Micro

Irrigation
Systems
Design

Dr. K. N. Tiwari

Dr. T. B. S. Rajput
 Micro Irrigation Systems Design

-: Course Content Developed By :-

Dr. K. N. Tiwari
Professor
Dept. of Agricultural and Food Engg., IIT Kharagpur

-:Content Reviewed by :-

Dr. T. B. S. Rajput
Former Project Director and Principal Scientist
Water Technology Centre, IARI, New Delhi
 INDEX
Lesson Name Page
No.
Module 1. Micro-irrigation
Lesson 1. Introduction to Micro-Irrigation 5-12
Lesson 2. Scope and Applications of Micro-irrigation 13-17
Lesson 3. Government of India Financial Assistance for 18-23
Promotion of Micro Irrigation in India
Lesson 4. Types of Micro Irrigation 24-26
Systems
Lesson 5. Components of Micro Irrigation System (MIS) 27-35
Module 2. Drip Irrigation System Design and
Installation
Lesson 6. Design Considerations 36-43
Lesson 7. Emitter Selection 44-52
Lesson 8. Hydraulics of Drip Irrigation System 53-65
Lesson 9. Pump Selection 66-74
Lesson 10. Installation and Maintenance Guidelines 75-79
Module 3. Sprinkler Irrigation
Lesson 11. Sprinkler Irrigation 80-84
Lesson 12. Classification and Components of Sprinkler 85-91
Systems
Lesson 13. Sprinkler Performance Evaluation 92-96
Lesson 14. Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System-I 97-105
Lesson 15. Hydraulic Design of Sprinkler Systems 106-118
Lesson 16. Multipurpose and Special 119-122
Applications
Lesson 17. Operation and Maintenance of Sprinkler 123-126
System
Module 4. Fertigation System
Lesson 18. Fertigation 127-135
Lesson 19. Fertigation System Design 136-139
Lesson 20. Fertilizers Application Methods 140-148
Module 5. Quality Assurance & Economic Analysis
Lesson 21. Standardization and Quality 149-155
Assurance of Micro Irrigation System
Components
Lesson 22. Terminologies in Economic Analysis 156-164
Lesson 23. Optimal Flow Criterion for Economic Drip 165-176
Irrigation Pipes Selection
Lesson 24. Economic Viability of Micro Irrigation in 177-183
Different Crops
Module 6. Automation of Micro
Irrigation System
Lesson 25. Automation 184-188
Lesson 26. Components of Automation System 189-196
Lesson 27. Types of Controls and 197-202
Automation in Micro Irrigation
Module 7. Greenhouse/Polyhouse Technology
Lesson 28. Overview of Greenhouse and Basic Concept 203-210
Lesson 29. Classification of Greenhouse 211-216
Lesson 30. General Criteria for Construction 217-226
Lesson 31. Facilities and Instruments 227-242
Required in Greenhouse
Lesson 32. Crop Production Management in Greenhouse 243-246
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Module 1. Micro-irrigation

Lesson 1. Introduction to Micro-Irrigation

1.1 Introduction

Water is one of the most critical inputs for agriculture which consumes more than 80% of the
water resources of the country. Availability of adequate quantity and quality of water is,
therefore, key factors for achieving higher productivity levels. Investments in conservation of
water, improved techniques to ensure its timely supply, and improve its efficient use are
some of the imperatives which the country needs to enhance. Poor irrigation efficiency of
conventional irrigation system has not only reduced the anticipated outcome of investments
made towards water resource development, but has also resulted in environmental problems
like water logging and soil salinity thereby affecting crop yields. This, therefore, calls for
massive investments in adoption of improved methods of irrigation such as drip and
sprinkler, including fertigation.

Various options are available for reducing water demand in agriculture. First, the supply-
side management practices include watershed development and water resource development
through major, medium and minor irrigation projects. The second is through the demand
management practices which include improved water management technologies/practices.
The micro-irrigation (MI) technologies such as drip and sprinkler are the key interventions in
water saving and improving crop productivity. Evidence shows that upto 40% to 80% of
water can be saved and water use efficiency (WUE) can be enhanced up to 100% in a
properly designed and managed MI system compared to 30-40% under conventional practice
(INCID 1994; Sivanappan 1994 cited in Kumar 2012).

The term "micro-irrigation" describes a family of irrigation systems that apply water through
small devices. These devices deliver water onto the soil surface very near the plant or below
the soil surface directly into the plant root zone. Micro-irrigation is a method for delivering
slow, frequent applications of water to the soil using a low-pressure distributing system and
special flow-control outlets. Micro-irrigation is also referred to as drip, subsurface, bubbler or
trickle irrigation and all have similar design and management criteria. The systems deliver
water to individual plants or rows of plants. The outlets are placed at short intervals along
small tubing and only the soil near the plant is watered. The outlets include emitters, orifices,
bubblers and sprays or micro sprinklers with discharge ranging from 2 to over 200lh-1.

Drip irrigation was developed originally as a sub-irrigation system and this basic idea
underlying drip irrigation can be traced back to experiments in Germany in 1860's. The first
work in drip irrigation in the U.S.A was a study carried out by House in Colorado in 1913.
An important breakthrough was made in Germany way back in 1920 when perforated pipe
drip irrigation was introduced.

5 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
During the early 1940's Symcha Blass, an engineer from Israel, observed that a big tree near a
leaking tap exhibited more vigorous growth than other trees in the area. This led him to the
concept of an irrigation system that would apply water in small quantity literally drop by
drop. The earliest drip irrigation system consisted of plastic capillary tubes of small diameter
(1 mm) attached to 1arge pipes. One of the refinements made by Blass in his original system
was coiled emitter. In his early 1960's, experiments in the Israel reported spectacular results
when they applied the Blass system in the desert area of the Negev and Arava. Drip
irrigation unit in their current diverse forms were installed widely in U.S.A, Australia, Israel,
Mexico and to a lesser extent in Canada, Cyprus, France, Iran, New Zealand, UK, Greece and
India. With the increased availability of plastic pipes and development of emitters in Israel, it
has since become an important method of irrigation in Australia, Europe, Israel, Japan,
Mexico, South Africa and the United States (INCID, 1994).

In India drip irrigation was practiced through indigenous methods such as perforated
earthenware pipes, perforated bamboo pipes and pitcher/ porous cups. In Meghalaya some
of the tribal farmers are using bamboo drip irrigation system for betel, pepper and arecanut
crops by diverting hill streams in hill slopes. Earthenware pitchers and porous cups have
been used for growing vegetable crops in Rajasthan and Haryana. In India drip irrigation
was introduced in the early 70's at agricultural universities and other research institutions.
The growth of drip irrigation has really gained momentum in the last one decade. These
developments have taken place mainly in areas of acute water scarcity and in
commercial/horticultural crops, such as coconut, grapes, banana, fruit trees, sugarcane and
plantation crops in the states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Gujarat.

Micro-irrigation has been accepted mostly in the arid regions for watering high value crops
such as fruits and orchard trees, grapes and other vine crops, sugarcane, pineapples,
strawberries, flowers and vegetables. Growers, producers and landscapers have adapted
micro-irrigation systems to suit their needs for precision water application. Micro-irrigation
systems are immensely popular not only in arid regions and urban settings but also in sub-
humid and humid zones where water supplies are limited or water is expensive. In urban
landscapes, micro-irrigation is widely used with ornamental plantings.

To bring more area under irrigation, it has become necessary to introduce new irrigation
techniques viz. Micro & Sprinkler Irrigation for economizing the use of water and increase
productivity per unit of water. This technology also arrests water logging and secondary
salinization problems of the canal command areas and check the receding water table and
deteriorating water quality in the well command areas. Micro-irrigation is to be viewed as a
total plant support system starting with planting material to post harvest management and
marketing. Therefore, micro-irrigation need be promoted in a holistic manner involving
appropriate cultivars, good agronomic practices, post harvest handling, processing and
marketing leading to an end-to-end approach. Water source development and recharge of
wells through watershed management would also form a part of the technology package
(AGRICOOP, 2005).

6 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
1.2 Overview

In micro-irrigation, water is carried to the actual root of the plant and not just to the
surrounding dirt. It uses pipes, tubes, and a dripper to slowly deliver the water. This method
uses much lesser water than normal irrigation and is more efficient and ecological.

In ancient times, a clay pot with holes were filled with water and buried in the ground. Then,
a clay pipe was used, which eventually changed into the more common perforated plastic
tubing. Even newer developments include a plastic water emitter located where the root sits
in which the water drips out. Newer and newer methods make this a valuable contribution to
the agriculture world, especially those areas lacking rain and water. Other types of micro-
irrigation include the bubbler, where the drip is more spread out, and the micro sprinkler,
which is used overhead where the water is emitted in micro-sprays. This is usually in a
closed setting such as a greenhouse.

Ideally, the irrigation tube is buried in the dirt, close to the surface. At each plant, the emitter
is placed into the tubing (which is perforated). A pump pressurizes the water slowly through
the emitters. If drip irrigation is combined with mulching, this form of watering would
actually reduce surface evaporation and be quite effective in conservation methods. Drip
irrigation can also help reduce foliage diseases that come about with wet and moldy leaves
because the water goes directly down to the main root.

Micro-irrigation is used in farms as well as commercial greenhouses. It has proven successful

in a commercial sense due to automation. Also, with piping and pressurized pumps, fertilizer
can be added to the water. This automates the watering and feeding of plants and is less
labor intensive. On land that is hilly or sloped, micro-irrigation can be the answer in avoiding
run-off. The cost of micro-irrigation would cost less than leveling the land for any type of
farming and can help control erosion. On farms growing crops spaced closely together, such
as strawberries, micro-irrigation can help in more direct watering methods. For crops grown
under cover, requiring more water, micro-irrigation can help control the flow.

1.3 Status

About 42 million ha area is potential under drip and sprinkler in the country (Raman 2010).
Out of this, about 30 million ha are suitable for sprinkler irrigation for crops like cereals,
pulses and oilseeds in addition to fodder crops. This is followed by drip with a potential of
around 12 million ha under cotton, sugar cane, fruits and vegetables, spices and condiments;
and some pulse crops like red gram, etc.

