, those who have a high drive for success may experience difficulties in managerial
positions, and making them aware of common pitfalls may increase their effectiveness.
McClelland’s Need Achievement Theory
McClelland’s need achievement theory postulates that some people are driven to success
through seeking “personal achievement rather than rewards themselves” (Saif et al., 2012,
p.1387). This theory is readily applicable to academic environments and explains why some
teachers are high achievers, despite the difficulties they face: they set themselves high goals
and achieving these goals is what drives them. Alderfer’s ERG theory is related to Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs but reduces Maslow’s five categories of a need to three; namely,
relatedness being (esteem/social needs), then growth being (self-actualization) and existence
which is (security/physiological needs).
Expectancy Theory
According to expectancy theory, individual motivation to put forth more or less effort is
determined by a rational calculation in which individuals evaluate their [Link], L.
W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance. Homewood, IL: Irwin;
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.
According to this theory, individuals ask themselves three questions.
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The first question is whether the person believes that high levels of effort will lead to
outcomes of interest, such as performance or success. This perception is labeled expectancy.
For example, do you believe that the effort you put forth in a class is related to performing
well in that class? If you do, you are more likely to put forth effort.
The second question is the degree to which the person believes that performance is related to
subsequent outcomes, such as rewards. This perception is labeled instrumentality.
For example, do you believe that getting a good grade in the class is related to rewards such
as getting a better job, or gaining approval from your instructor, or from your friends or
parents? If you do, you are more likely to put forth effort.
Finally, individuals are also concerned about the value of the rewards awaiting them as a
result of performance. The anticipated satisfaction that will result from an outcome is labeled
valence. For example, do you value getting a better job, or gaining approval from your
instructor, friends, or parents? If these outcomes are desirable to you, your expectancy and
instrumentality is high, and you are more likely to put forth effort.
Conclusion
Motivation is very much needed for employees in an organization to be productive, and
management or leadership style has an important role to play. Motivation is not always based
on financial rewards, but non-financial rewards methods can also be used to derive the best
out of employees. Although individuals have their expectations, it is the leadership’s
responsibility to develop and align with theories that are suitable to bring job satisfaction to
their employees. However, there is no single reliable theory to be used, a mixture of them can
be utilized. Employees perform their duties diligently if they are inspired and motivated as
the results will always be positive with efficient production. Organizations which are results
oriented will go all the way to motivate their employees for them to reach their goals. A
further qualitative research on motivation strategies and theories is recommended.
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