The percentage of actual area against the potential estimated under drip irrigation in
different states varied between nil in Nagaland to as much as 49.74% in Andhra Pradesh,
followed by Maharashtra (43.22%) and Tamil Nadu with 24.14%. In case of sprinkler
irrigation, the percentage of actual area against the potential estimated was as much low as
0.01% (Bihar) and the highest of 51.93% (Andhra Pradesh). Compared to the potential of
42.23 million ha in the country, the present area under MI accounts for 3.87 million ha (1.42
million ha under drip and 2.44 million ha under sprinkler) which is about 9.16% (Table 1).
The present figures thus reflect the extent of MI systems covered under different government

7 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
programmes as well as own investment by the farmers. However, the actual area under MI
may vary according to the extent of use by the farmers. (Palanisami et al., 2011)

Table 1. Potential and actual area under MI in different states (Area in ‘000 ha)

Drip Sprinkler Total

State
P A % P A % P A %

Andhra Pradesh 730 363.07 49.74 387 200.95 51.93 1,117 564.02 50.49

Bihar 142 0.16 0.11 1,708 0.21 0.01 1,850 0.37 0.02

Chattisgarh 22 3.65 16.58 189 59.27 31.36 211 62.92 29.82

Goa 10 0.76 7.62 1 0.33 33.20 11 1.09 9.95

Gujarat 1,599 169.69 10.61 1,679 136.28 8.12 3,278 305.97 9.33

Haryana 398 7.14 1.79 1992 518.37 26.02 2,390 525.50 21.99

Himachal Pradesh 14 0.12 0.83 101 0.58 0.58 115 0.70 0.61

Jharkand 43 0.13 0.31 114 0.37 0.32 157 0.50 0.32

Karnataka 745 177.33 23.80 697 228.62 32.80 1,442 405.95 28.15

Kerala 179 14.12 7.89 35 252 7.19 214 16.64 7.77

Madhya Pradesh 1,376 20.43 1.48 5,015 117.69 235 6,391 138.12 2.16

Maharashtra 1,116 482.34 43.22 1,598 214.67 12.53 2,714 697.02 25.68

Nagaland 11 0.00 0.00 42 3.96 9.43 53 3.96 7.48

Orissa 157 3.63 2.31 62 23.47 37.85 219 27.10 12.37

Punjab 559 11.73 2.10 2,819 10.51 0.37 3,378 22.24 0.66

Rajasthan 727 17.00 2.34 4,931 706.81 14.33 5,658 723.82 12.79

Tamil Nadu 544 131.34 24.14 158 27.19 17.21 702 158.52 22.58

Uttar Pradesh 2,207 10.68 0.48 8,582 10.59 0.12 10,789 21.26 0.20

West Bengal 952 0.15 0.02 280 150.03 53.58 1,232 150.18 12.19

Others 128 15.00 11.72 188 30.000 15.96 316 45.00 14.24

Total 11,659 1,428.46 12.25 30,578 2442.41 7.99 42,237 3,870.86 9.16

8 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
P= Potential; A=actual area

Source: Raman(2010) and Indiastat 2010.

1.4 Merits and demerits of micro-irrigation

Merits of micro-irrigation over other irrigation systems

Micro-irrigation systems have many potential advantages when compared to other irrigation
methods.

1. Water savings: Irrigation water requirements can be much smaller when compared with
other irrigation methods. This is due to irrigation of a smaller portion of the soil volume,
decreased evaporation from the soil surface and the reduction or elimination of the runoff.
Since the micro-irrigation system allows for a high level of water control application, water
can be applied only when needed and deep percolation can be minimized or avoided.

2. Water efficiency: Micro-irrigation can reduce water usage by 25-40% compared to

overhead systems, and 45-60% compared to surface irrigation, because do not wet the entire
field, less -evaporation, deep percolation and the runoff minimized, too.

3. Low application rates: A low application rate means a less expensive irrigation system and
more efficient utilization of pumps, filters and pipelines because these system components
may be sized for lower flow rates and used for longer periods of time. Micro-irrigation
systems are designed to supply an individual plant's water requirement by a daily
application.

4. Uniformity of water application: Micro-irrigation systems have an excellent uniformity of

water application; therefore all plants receive the same amount of water. Good uniformity
results in more efficient irrigation, which leads to savings of water, power and fertilizer. An
even, consistent application of water also results in better, more uniform yields, because each
plant is given exactly as much water and nutrients as it needs for optimum growth.

5. Energy saving: A smaller power unit is required compared to other irrigation systems.
Usually, the delivery pipe systems operate under low pressure (2 - 4 bar) and hence it
requires less energy for pumping.

6. Improved chemical application: Micro-irrigation systems allow for a high level of control
of chemical applications. The plants can be supplied with the exact amount of fertilizer
required at a given time. Since they are applied directly to the root zone, a reduction in the
total amount of fertilizer used is possible (average 25-50% cost savings in chemicals and
fertilizers). This application method is more economical, provides better distribution of
nutrients throughout the season and decreases ground water pollution due to the high
concentration of chemicals that could ordinarily move with deep percolated water. Other
chemicals such as herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, growth regulators and carbon dioxide
can be efficiently applied through micro-irrigation systems to improve crop production.

7. Weed and disease reduction: Due to limited wetted area, weed growth is inhibited and
disease occurrences reduced.
9 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
8. Field operations are more flexible: Micro-irrigation can be applied on windy days and
during operations, can function without interruption when harvesting.

9. Improved tolerance to salinity: Micro-irrigation reduces the sensitivity of most crops to

saline water, soil-water conditions due to the maintenance of high moisture levels in the root
zone. The frequent application of water continually replaces moisture removed by the plant
and moves salts away from the plant out to the edges of the root zone. These salts precipitate
out of the water at the edge of the wetted parameter. This process prevents the harmful
combination of high soil salinity and low moisture from occurring. Therefore, crops under
micro-irrigation systems are more tolerant of saline water and soil conditions.

10. Improved quality and yield: Crop quality and yield under micro-irrigation is improved
because of the slow, regular, uniform application of water and nutrients. In addition damage
and losses due to water contact with fruit or foliage are eliminated.

11. Adoption to any topography and soils: Micro-irrigation systems can operate efficiently on
any topography, if appropriately designed and managed. The low application rate with
micro-irrigation systems is ideal for heavy clay soils with low infiltration rates as the water
can be applied slowly enough for the soil to absorb it without surface runoff occurring. On
the other hand, very sandy soils frequently cannot store large amounts of water. Micro-
irrigation is ideal for these soils too, because of its ability to frequently provide small
amounts of water to the crop.

12. Automation: A micro-irrigation system can be easily automated using electrical solenoid
valves and a controller. This allows the system to be operated any time of the day or night
and for any desired length of time enabling irrigation managers to take advantage of
available crop water use information in determining optimum irrigation time.

13. Reduced labour cost: One of the major advantages of the micro-irrigation system is labour
savings. Labour requirements are low because of the low application rates allow larger areas
to be irrigated at one time and because the systems can be fully automated. In addition to the
direct savings in labour, there are often indirect labour savings due to the reduced number of
cultivations, the elimination of fertilizer application as a separate operation.

Most of the sprinklers, sprayers and jets are insect protected nozzles are closed after
operation to avoid any clogging caused by insects or other debris.

If these benefits are not achieved, the investment in a micro-irrigation system is not worth it.
Product life with good quality equipment, good operation and management can last upto 15-
20 years.

Demerits of micro-irrigation systems

1. High initial cost: The initial investment and maintenance cost for a micro-irrigation system
maybe higher than for some other irrigation methods, but the growers should weight the cost
against benefits. Filters, pumps, regulators, valves, gauges, chemical injectors and possible
automation components add to the cost of a micro-irrigation system. The emitter itself (drip
tube/tape, sprayer, and sprinkler) represents only approximately 35 - 37% of the initial
system cost. Actual cost will vary considerably depending on the selection of a particular
10 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
micro system. The growers must understand that a well designed, installed and managed
system has water saving and important agronomic, environment and economic benefits.

2. Pressurized irrigation water: The irrigation water must be pressurized, resulting in energy
costs. The required pressures are generally less than those needed for sprinkler systems, but
they are higher than those of flood irrigation systems.

3. Requires some management and maintenance: Farming with micro-irrigation systems

typically requires a change in cultivation, planting and harvesting practices. Educating
growers of these changes is required before and during the first season of the micro-
irrigation. These new practices can quickly become a standard part of the farming operation.
Micro-irrigation systems normally have greater maintenance because of the small orifice
characteristics which are susceptible to clogging from particulate matters, organic matter, and
chemical precipitates. Therefore additional maintenance including filtration, injecting
chlorine or acid and flushing lateral lines may be necessary to ensure best performance.
Machinery, animals, insects or food traffic in the field can cause leaks in the drip tape. Also in
order to realize the many benefits discussed, the grower must constantly be monitoring the
growing environment and scheduling irrigation to meet the plant's needs.

4. Clogging: One of the biggest problems encountered in micro-irrigation is clogging of

emitters. The small openings can be easily clogged by soil particles, organic matter, bacterial
slime, algae or chemical precipitates. The micro-irrigation system requires very good
filtration (most often recommended 200 mesh filtration degree) even with a good quality
water supply. The filtration system should be chosen based on physical, chemical or
biological characteristics of the water.

5. Salt accumulation near the root zone: Unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation systems,
which can flush salts below the crop root zone, micro-irrigation systems tend to move salts to
the outer edge of the wetted volume of soil and soil surface. Insufficient rainfall can move the
salts back into the root zone and cause damage. Careful management is necessary to ensure
that the salts do not migrate back into the active root zone. If the need to leach salts from the
root zone becomes critical a sprinkler or surface irrigation system may have to be used to
accomplish this purpose effectively. In areas, with heavy rainfall the salts will be washed out
of the root zone before significant accumulation occurs.

6. Seed germination: Some crops do not germinate well with micro-irrigation systems
(usually under drip tube/tape). In these cases portable sprinklers are often used for
germination. Once started the crop can be irrigated with micro-irrigation to optimize plant
growth.

7. Moisture distribution/restricted root zone: Moisture distribution depends largely on the

soil type being irrigated by the micro-irrigation system. In some soils, i.e. deep sands, very
little lateral water movement (low capillary forces) can create many problems. Under these
conditions it is difficult to wet a significant portion of the root zone. It is also more difficult to
manage the irrigation without deep percolation since only a small amount of water can be
stored in the wetted volume desired. Increasing the number of emitters per plant may
improve water distribution in the soil. Therefore, coarse sands will require much closer
spacing of emitters than fine soils. In general, for any soil the amount of emitters and their
11 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
spacing must be based on the geometry of wetted soil volume. Particularly in regions of low
rainfall, plant root activity is often limited to the soil zone wetted by the emitters. The
irrigator must remember that the micro-irrigation system is meant to apply small, frequent
irrigations. Cover crops cannot be grown year-around due to the localized nature of the
water applications.

12 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 2. Scope and Applications of Micro-irrigation

2.1 Potential and Applications of Micro Irrigation

The water use efficiency under conventional flood method of irrigation, which is very low
due to substantial conveyance and distribution losses. Recognizing the fast decline of
irrigation water potential and increasing demand for water from different sectors, a number
of demand management strategies and programmes have been introduced to save water and
increase the existing water use efficiency in Indian agriculture. One such method introduced
relatively recently in Indian agriculture is micro-irrigation, which includes both drip and
sprinkler method of irrigation. Micro-irrigation (MI) is proved to be an efficient method in
saving water and increasing water use efficiency as compared to the conventional surface
method of irrigation, where water use efficiency is only about 35-40 percent.

Studies carried out across different countries including India have confirmed that irrigation
plays a paramount role in increasing the use of yield increasing inputs and enhancing
cropping intensity as well as productivity of crops. Apart from benefiting the farmers,
irrigation development also helps to increase the employment opportunities and wage rate of
the agricultural landless labourers, both of which are essential to reduce the poverty among
the landless labour households. However, water is becoming increasingly scarce worldwide
due to various reasons. With the fast decline of irrigation water potential and continued
expansion of population and economic activity in most of the countries located in arid and
semi-arid regions, the problems of water scarcity is expected to be aggravated further.
Macro-level estimate carried out by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI),
Colombo, indicates that one-third of the world population would face absolute water scarcity
by the year 2025 (Seckler, et al., 1998; Seckler, et al., 1999). As per this estimate, the worst
affected areas would be the semi-arid regions of Asia, the Middle-East and Sub-Saharan
Africa, all of which are already having heavy concentration of population living below
poverty line. In spite of having the largest irrigated area in the world, India too has started
facing sever water scarcity in different regions. Owing to various reasons the demand for
water for different purposes has been continuously increasing in India, but the potential
water available for future use has been declining at a faster rate (Saleth, 1996; CWC, 2005).
The agricultural sector (irrigation), which currently consumes over 80 percent of the available
water in India, continues to be the major water-consuming sector due to the intensification of
agriculture (Iyer, 2003). Though India has the largest irrigated area in the world, the coverage
of irrigation is only about 40 percent of the gross cropped area as of today. One of the main
reasons for the low coverage of irrigation is the predominant use of flood (conventional)
method of irrigation, where water use efficiency is very low due to various reasons. Available
estimates indicate that water use efficiency under flood method of irrigation is only about 35
to 40 percent because of huge conveyance and distribution losses (Rosegrant, 1997; INCID,
1994).

13 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Considering the water availability for future use and the increasing demand for water from
different sectors, a number of demand management strategies and programmes (water
pricing, warabandhi, waters users‟ association, etc) have been introduced since late seventies
in India to increase the water use efficiency, especially in the use of surface irrigation water.
One of the demand management strategies introduced relatively recently to control water
consumption in Indian agriculture is micro-irrigation (MI), which includes mainly drip and
sprinkler irrigation method. Under micro-irrigation, unlike flood method of irrigation (FMI),
water is supplied at a required interval and quantity using pipe network, emitters and
nozzles. Therefore, the conveyance and distribution losses are reduced completely which
result in higher water use efficiency under MI. Though both drip and sprinkler irrigation
methods of irrigation are treated as MI, there are distinct characteristics differences between
the two in terms of flow rate, pressure requirement, wetted area and mobility (Kulkarni,
2005). While drip method supplies water directly to the root zone of the crop through a
network of pipes with the help of emitters, sprinkler irrigation method (SIM) sprinkles water
similar to rainfall into the air through nozzles which subsequently break into small water
drops and fall on the field surface. Unlike flood irrigation method, DIM supplies water
directly to the root zone of the crop, instead of land, and therefore, the water losses occurring
through evaporation and distribution are completely absent. The on-farm irrigation efficiency
of properly designed and managed drip irrigation system is estimated to be about 90 percent,
while the same is only about 35 to 40 percent for surface method of irrigation (INCID, 1994).
In sprinkler irrigation method, water saving is relatively low (up to 70 percent) as compared
to drip irrigation since SIM supplies water over the entire field of the crop (Kulkarni, 2005).

Micro-irrigation is introduced primarily to save water and increase the water use efficiency in
agriculture. However, it also delivers many other economic and social benefits to the society.
Reduction in water consumption due to drip method of irrigation over the surface method of
irrigation varies from 30 to 70 percent for different crops (INCID, 1994, Postal, 2001).
According to data available from research stations, productivity gain due to use of micro-
irrigation is estimated to be in the range of 20 to 90 percent for different crops (INCID, 1994).
While increasing the productivity of crops significantly, it also reduces weed problems, soil
erosion and cost of cultivation substantially, especially in labour-intensive operations. The
reduction in water consumption in micro-irrigation also reduces the energy use (electricity)
that is required to lift water from irrigation wells.

Table 2.1 Water saving and productivity gains under drip method of irrigation in India

Water
Water Water Use Efficiency
Crop’s Name consumption Yield (t/ha) Yield
Saving (yield/ha)/(mm/ha)
(mm/ha) Increase
over FIM
over FIM (%)
(%)
Vegetables: FIM DIM FIM DIM FIM DIM

Ash gourd 840 740 10.84 12.03 12 12 0.013 0.016

Bottle gourd 840 740 38.01 55.79 12 47 0.045 0.075

Brinjal 900 420 28.00 32.00 53 14 0.031 0.076

14 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Beet root 857 177 4.57 4.89 79 7 0.005 0.028

Sweet Potato 631 252 4.24 5.89 61 40 0.007 0.023

Potato 200 200 23.57 34.42 NIL 46 0.118 0.172

Lady’s finger 535 86 10.00 11.31 84 13 0.019 0.132

Onion 602 451 9.30 12.20 25 31 0.015 0.0277

Radish 464 108 1.05 1.19 77 13 0.002 0.011

Tomato 498 107 6.18 8.87 79 43 0.012 0.083

Chillies 1097 417 4.23 6.09 62 44 0.004 0.015

Ridge gourd 420 172 17.13 20.00 60 2 0.030 0.075

Cauliflower 389 255 8.33 11.59 34 39 0.021 0.045

Fruit Crops:

Papaya 2285 734 13.00 23.00 68 77 0.006 0.031

Banana 1760 970 57.50 87.50 45 52 0.033 0.090

Grapes 532 278 26.40 32.50 48 23 0.050 0.117

Lemon 42 8 1.88 2.52 81 35 0.045 0.315

Watermelon 800 800 29.47 88.23 Nil 179 0.037 0.110

Mosambi* 1660 640 100.00 150.00 61 50 0.060 0.234

Pomegranate* 1440 785 55.00 109.00 45 98 0.038 0.139

Other Crops:

Sugarcane 2150 940 128.00 170.00 65 33 0.060 0.181

Cotton 856 302 2.60 3.26 60 25 0.003 0.011

Coconut --- --- --- -- 60 12 --- ---

Groundnut 500 300 1.71 2.84 40 66 0.003 0.009

Notes: *-yield in 1000 numbers

Sources: INCID (1994) and NCPA (1990)

India has enormous potential for both DIM and for SIM. Two of the INCID (1994 and 1998)
reports, which present an overview about the development of drip irrigation and sprinkler

15 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
irrigation in India, indicate that about 80 crops, both narrow and widely spaced crops, can be
grown under micro-irrigation. Although DIM is considered to be highly suitable for wide
spaced and high value commercial crops, it is also being used for cultivating oilseeds, pulses,
cotton and even for wheat crop (INCID, 1994). Closely grown crops such as millets, pulses,
wheat, sugarcane, groundnut, cotton, vegetables, fruits, flowers, spices and condiments have
been found to be suitable to cultivate under sprinkler irrigation. Importantly, an
experimental study suggests that sprinkler irrigation can also be used successfully even for
cultivating paddy crop (Kundu, et al., 1998).

2.2 Micro-irrigation applications: Hills, arid lands, coastal and wastelands

Micro-irrigation for hills :

The cultivation of horticultural crops is more remunerative on the small terraces of upland
areas, due to favourable climatic conditions. However, due to the non-availability of
irrigation water, farmers grow rainfed cereals with very low yields. A check basin irrigation
method involving high water losses is commonly used in the valley areas. Plant-to-plant
hand watering, as used on a small scale in water-scarce upland areas, is commonly used
water application method, but it requires a huge amount of labour. Drip irrigation can
replace the hand watering system with minimum water losses and labour. Due to
topographical advantages, the gravitational head may be used to operate the system, thus
eliminating the initial and operational cost of pumping. Different aspects of the design of
drip irrigation systems have been discussed in detail by Keller and Bliesner (1990) assessed
the drip irrigation system for the relative effects of hydraulic design, manufacturer‟s
variation, grouping of emitters, and plugging. However, these designs are developed for
plain areas and the high water pressure is built up by pumping. Some modifications in the
design criteria are essential in order to design drip irrigation systems on hilly terraces. Most
of the conventionally available long path turbulent flow emitters require an operating water
pressure head of 10 m or more for optimum performance. Additional pressure head is
required to meet the friction losses in different components of the system, whereas the
elevation difference between two adjacent terraces mostly ranges between 0.5 and 5.0 m. This
pressure was found to be insufficient to operate the system using turbulent flow emitters.
Bhatnagar et al. (1998) obtained low emission uniformity (64–72%) for emitter operating at
pressure head of 4.0–6.5 m. However, replacing the emitters with microtubes (1.0 mm
diameter) improved the emission uniformity to 94–98% for the same conditions. Another
problem encountered is the large variation in emitter discharge, as the system has to be laid
on several terraces having varying elevations, sizes and slopes, and irregular shapes.

Micro-irrigation for arid lands:

Establishing plants in arid lands is a challenging task even with supplemental irrigation. The
low relative humidity, extreme temperatures, lack of consistent rainfall, tremendous rate of
evaporation, and high wind speeds common in desert environments all play important and
interrelated roles in water loss from soil and plants. Deterioration of water quality, drying up
of groundwater and salt accumulation in the soil due to inadequate irrigation with saline
water problems are often caused by irrigated agriculture in arid lands. Two methods seem to
be effective to avoid those problems. One is to irrigate crop with drip irrigation with limited
water and the other is to drain the excess water away. These factors make it critical that use
16 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
of drip irrigation system to deliver water at the root zone of plants in order to maximize
survival and growth.

Micro-irrigation for coastal lands:

Coastal regions have problems of cultivating crops due to excess amount of salts in these
regions. Research experiments have been conducted to store fresh rainwater in ponds and
use this water for irrigating crops with drip system. Cultivation of short duration vegetable
crops and salt tolerant crops are found to be successful in these areas.

Micro-irrigation for wastelands:

Wasteland is an important land resource for agriculture and the area where salt-affected soil
is widely distributed is usually abundant in resources of light and heat, and therefore has
great potential to develop agriculture. Soil salinization is one of factors of soil degradation in
the world, and it tends to become increasingly serious. The formation of salt-affected soil is
not only related to soil parent materials, climate, and topography, but also induced by
anthropogenic activities particularly improper irrigation and drainage. Inappropriate
irrigation leads to ground water table rise and makes the salts to get accumulated on the
upper soil layer through capillary rise. Drip irrigation was thought to be an effective method
to reclaim salt-affected soil. Many research results showed that the leaching efficiency with
drip irrigation was higher than other irrigation methods (Bresler et al. 1982). The distribution
of soil water and salts under drip irrigation is beneficial for crop growth. The soil water
content in the inner of wetted volume is higher than that in the outer where salts accumulate.
The key issue of the salt-affected soils reclamation using drip irrigation is that a reasonable
irrigation regime needs to be made to ensure not only the normal crop growth but also
surplus water for salts leaching.

17 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 3. Government of India Financial Assistance for Promotion of Micro Irrigation in

India

3.1 Financial Assistance under National Mission on Micro Irrigation

India is an agrarian country. Water management is of critical importance to Indian

agriculture. While the irrigated area in the country has almost doubled since independence, it
is believed that the irrigated area cannot exceed 50% of the cultivable area with the
conventional methods of irrigation even if the irrigation potential is fully utilized. To address
the judicious and improved methods / technologies for harnessing maximum benefits from
available water resources to enhance crop productivity without affecting soil health. The
scheme on Micro- Irrigation, which was launched during the year 2005-06, has been upscaled
to be implemented as the ‘National Mission on Micro-irrigation‟ (NMMI) during XI Plan
period.

The main objectives of NMMI are:

 To increase the area under micro-irrigation through improved technologies.

 To enhance the water use efficiency.

 To increase the productivity of the crops and farmers‟ income.

 To establish convergence and synergy among ongoing Govt. programmes.

 To promote, develop and disseminate MI technology for agriculture or horticulture

development with modern scientific knowledge.

 To create employment opportunities for skilled and unskilled person especially

unemployed youth

This is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme under which out of the total cost of the MI
System, 40% will be borne by the Central Government, 10% by the State Government
and the remaining 50% will be borne by the beneficiary, either through his/her own
resources or soft loan from financial institutions. Assistance for beneficiary farmers
will be for covering a maximum area of 5ha/ beneficiary.

At least 33% of the allocation is to be utilized for small, marginal and women farmers.
The allocation to SC/ST farmers will be proportionate to their population in the
district. Farmers who have already availed the benefit of subsidy can again avail
subsidy after 10 years.

The assistance for MI demonstrations, to be taken in farms belonging to State/Central

Governments, State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and ICAR Institutions,
progressive farmers and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO)/Trusts, on their

18 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
own land will be @ 75% of the cost for a maximum area of 0.5 ha per beneficiary,
which will be met entirely by the Central Government.

Assistance will be available for both drip and sprinkler irrigation for wide spaced as
well as close spaced crops. However, assistance for sprinkler irrigation system will be
available only for those crops where drip irrigation is uneconomical. Assistance is also
available for irrigation systems for protected cultivation including greenhouses,
polyhouses and shadenet houses. Assistance is available for implementation of
advanced technology like fertigation with fertilizer tank / venture systems, sand
filters / media filters, hydrocyclone filters / sand separators and other different type
of filters and valves required for MI system.

The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are involved in selecting the beneficiaries. The
scheme includes both drip and sprinkler irrigation. However, sprinkler irrigation will
be applicable only for those crops where drip irrigation is uneconomical. There will be
a strong HRD input for the farmers, field functionaries and other stake holders at
different levels. Besides, this there is provision for be publicity campaigns,
seminars/workshops at extensive locations to develop skills and improve awareness
among farmers about importance of water conservation and management. The
Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDCs) provide research and technical
support for implementing the scheme. Supply of good quality system both for drip
and sprinkler irrigation having BIS marking, proper after sales services to the
satisfaction of the farmer is paramount.

At the National Level, the Executive Committee of NMMI reviews the progress of
NMMI and approve the Annual Action Plans of States. At the State level, the State
Micro-irrigation Committee (SMIC) woversees the implementation of the Mission
programme in districts. The District Micro-irrigation Committee (DMIC) coordinates
the implementation of NMMI programme at the District level. NCPAH coordinates
and monitor the programme of NMMI in different States.

The scheme is implemented by an Implementing Agency (IA) appointed by the State

Government, which will be the District Rural Development Agencies (DRDA) or any
identified Agency, to whom funds will be released directly on the basis of approved
district plans for each year.

The IA shall prepare the Annual Action Plan for the State on the basis of the district
plans and get it forwarded by SMIC for approval of the Executive Committee (EC) of
NMMI. Payment is made through RTGS to the IA who transfers funds to the identified
districts. DMIC provides funds to the system suppliers through the farmers‟ /
beneficiaries‟. Registration of System Manufacturers will be done by the SMIC for use
in the Districts.

Micro-irrigation systems costs have been standardized upon which the subsidy
amount is being calculated, as stated in Tables 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6.

19 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Table 3.1 Indicative cost of installing drip irrigation system for calculation of
subsidy

Cost in Rs./ha

Lateral Spacing (m x m) 0.2 0.4 1 2 3 4 5

12 x 12 8057 13785 18820 29928 46467 57809 73611

100 x 10 8308 14277 20041 32323 50128 62787 79831

9x9 8490 14631 20900 34039 52704 66294 84219

8x8 8673 15088 22028 36217 56087 70893 89964

6x6 9492 16605 26551 44387 71715 86970 109129

5x5 10061 17977 30143 51438 74334 94465 126925

4x4 11177 18621 31793 55725 86926 113812 135459

3x3 12088 20048 36551 63269 97448 122553 153441

2.5 x 2.5 14939 27092 52230 95083 145227 203823 248954

2x2 18319 31616 63598 123441 179332 249134 305797

B. Close spaced Crops

1.5 x 1.5 21514 35973 74437 141858 211855 292595 360002

2.5 x 0.6 15463 26791 54909 100906 154213 214153 262885

1.8 x 0.6 18807 32909 70086 132653 199684 271986 338705

1.2 x 0.6 24063 43816 97598 185565 2800886 378946 474070

Table 3.2 Indicative cost of micro sprinkler and mini sprinkler irrigation system

Cost in Rs

Micro Sprinkler Mini Sprinkler

Spacing of Sprinkler (m x m)
Area (ha)
5x5 10 x 10

0.2 17019 Not Feasible

20 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
0.4 51245 35968

1 90070 74097

2 129830 139142

3 175315 211289

4 221628 271958

5 221628 333150

Table 3.3 Indicative cost of drip irrigation/fogging/misting system under protected

cultivation

Cost in Rs. per unit)

SN Particulars 504 Sqm 100 Sqm

Green House / Poly House

1. a) High Cost 55,000 21,000
b) Naturally Ventialted

2. Shadenet 45,000 18,000

Table 3.4 Indicative cost of portable sprinkler irrigation system

Area 63 mm 75 mm 90 mm

Up to 0.4 ha 10399 NA NA

More Than 0.4 ha – 1 ha 16993 19044 NA

More Than1 ha – 2 ha 24533 27280 NA

More Than 2 ha – 3 ha NA NA 36822

More Than 3 ha – 4 ha NA NA 46438

More Than 4 ha – 5 ha Na NA 52573

21 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Table 3.5 Indicative cost of semi-permanent sprinkler irrigation system

Area Cost (in Rs.)

Up to 0.4 ha 19615

0.4 ha – 1 ha 31832

1 ha – 2 ha 60699

2 ha – 3 ha 81929

3 ha – 4 ha 104689

4 ha – 5 ha 127003

Table 3.6 Indicative cost of large volume sprinklers (rain guns)

Cost in Rs.

Area 63 mm 75 mm 90 mm

More Than 0.4 ha – 1 ha 24940 30011 NA

More Than 1.0 ha – 2 ha NA 38075 NA

More Than 2.0 ha – 3 ha NA NA 54112

More Than 3.0 ha – 4 ha NA NA 62720

More Than 4.0 ha – 5 ha NA NA 68878

(Source: Guidelines, NMMI)

The total cost of the scheme is being shared between Central Government, the State
Government and the beneficiary either through his/her own resources or soft loan
from financial institutions in the ratio of 40%, 10% and 50% respectively. Bankable
schemes are being formulated for availing bank loans.

3.2 Financial support from National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD)

Broad guidelines for scheme formulation by banks for financing drip irrigation
systems are available at NABARD. The loans are available to farmers from different
banks, through NABARD. Some cooperative societies and IFFCO also provide
finances required for the initial installation of the micro-irrigation system.

22 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
3.3 Financial Assistance from National Horticulture Board (NHB)

National Horticulture Board (NHB) also has a scheme to assist farmers in increasing
the produce of horticultural crops. It also includes financial assistance for micro-
irrigation. The pattern of assistance of NHB is credit linked back-ended subsidy @ 20%
of the total project cost limited to Rs 25 lakh per project in general area and Rs 30.00
lakh in NE Region, Hilly and scheduled areas.

The terms and conditions of the assistance of NHB are as follows:

i) The assistance shall be available for projects covering area above four hectares
(above 10 acres) in case of open field cultivation in general area and 5 acres in NE,
hilly/scheduled area.

ii) Credit component as means of finance of the project should be term loan from
banking or non-banking financial institutions and should be at least 35% (i.e. 15%
more than the admissible rate of subsidy.)

iii) Projects shall be appraised to ensure and enable entrepreneur to incorporate

essential hitech components in the form of planting material, plantation, irrigation,
fertigation, vermicompost unit, precision farming, on farm PHM related
infrastructure, GAP etc.; and to that extent, the project shall be integrated in nature.

iv) Normative cost of various components shall be prescribed by NHB.

v) NHB provides financial assistance for creating irrigation infrastructure for digging
bore well to a maximum ceiling of Rs. 4.00 lakh per unit maximum upto two units.

vi) Expenses towards sprinkler system upto 10 Acres with maximum ceiling of 1.0
lakh for installation drip system upto 2.0 lakh.

23 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 4. Types of Micro Irrigation Systems

The micro irrigation system can be classified in respect to variety of parameters. The micro
irrigation encompasses several ways of water application to plants: drip, spray, subsurface
and bubbler irrigation.

4.1 Drip Irrigation

Drip or trickle irrigation is the newest of all commercial methods of water application. It is
described as the frequent, slow application of water to soils through mechanical devices
called emitters or applicators located at selected points along the delivery lines. The emitters
dissipate the pressure from the distribution system by means of orifices, vortexes and
tortuous or long flow paths, thus allowing a limited volume of water to discharge. Most
emitters are placed on the ground, but they can also be buried (Fig 4.1). The emitted water
moves within the soil system largely by unsaturated flow. The wetted soil area for widely
spaced emitters will be normally elliptical in shape. Since the area wetted by each emitter is a
function of the soil hydraulic properties, one or more emission points per plant may be
necessary (Howell et al., 1980)

4.2 Spray Irrigation

Spray irrigation is a form of irrigation in which pressurized water is sprayed over plants to
provide them with water. This type of irrigation is also sometimes called sprinkler irrigation,
and it is very widely used all over the world. The spray irrigation sizes can be designed for
all size of farms, ranging from a home sprinkler to keep a lawn green to industrial sized
sprinklers used to irrigate crops.

The application of water by a small spray or mist to the soil surface, water travel through the
air becomes instrumental in the distribution of water. In this category two types of
equipment are in use viz., micro-sprayers and micro-sprinklers. Micro-sprayers and static
micro jets are non-rotating type with flow rates ranging from 20 to 150 l/h, whereas, micro-
sprinklers are rotating type with flow rates ranging from 100 to 300 l/h. Fig 4.2 shows
operation of micro sprinkler for irrigating a flower bed.

24 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Fig 4.2. Water application through micro sprinkler system

This system is similar to the way one may water lawn at home - stand there with a hose and
spray the water out in all directions. The systems can simply be long hoses with sprinklers
along the length or a center-pivot system that traverses a circle in the fields. With
a spray irrigation system, the irrigation sprinklers may be fixed in place, or located on
movable frames. Some sprinkler heads will only spray in one direction, requiring careful
placement, while others will rotate as they spray, and delivering water across a broader area.
Rotating heads are often preferred because it allows for the installation of a single sprinkler
array to cover a big area.

The center-pivot systems have a number of metal frames (on rolling wheels) that hold the
water tube out into the fields. Electric motors move each frame in a big circle around the field
(the tube is fixed at the water source at the center of the circle), squirting water. The depth of
water applied is determined by the rate of travel of the system. Single units are ordinarily
about 1,250 to 1,300 feet long and irrigate about a 130-acre circular area. In high-pressure
systems, there can be very big water guns along the tube.

A more "modern" alternative to the high-pressure water guns is the low-pressure sprinkler
system. Here, water is gently sprayed downward onto plants instead of being shot high in
the air. Low-pressure systems are more efficient in that much less water evaporates or is
blown off the fields, if there is a strong wind present.

Sources of water for spray irrigation vary. The utilization of treated wastewater should be
encouraged. This is an environmentally friendly choice which reduces the demand for fresh
water, nourishes the plants, and reduces wastewater runoff into waterways. Treated
wastewater can be used on ornamental crops and landscaping, but it may be banned for use
on crops. The source of water can be from wells, reservoirs, rivers, lakes, and streams.

(Source: [Link] 17th Aug, 2012

[Link] 17th Aug, 2012)

4.3 Sub-Surface System

It is a system in which water is applied slowly below the land surface through emitters. Such
systems are generally preferred in semi permanent/permanent installations.

25 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) is a low-pressure, high efficiency irrigation system that uses
buried drip tubes or drip tape to meet crop water needs. SDI technologies have been a part of
irrigated agriculture since the 1960s; with the technology advancing rapidly in the last two
decades. A SDI system is a flexible and can provide frequent light irrigations. This is
especially suitable for arid, semi-arid, hot, and windy areas with limited water supply. Farm
operations also become free of impediments that normally exist above ground with any other
pressurized irrigation system. Since the water is applied below the soil surface, the effect of
surface infiltration characteristics, such as crusting, saturated condition of pounding water,
and potential surface runoff (including soil erosion) are eliminated during irrigation. With an
appropriately sized and well-maintained SDI system, water application is highly uniform
and efficient. Wetting occurs around the tube and water moves out in all directions. Fig 4.3
shows moisture distribution through a sub surface drip system. Subsurface irrigation saves
water and improves yields by eliminating surface water evaporation and reducing the
incidence of disease and weeds. Water is applied directly to the root zone of the crop and not
to the soil surface where most weed seeds winter over. As a result, germination of annual
weed seed is greatly reduced, and lowers weed pressure on beneficial crops. In addition,
some crops may benefit from the additional heat provided by dry surface conditions,
producing more crop biomass, provided water is sufficient in the root zone. When managed
properly, water and fertilizer application efficiencies are enhanced, and labor needs are
reduced. Field operations are also possible, even when irrigation is applied.

(Source: Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) by D. Reich, R. Godin, J.L. Chávez, I.

Broner1 (3/09); [Link] 17th Aug, 2012)

4.4 Bubbler System

In this system the water is applied to the soil surface in a small stream or fountain. The
discharge rate for point source bubbler emitters is greater than the drip or subsurface
emitters but generally less than 225 l/h. Since the emitter discharge rate generally exceeds the
infiltration rate of the soil, a small basin is usually required to contain or control the water.
Bubbler systems do not require elaborate filtration systems. These are suitable in situations
where large amount of water need to be applied in a short period of time and suitable for
irrigating trees with wide root zones and high water requirements.

26 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 5. Components of Micro Irrigation System (MIS)

Micro irrigation systems components

Irrigation pipeline systems are generally described as branching systems. Various branches
are given names such as main, submain, and lateral. Fig 5.1 shows a typical layout of micro-
irrigation system. Choosing the right size main, submain, and lateral pipe to match the flow
rates from the water source is important. Basic components include a pump and power unit,
a backflow prevention device if chemicals are used with water, a filter, a water distribution
system, and some devices for controlling the volume of water and pressure in the system. If
the water source is from a city/municipal/rural water supply, a direct connection is possible.

(Image source: [Link]

Pumps and power unit

Micro-irrigation systems are typically designed to make the best use of the amount of water
available. The type and size of pump selected will depend on the amount of water required,
the desired pressure and the location of the pump relative to the distribution network.
Electric power units or internal combustion engine driven pumps are equally adaptable.
However, the electric power unit is preferred because it is easier to automate.

27 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Filters

Filters remove sand and larger suspended particles before they enter the distribution
network. However, the filters cannot remove dissolved minerals, bacteria and some algae.
The three types generally used are screen, disk and sand filters.

Distribution lines

The water distribution system is a network of pipes and tubes that can range in size from 1/2
inch to 6 inches (12 mm to 150 mm) in diameter. Water from the pump may be carried to the
edge of the field by a single large main. Smaller submains may then carry the water to
laterals and ultimately to the emitters.

5.1 Control Head

The head control unit of micro-irrigation system includes the following components.

1. Pump/Overhead tank: It is required to provide sufficient pressure in the system.

Centrifugal pumps are generally used for low pressure trickle systems. Overhead tanks can
be used for small areas or orchard crops with comparatively lesser water requirements.

2. Fertilizer applicator: Application of fertilizer into pressurized irrigation system is done by

either a by-pass pressure tank, or by venturi injector or direct injection system.

3. Filters: The hazard of blocking or clogging necessitates the use of filters for efficient and
trouble free operation of the micro-irrigation system. The different types of filters used in
micro-irrigation system are described below.

a) Gravel or Media filter: Media filters consist of fine gravel or coarse quartz sand, of selected
sizes (usually 1.5 – 4 mm in diameter) free of calcium carbonate placed in a cylindrical tank.
These filters are effective in removing light suspended materials, such as algae and other
organic materials, fine sand and silt particles. This type of filtration is essential for primary
filtration of irrigation water from open water reservoirs, canals or reservoirs in which algae
may develop. Water is introduced at the top, while a layer of coarse gravel is put near the
outlet bottom. Reversing the direction of flow and opening the water drainage valve cleans
the filter. Pressure gauges are placed at the inlet and at the outlet ends of the filter to measure
the head loss across the filter. If the head loss exceeds more than 30 kPa, filter needs back
washing. Different types of media filters are shown through Fig. 5.2

b) Screen filters: Screen filters are always installed for final filtration as an additional
safeguard against clogging. While majority of impurities are filtered by sand filter, minute
sand particles and other small impurities pass through it. The screen filter, containing screen
strainer, which filters physical impurities and allows only clean water to enter into the micro-
irrigation system. The screens are usually cylindrical and made of non-corrosive metal or
plastic material. Steel wire mesh filter is shown in Fig. 5.3 These are available in a wide
variety of types and flow rate capacities with screen sizes ranging from 20 mesh to 200 mesh.
The aperture size of the screen opening should be between one seventh and one tenth of the
orifice size of emission devices used.

28 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

(Image source: Report of the task report on Micro-irrigation, Ministry of Agriculture, Dept.
of Agriculture & cooperation, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Jan, 2004)

c) Centrifugal filters: Centrifugal filters are effective in filtering sand, fine gravel and other
high density materials from well or river water. Water is introduced tangentially at the top of
a cone and creates a circular motion resulting in a centrifugal force, which throws the heavy
suspended particles against the walls. The separated particles are collected in the narrow
collecting vessel at the bottom (Fig. 5.4).

29 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

(Image source: Report of the task report on Micro-irrigation, Ministry of agriculture, Dept.
of Agriculture & cooperation, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Jan, 2004)

d) Disk filters: Disk filter contains stacks of grooved, ring shaped disks that capture debris
and are very effective in the filtration of organic material and algae. Fig. 5.5 shows disk
filters. During the filtration mode, the disks are pressed together. There is an angle in the
alignment of two adjacent disks, resulting in cavities of varying size and partly turbulent
flow. The sizes of the groove determine the filtration grade. Disk filters are available in a
wide size range (25-400 microns). Back flushing can clean disk filters. However they require
back flushing pressure as high as 2 to 3 kg/cm2.

4. Pressure relief valves, regulators or bye pass arrangement: These valves may be installed at
any point where possibility exists for excessively high pressures, either static or surge
pressures to occur. A bye pass arrangement is simplest and cost effective means to avoid
problems of high pressures instead of using costly pressure relief valves.

5. Check valves or non-return valves: These valves are used to prevent unwanted flow
reversal. They are used to prevent damaging back flow from the system to avoid return flow
of chemicals and fertilizers from the system into the water source itself to avoid
contamination of water source.

Chemical injection equipment

Micro-irrigation‟s high distribution uniformity gives it great potential for uniformly and
efficiently applying agricultural chemicals, a process called chemigation. The main
components of a chemigation unit are a chemical solution tank, an injection system and
chemigation safety devices.

Chemical Solution Tanks

Chemical solution tanks generally are constructed of poly or fibreglass. A conical form at the
tank bottom facilitates flushing it completely so that no material is wasted. Tanks should
have an easy-clean screen downstream of the valve to make them easier to clean.

30 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Injection system

The main types of chemical injectors are the venturi injector, injection pump, and the
differential tank. The different types of fertilizer / chemical injection system are shown
through Fig. 5.6. Criteria for selecting the proper injection system include cost, ease of
use/repair, durability and susceptibility to corrosion.

With venturi injectors, water is extracted from the main line, then (1) pressure is added with
a centrifugal pump or (2) a pressure differential is created by a valve in the mainline forcing
water through the injector at high velocity. The high-velocity water passing through the
throat of the venturi creates a vacuum or negative pressure, generating suction to draw
chemicals into the injector from the chemical tank. Although the venturi is cheaper than a
positive displacement pump, its injection rate is more difficult to control.

With injection pumps, water is pumped into the system using pistons, diaphragms or gears.
An injection pump has a small motor powered either by electricity or by energy from the
water itself. The motor moves small pumps (diaphragms) or pistons to inject fertilizer into
the system. The advantage of injection pumps is that chemicals can be injected with high
uniformity at rates easily be adjusted regardless of discharge pressure.

With differential tanks, water is forced through a tank containing the chemical to be injected.
As water passes into the tank, fertilizer is injected into the irrigation system. One
disadvantage of such a system is that the concentration of the chemical in the tank decreases
over time.

5.2 Water Distribution Network

The water distribution network constitutes main line, submains line and laterals with
drippers and other accessories (Fig. 5.7).

5.2.1. Mainline

he mainline transports water within the field and distribute to submains. Mainline is made of
rigid PVC or High Density Polyethylene (HDPE). Pipelines of 65 mm diameter and above
with a pressure rating 4 to 6 kg/cm2 are used for main line pipes.

5.2.2. Submains

Submains distribute water evenly to a number of lateral lines. For sub main pipes, rigid PVC,
HDPE or LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene) of diameter ranging from 32 mm to 75 mm
having pressure rating of 2.5 kg/cm2 are used.

5.2.3. Laterals

Laterals distribute the water uniformly along their length by means of drippers or emitters.
These are normally manufactured from LDPE and LLDPE (Fig.5.8). Generally pipes having
10, 12 and 16 mm internal diameter with wall thickness varying from 1 to 3 mm are used as
laterals.

31 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

(Source: Enciso, J. and Porter, D. Basics of Micro-irrigation. Texas Cooperative Extension,

The Texas A & M University System)

(Source: [Link]/pubs/ageng/irrigate/[Link] 16th Aug, 2012.)

32 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
5.3 Emission Devices

The actual application of water in a micro- irrigation system is through an emitter. The
emitter is a metering device made from plastic that delivers a small but precise discharge.
The quantity of water delivered from these emitters is usually expressed in liters per hour
(Lh-1). These emitters dissipate water pressure through the use of long-paths, small orifices or
diaphragms. Some emitters are pressure compensating meaning they discharge water at a
constant rate over a range of pressures. Emission devices deliver water in three different
modes: drip, bubbler and micro-sprinkler. In drip mode, water is applied as droplets or
trickles. In bubbler mode, water `bubbles out' from the emitters. Water is sprinkled, sprayed,
or misted in the micro-sprinkler mode. Emitters for each of these modes are available in
several discharge increments. Some emitters are adapted to apply water to closely spaced
crops planted in rows. Other emitters are used to irrigate several plants at once. There are
emitters that apply water to a single plant.

Fig.5.10 Online non-pressure compensating drippers

(Image source: Report of the Task Force on Micro-irrigation, Ministry of Agriculture, Dept.
of Agriculture & cooperation, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Jan, 2004)

Emitters / Drippers

They function as energy dissipaters, reducing the inlet pressure head (0.5 to 1.5 atmospheres)
to zero atmospheres at the outlet. The commonly used drippers are online pressure
compensating or online non-pressure compensating, in-line dripper, adjustable discharge
type drippers, vortex type drippers and micro tubing of 1 to 4 mm diameter. These are
manufactured from Poly- propylene or LLDPE.

A) Online pressure compensating drippers: A pressure compensating type dripper supplies

water uniformly on long rows and on uneven slopes. These are manufactured with high
quality flexible rubber diaphragm or disc inside the emitter that it changes shape according
to operating pressure and delivers uniform discharge (Fig. 5.9). These are most suitable on
slopes and difficult topographic terrains.

B) Online non-pressure compensating drippers: In such type of drippers discharge tends to

vary with operating pressure. They have simple thread type, labyrinth type, zigzag path,
vortex type flow path or have float type arrangement to dissipate energy. However they are

33 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
cheap and available in affordable price. Different types on line non-pressure compensating
types of drippers are shown through Fig. 5.10.

Point source emitters

Point source emitters are typically installed on the outside of the distribution line. Point
source emitters dissipate water pressure through a long narrow path and a vortex chamber or
a small orifice before discharging into the air (Fig. 5.11). The emitters can take a
predetermined water pressure at its inlet and reduce it to almost zero as the water exits.
Some can be taken apart and manually cleaned. The typical flow rates range from 2 to 8 Lh-1.

(Image source: [Link]

Line source emitter

Line source emitters are suitable for closely spaced row crops in fields and gardens. Line
source emitters are available in two variations:

 Thin wall drip line

 Thick wall drip hose.

A thin walled drip line has internal emitters molded or glued together at set distances within
a thin plastic distribution line (Fig. 5.12). The drip line is available in a wide range of
diameters, wall thickness, and emitter spacing and flow rates. The emitter spacing is selected
to closely fit plant spacing for most row crops. The flow rate is typically expressed in gallons
per minute (gpm) along a 100-foot section. Drip lines are either buried below the ground or
laid on the surface. Burial of the drip line is preferred to avoid degradation from heat and
ultraviolet rays and displacement from strong winds. However, some specialized equipment
to install and extract the thin drip distribution line is required.

(Image source: [Link]

34 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Bubblers

Bubblers typically apply water on a "per plant" basis. Bubblers are very similar to the point
source external emitters in shape but differ in performance (Fig. 5.13). Water from the
bubbler head either runs down from the emission device or spreads a few inches in an
umbrella pattern. The bubbler emitters dissipate water pressure through a variety of
diaphragm materials and deflect water through small orifices. Most bubbler emitters are
marketed as pressure compensating. The bubblers are equipped with single or multiple port
outlets. Most bubbler heads are used in planter boxes, tree wells, or specialized landscape
applications where deep localized watering is preferred. The typical flow rate from bubbler
emitters varies between 8 and 75 Lh-1.

Micro sprinklers

Micro-sprinklers are emitters commonly known as sprinkler or spray heads (Fig. 5.14). These
are of several types. The emitters operate by throwing water through in air, usually in
predetermined patterns. Depending on the water throw patterns, the micro-sprinklers are
referred to as mini-sprays, micro-sprays, jets, or spinners. The sprinkler heads are external
emitters individually connected to the lateral pipe typically using "spaghetti tubing," which is
very small (1/8 inch to 1/4 inch) diameter tubing. The sprinkler heads can be mounted on a
support stake or connected to the supply pipe. Micro-sprinklers are desirable because fewer
sprinkler heads are necessary to cover larger areas. The flow rates of micro-sprinkler emitters
vary from 16 lph to 180 lph depending on the orifice size and line pressure

(Image source: [Link]

Emission devices selection

The selection of emission devices involves choosing the type of device to be used and then
determining the capacity of the device. The type of emission device depends on such factors
as the crop to be irrigated, filtration requirements, the need for a cover crop and/or frost
protection, cost and grower preference. Micro sprinklers should be strongly considered when
a cover crop is needed for erosion, pest or disease control or when frost protection is desired.
Line-source emitters are especially well suited for row crops, although closely spaced point-
source emitters, bubblers and micro sprinklers can also be used. In situations where filtration
requirements are high, bubblers and micro sprinklers may be the most viable alternatives.

35 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Module 2. Drip Irrigation System Design and Installation

Lesson 6. Design Considerations

Prior to designing a drip irrigation system, the following informations are needed to be
assessed:

• A scaled plan of the site and area to be irrigated.

• Point-of-connection information, including static pressure and available flow.

• Irrigation water type (potable, non-potable, well, etc.) and characteristics

• Soil type (important for determining drip line emitter and line spacing).

• Proposed planting, including relative water needs of all species, and sizes at planting and
maturity.

• Local conditions, including elevation differences, local climate data (ETo), and other site
specific information.

6.1 General Considerations

Several important design criteria affect drip irrigation system efficiency. The most important
of these are:

 Efficiency of filtration

 Permissible variations of pressure head

 Base operating pressure to be used

 Degree of control of flow or pressure

 Relationship between discharge and pressure at the pump or hydrant supplying water
to the system

 Chemical treatment to dissolve or prevent mineral deposits

 Use of secondary safety screening

 Incorporation of flow monitoring

6.2 Wetting Pattern

Drip irrigation systems normally wet only a portion of the horizontal, cross sectional area of
soil. The percentage wetted area, Pw compared with the entire cropped area, depends on the
36 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
volume and rate of discharge at each emission point, spacing of emission points and type of
soil being irrigated. The area wetted at each emission point is usually quite small at the soil
surface and expands somewhat with depth to form an inverted bulb-shaped cross section.
Pw is determined from an estimate of the average area wetted at a depth of 150 to 300 mm
beneath the emitters divided by the total cropped area served.

Systems having high Pw provide more stored water. For widely spaced crops, Pw should be
held below 67% to keep the strips between rows relatively dry for cultural practices. Low
Pw values reduce loss of water due to evaporation even where cover crops are used.
Furthermore, it is costly to have a low Pw for more emitters and tubing are required to obtain
larger coverage. However, closely spaced crops with rows and emitter laterals spaced less
than 1.8m apart, Pw often approaches 100%.

The area wetted by each emitter, Aw, along a horizontal plane about 30 cm below the soil
surface depends on the rate and volume of emitter discharge. It also depends on the texture,
structure, slope and horizontal layering of the soil. The Aw values are given in the Table 6.1
for various soil textures, depths and degrees of stratification. They are based on daily or
alternate irrigation that apply volumes of water sufficient to slightly exceed the crop water
use rate.

On sloping land the wetted pattern may be distorted in the down slope direction. On the
steep fields this distortion can be extreme; as much as 90% of the pattern may be on the down
slope side. Spray emitters wet a larger surface area than the drip emitters. They are often
used in the course textured, homogenous soils where wetting a sufficiently large area would
require a large number of drip emitters.

Computing percentage wetted area:

For straight single-lateral systems, the percentage wetted area can be computed as

Where, Pw = Percentage of soil wetted, %

Np = Number of emitters per tree

Sp x Sr = Plant spacing & row spacing, m

Se = Spacing between emitters, m

w = wetted width, m

For spray emitters, the percentage wetted area can be computed as

37 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Where, Pw = Percentage of soil wetted, %

Np = Number of emitters per tree

Sp x Sr = Plant spacing & row spacing, m

Se = Spacing between emitters, m

Ap = Soil surface area directly wetted by the sprayers, m2

PS =The perimeter of the area directly wetted by the sprayers, m

6.3 Irrigation Water Requirement

The irrigation water requirement for crop production is the amount of water, in addition to
rainfall, that must be applied to meet a crop's evapotranspiration needs without significant
reduction in yield. The crop water requirements under drip irrigation may be different from
crop requirements under surface and sprinkler irrigation primarily because the land area
wetted is reduced resulting in less evaporation from the soil surface. Most methods of
estimating crop water requirement presently utilized (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977) provide
estimates of evapotranspiration which probably contain a significant soil evaporation
component.

Table 6.1 Expected maximum diameter of the wetted circle (Aw) formed by a single
emission device discharging approximately 4 l/h on various soils.

Varying layers, generally

Sand or root depth and Homogeneous Varying layers, generally medium
low density
soil texture (cm) density (cm)
(cm)

Depth 75cm

Coarse 45 75 110

Medium 90 120 150

Fine 107 150 180

Depth 150cm

Coarse 75 140 180

Medium 120 215 275

Fine 150 200 245

(Source : James, 1998)

38 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Estimation of evapotranspiration

Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects affect

evaporation and transpiration. The principal weather parameters affecting
evapotranspiration are radiation, air temperature, humidity and wind speed. Several
procedures have been developed to assess the evaporation rate from these parameters. The
evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by the reference crop evapotranspiration
(ETo). The reference crop evapotranspiration represents the evapotranspiration from a
standardized vegetated surface. The crop type, variety and development stage should be
considered when assessing the evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-managed
fields. Differences in resistance to transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection,
ground cover and crop rooting characteristics result in different ET levels in different types of
crops under identical environmental conditions. Crop evapotranspiration under standard
conditions (ETc) refers to the evaporating demand from crops that are grown in large fields
under optimum soil water, excellent management and environmental conditions, and
achieve full production under the given climatic conditions.

Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility and limited application of fertilizers, the
presence of hard or impenetrable soil horizons, the absence of control of diseases and pests
and poor soil management may limit the crop development and reduce the
evapotranspiration. Other factors to be considered when assessing ET are ground cover,
plant density and the soil water content. Cultivation practices and the type of irrigation
method can alter the microclimate, affect the crop characteristics or affect the wetting of the
soil and crop surface. A windbreak reduces wind velocities and decreases the ET rate of the
field directly beyond the barrier. The effect can be significant especially in windy, warm and
dry conditions although evapotranspiration from the trees themselves may offset any
reduction in the field.

The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the
reference crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ETo. The
only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETo is a climatic parameter
and can be computed from weather data. ETo expresses the evaporating power of the
atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and does not consider the crop
characteristics and soil factors. The FAO Penman-Monteith (Allen et al., 1998) method is
recommended as the sole method for determining ETo. The method has been selected
because it closely approximates grass ETo at the location evaluated, is physically based, and
explicitly incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic parameters.

The crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions, denoted as ETc, is the

evapotranspiration from disease-free, well-fertilized crops, grown in large fields, under
39 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
optimum soil water conditions, and achieving full production under the given climatic
conditions.

The amount of water required to compensate the evapotranspiration loss from the cropped
field is defined as crop water requirement. Although the values for crop evapotranspiration
and crop water requirement are identical, crop water requirement refers to the amount of
water that needs to be supplied, while crop evapotranspiration refers to the amount of water
that is lost through evapotranspiration. The irrigation water requirement basically represents
the difference between the crop water requirement and effective precipitation. The irrigation
water requirement also includes additional water for leaching of salts and to compensate for
non-uniformity of water application.

Crop coefficient

Crop evapotranspiration can be calculated from climatic data and by integrating directly the
crop resistance, albedo and air resistance factors in the Penman-Monteith approach. As there
is still a considerable lack of information for different crops, the Penman-Monteith method is
used for the estimation of the standard reference crop to determine its evapotranspiration
rate, i.e., ETo. Experimentally determined ratios of ETc/ETo, called crop coefficients (Kc), are
used to relate ETc to ETo or ETc = Kc ETo.

The Kc coefficient incorporates crop characteristics and averaged effects of evaporation from
the soil. Changes in vegetation and ground cover mean that the crop coefficient Kc varies
during the growing period. The trends in Kc during the growing period are represented in
the crop coefficient curve. Only three values for Kc are required to describe and construct the
crop coefficient curve: those during the initial stage (Kc ini), the mid-season stage (Kc mid)
and at the end of the late season stage (Kc end).

The amount of irrigation water requirement was estimated using the crop evapotranspiration
(ETc) which was calculated by the FAO Penman–Monteith method (Allen et al., 1998) based
on the climatic data. The FAO Penman–Monteith equation is as follows:

where ETc is crop evapotranspiration under standard condition (mm day−1), Rn net radiation
at the crop surface (MJ m−2 day−1), G the soil heat flux density (MJ m−2 day−1) which is
relatively small and ignored for day period, Tmean the mean daily air temperature at 2 m
height (°C), u2 the wind speed at 2 m height (m s−1) (es − ea) the vapor pressure deficit
(kPa), Δ the slope of vapor pressure curve (kPa °C−1), γ the psychrometric constant (kPa °C−1)
and Kc the crop coefficient (varies between 0.45 and 1.05) which is affected by several factors

40 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
such as crop type, crop height, albedo (reflectance) of the crop-soil surface, aerodynamic
properties, leaf and stomata properties and crop stages (Allen et al., 1998).

Net depth per irrigation

Normally, drip irrigation wets only part of the soil area. Therefore, the equations for
determining the desirable depth or volume of application per irrigation cycle and the
maximum irrigation interval must be adjusted accordingly. The maximum net depth per
irrigation, dx, is the depth of water that will replace the soil moisture deficit when it is equal
to MAD. The dx is computed as a depth over the whole crop area not just the wetted area;
however, the percentage area wetted, Pw must be taken into account. Thus for drip irrigation
equation can be given as

Where

dx = maximum net depth of water to be applied per irrigation, mm

MAD = Management allowed deficit, %

Wa = available water holding capacity of the soil, mm/m

Z = Plant root depth, m

The net depth to be applied per irrigation, dn, to meet consumptive use requirements can be
computed by

Where

dn= net depth of water to be applied per irrigation to meet consumptive use
requirements, mm

f‟ = irrigation interval or frequency, days

fx = average daily transpiration during peak-use period, mm

Td = average daily transpiration during peak-use period, mm

For the design purposes, the Td for the mature crop should be used for sizing the pipe
network. Furthermore, assuming irrigation interval as one day, so that d n = Td, simplifies
design process (Keller and Bliesner, 1990).

41 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Gross irrigation requirements

Gross irrigation depth and volume requirements for drip systems are based on net
requirements and efficiencies. The grass depth per irrigation, d, should include sufficient
water to allow for unavoidable deep percolation. To minimize avoidable losses, systems
should be well designed, accurately scheduled, and carefully maintained. Where LRi ≤ 0.1 or
the unavoidable deep percolation is greater than the adjusted leaching water required Tr ≥
0.9/(1.0- LRi) (Keller and Bliesner, 1990).

Where LRi> 0.1 or Tr < 0.9/(1.0- LRi)

Where d= gross depth of application per irrigation, mm

dn= net depth of water to be applied per irrigation to meet consumptive use
requirements, mm

d' = maximum gross daily irrigation requirement, mm

Tr = peak use period transmission ratio

Td = average daily transpiration during peak-use period, mm

Eu = emission uniformity, %

LRi = leaching requirement under drip irrigation

The gross volume of water required per plant per day, G is a useful design parameter for
selecting emitter discharge rates:

G= K d‟ Sp Sr

where

G = gross volume of water required per plant or unit length of row per day, L/day

K = Conversion constant, which is 1.0

d‟ = maximum gross daily irrigation requirement, mm

Sp = spacing between plants, m

Sr = spacing between row, m

42 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
6.4 Capacity of Drip Irrigation System

It is necessary to determine the system capacity and operating time per season to design a
pumping plant and pipeline network that are economical and efficient. The capacity of the
drip irrigation system, Qs is the maximum number of emitters operating at any given time
multiplied by average emitter discharge, qa. According to Keller and Bliesner (1990) for
uniformly spaced laterals that supply water uniformly spaced emitters

Where,

Qs= Total system capacity, Ls-1 qa=Average emitter discharge, L/hr

K= Conversion constant, 2.778 Se = Emitter spacing, m

A= Field area, ha Sl = Lateral spacing, m

Ns = Number of operating stations

Some systems require extra capacity because of anticipated slow changes in qa can result from
such things as slow clogging due to sedimentation in long path emitters or compression of
resilient parts in compensating emitters. Both decrease and increase in qa necessitates
periodic cleaning or replacement of emitters. To prevent the need for frequent cleaning or
replenishment of emitters, where decreasing discharge rates are a potential problem, the
system should be designed with 10 to 20 % extra capacity.

43 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 7. Emitter Selection

7.1 Introduction

Emission device selection for drip irrigation systems involves choosing suitable emission
device as per the soil and crop need. The type of emission device depends on factors such as
the crop to be irrigated, filtration requirements, the need for crop from frost protection, cost
and grower preference. Micro sprinklers are considered when a cover crop requires overhead
water sprinkling, pest or disease control or for frost protection. Line-source emitters are
especially well suited for row crops, although closely spaced point source emitters, bubblers
and micro sprinklers can also be used. Bubblers and micro sprinklers will be most viable
alternative in situations where water carries large amount of sand and silt filtration
requirements are high.

Efficiency of the designed micro-irrigation system depends largely on the emitter selection.
The emitters characteristics that affect system efficiency are:

i) Manufacturing characteristics

ii) Hydraulic characteristics and

iii) Operational characteristics.

Further these are elaborated below

 Variations of emitter discharge due to manufacturing tolerances.

 Matching of discharge-pressure relationship as per design specifications.

 Stability of discharge-pressure relationship over a long time.

 Stability of emitter discharge exponent.

 Possible range of suitable operating pressures.

 Loss of pressure on lateral lines caused by the emitters connections.

 Susceptibility to clogging, siltation, accretion of chemical deposits

The choices of discharge, spacing and the emitter itself are major items in system planning.
They are dictated partly by physical data, and also by such factors as emitter placements,
type of operation, lateral diameter, and user‟s preference. Selection of emitters requires
following four steps:

 Evaluate and choose the general type of emitter that best fits the need of the area to be
wetted.
44 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
 According to the system‟s required discharge, spacing, and other planning
considerations, choose the specific type of emitter needed.

 Determine the required discharge and pressure head for the average emitter.

 Determine the allowable variation in sub unit pressure head that will give the desired
emission uniformity (Eu).

An ideal set of emitters should have the following attributes:

 Durability.

 Low cost.

 Reliable performance with a relatively low rate of discharge that is reasonably uniform
among all emitters within the system despite: variances in tolerances inherent in
manufacturing, expected differences in pressure head due to friction loss and
elevation, and expected changes in temperature of the water.

 Relatively large and self-flushing passageways to reduce or prevent clogging.

7.2 Manufacturing Characteristics

Accurate emitter manufacturing is necessary in order to achieve a high degree of system

uniformity. However, the complexity of emitter and their individual components make it
difficult to maintain precision during production. Changes in production temperature, mold
damage and non-uniform mixing of raw materials are some of the factors affecting emitter
homogeneity. Elastomeric materials are used to achieve flushing action and pressure
compensation in the manufacturing of pressure compensating emitters. These parts are
difficult to manufacture with consistent dimensions. In the manufacturing processes, there
will be variations in passage size, shape and final finish. Manufacturing variations exist due
to the inability to hold constant pressure and temperature during the processes such as
molding and welding and inconsistencies in the materials used. Due to these manufacturing
variations, any two emitters of the same type from the same box, tested at the same
temperature and pressure can have different flow rates. The flow rate in trickle irrigation
emitters is small, therefore any variation in the critical dimensions of the emission devices
can cause large variation in relative flow rates. Although the absolute magnitude of the
variation might be very small. For these reasons, water application uniformity may be greatly
affected by the emitter performance. The manufacturing coefficient of variation (C Vm) is
defined as the statistical coefficient of variation (standard deviation divided by the mean
discharge rate) in emitter discharge rates when new emitters of the same type are operated at
identical pressures and water temperatures. Under these identical operating conditions,
differences in flow rates observed are assumed to be due to variations in emitter components.
Manufacturing variation reduces uniformity of water application; therefore choose emitters
with low values of Cvm. When comparing emitters with similar flow properties, the highest
uniformity will be obtained by selecting the emitter with the smallest manufacturing
variation.

45 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
7.3 Hydraulic Characteristics

Drip emitters regulate water flow by dissipating the energy of the flow through frictional
resistance. Laminar flow emitters regulate water flow by dissipating the energy via friction
against the walls of the water passage. They utilize long and narrow flow paths, narrower or
longer the passage the more the frictional resistance to the flow. Microtubes and spiral path
emitters are examples of laminar flow emission devices. Turbulent flow emitters regulate
water flow by dissipating energy in friction against the walls of the water passage and also
between the particles themselves during their turbulent movements. Orifice, nozzle emitters,
tortuous path emitters and jets or sprayers are typically fully turbulent emitters. The drip
tapes that utilize orifices are also turbulent flow devices.

7.4 Operational Characteristics

Emitter must be resistant to extreme conditions in the environment and must maintain
physical characteristics over their lifetime in order to have consistent flow rates. Coefficient
of manufacturing variation (CV), Emission Uniformity (EU) and emitter flow variation (q var)
are three indexes to determine irrigation uniformity.

7.5 Emitter Spacing, Capacity and Emission Uniformity

Emitter flow theory

Hydraulically, most emitters can be classified as long-path emitters, orifice emitters, vortex
emitters, pressure compensating emitters and porous pipe emitters. The hydraulic
characteristics of each emitter is directly related to the mode of fluid motion inside the
emitter, which is characterized by Reynolds number (Re).

Where V is the emitter flow velocity (m s-1), d is the emitter diameter (m), is the kinematic
viscosity (m2 s-1). These flow regimes are characterized as (1) laminar, Re< 2000; (2) unstable,
2000 ≤ Re ≤ 4000; (3) partially turbulent, 4000 ≤ Re ≤ 10,000; and (4) fully turbulent, 10,000 ≤ Re.

Emitter spacing

Emitter spacing is a system design characteristic and should be selected taking into account
the soil water properties of the site, the specific rooting system of the crop and the climatic
characteristics as it affects the extent to which the crop depends on irrigation. For the same
application length of time and the same volume of water narrow spacing between drippers
on the lateral, renders a narrower and deeper wetting pattern. The width wetted by the
drippers increases until adjacent wetted volumes overlap. After the occurrence of
overlapping, the majority of the water flow is directed downwards. In case of wide spacing
between drippers, it renders a wider and shallower wetting pattern.

Clay soils absorb water slowly and runoff can occur if water is applied too quickly. Clay soils
will hold water very well and can stay wet for several days. Drip emitters of 2 L h-1 are
selected when planting is done in clay soils and spacing tends to be further apart. Sandy soils
46 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
absorb water very quickly and runoff usually doesn‟t occur. Sandy soils do not hold water
very well and can dry out very quickly. Drip emitters of 4 to 8 L h-1 discharge are chosen for
planting in sandy soils. The emitter spacing tends to be closer together. Loam soils are an
ideal in-between mix of clay and sandy soils. Its absorption rate is greater than that of clay
soil but not as fast as sandy soil. When wet, water will move outward and down more
evenly. Loam soils will hold water well and dry out at a medium rate. Drip emitters of 2 to 4
L h-1 are selected for planting in loamy soils.

Crops and Planting Geometry

Wide spacing crops: Mango, Citrus, Litchi, Sapota are wide spacing fruits. One or more than
one drip emitters of higher discharge ranging from 4 to 8 Lph are used to apply water to
meet crop water requirement.

Close spacing crops: Spinach, Coriander, Methi etc. are close growing crops. Micro
sprinklers are suitable to irrigate such crops

(Source:[Link])

Table 7.1. Typical spacing of emitters of 2 & 4 L h-1 discharge for different soil texture

Emitter Capacity Type of soil Typical Spacing (cm)

Coarse (sand) soil 60

4 L h-1 Medium soil 100

Fine (clay) soil 130

Coarse (sand) soil 30

2 L h-1 Medium soil 60

Fine (clay) soil 100

(Source: [Link]/drip)

47 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Emitter Capacity

The capacity of drip irrigation emission device may be computed by using equation

where

Q = emission device capacity, L h-1

d = depth of water application, mm

A = area irrigated by the emission device, m2

H = irrigation time, h

Ea = application efficiency

Area Wetted by Emitter

The area wetted by an emission device (A) is computed by following equation

where, A = area irrigated, m2

L = spacing between adjacent plant rows, m

S = spacing between emission points, m

Wp = per cent of cropped area being irrigated;

Ne = number of emission devices at each emission point

The value of Wp varies with crop and growth stage. Wp for wide spacing crops vary between
40 to 60 % and for close spacing crops it varies from 70 to 90 %.

Number of emission devices

The number emission devices needed for the desired wetting pattern requires information
describing the horizontal and vertical movement of water through soil. For single laterals
with equally spaced emission points, the following equation estimates the number of
emission devices per plant, Ne

48 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Where,

Dw = maximum diameter of wetted circle formed by a single point source

emission device, cm

Se = spacing between the emission devices of an emission point, cm

WP = percent of S times L irrigated

L = spacing between adjacent plant rows (m)

S = spacing between emission points, m

In drip systems with double laterals or Zigzag, pigtail, or multi exit layouts, the N e is
computed with following equation.

where AS = area wetted by a single micro sprinkler, m2

PS = perimeter of area wetted by micro sprinkler, m

DT = distance of throw, m

Emission uniformity

Several methods have been proposed for assessing the uniformity of water application in
irrigation systems. The term emission uniformity has generally been used to describe the
uniformity of emitter flow for a drip irrigation unit or subunit. Emission uniformity can be
function of: (1) hydraulic variation caused by elevation changes and friction losses along
distribution lines and (2) emitter discharge variation at a given operating pressure caused by
manufacturing variability, clogging, water temperature changes and aging. Keller and
Karmeli (1975) were the first to define an emission uniformity percentage EU for the drip
irrigation system as

49 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Where Cvm is manufacturer‟s coefficient of variation for point source or line source emitters,
Ne is the number of point source emitters per emission point (spacing between plants
divided by the unit length of lateral line used to calculate or 1, whichever is greater, for line
source emitter); is the minimum emitter discharge rate in the system (Lh-1), is the mean
emitter discharge rate (Lh-1). The emission uniformity increases as more emitters are added to
each plant. Nakayama et al. (1979) developed a Coefficient of design uniformity C ud based on
statistical analysis

Admittedly, similarities exist between Eqs. (7.8) and (7.9) since both stress the importance of
manufacturing variability and the number of emitters per plant. However, the original
derivation of EU was based on the ratio of the discharge rate for the lowest 25% of emitters to
the average discharge rate, whereas Cud is based on the discharge rate deviations from the
average rate.

Sensitivity to Clogging

The filtration of water used for irrigation is required as drip system operates for the low
discharge rates, average diameter of openings for emitter range from 0.0025 to 0.25 mm.
These small passageways make all emitters susceptible to clogging. Filtering to remove
particles 10 or more times smaller than the emitter passageway is a typical recommendation.
Self flushing type emitters require less filtration. Long path emitters, which have the largest
passageways for a given flow rate, may still require filtering of even the smaller particles to
prevent clogging.

7.6 Pressure Head-Discharge Relationship of Emitter

The relationship between in pressure head and discharge is an important characteristic of

emitters. The pressure compensating emitters have a low value of the exponent. However,
since they have some physical part that responds to pressure their long range performance
requires careful consideration. The compensating emitters usually have a high coefficient of
manufacturing variation (Cvm), and their performance may be affected by temperature,
material fatigue or both. On undulating terrain, the design of a highly uniform system is
usually constrained by the pressure sensitivity of the average emitter. Compensating emitters
provide the solution. Emitters of various sizes may be placed along the lateral to meet
pressure variations resulting from changes in elevation. In laminar flow emitters which
include the long path, low discharge devices the relationship between the discharge and the
operating pressure is linear, i.e., doubling the pressure doubles the discharge. Therefore the
variations in operating pressure head within the system are often kept to within ± 5 percent
of the desired average. In a turbulent flow emitter the change in discharge varies with the
square root of the pressure head, i.e., x = 0.5, and the pressure is to be increased four times to
double the flow. Therefore, the pressure head in drip irrigation system with turbulent flow
emitter is often allowed to vary by ± 10% of the average pressure (US Soil Cons. Service,
1984).

50 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The pressure discharge relationship for emitter is given by

Where,

Q = flow rate, H = operating pressure head, Cd = coefficient of discharge, x = exponent.

Depending upon the experimental values of x, flow regimes can be obtained. Based on the
flow regime and exponent x the emitters can be classified (Table 7.2).

Variety of emitters are commercially available, it is convenient to determine discharge

directly from manufacturers curves. Some of these curves are available in standard text books
and monographs from which Cd and x are computed using equation 7.10. Emitters made
from thermoplastic material may vary in discharge depending on the temperature. Therefore,
discharge curve should be corrected for temperature. The pressure in the emission device is
controlled by various means such as providing i) small openings, ii) long passage ways, iii)
vortex chambers, iv) changing the length or cross section of passageways or size of orifice.
They are designed to deliver constant discharge for smaller change in pressure. Porous pipe
or bi-wall tubing makes very fine jet to apply water and these are buried below the ground
surface.

Table 7.2. Emission device classification

Flow Regime x - Value Emitter Type

0.0
0.1 Pressure
Variable flow path
0.2 compensating
0.3

Vortex flow 0.4 Vortex

Fully turbulent flow 0.5 Orifice tortuous

0.6
Long or
0.7
Mostly turbulent flow spiral path
0.8

Mostly laminar flow 0.9 Micro tube

Fully laminar flow 1.0 Capillary

(Source: www. [Link]/page/437645582)

When laterals are laid above the soil surface, the ambient temperature affects the dripper
flow rate. As the water temperature increases, water viscosity decreases and the flow rate of
the emitter rises. Lateral heating is more pronounced at the distal ends due to the lower flow
velocity. As a result, emitters at the end of the lateral may have higher flow rate than emitters

51 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
at the beginning of the lateral, where as in normal conditions, it is opposite, the flow rate
decreases along the lateral due to friction head losses.

Example 7.1 Determine the emission uniformity of a drip system section that uses drip
emitter with coefficient of discharge (Cd) = 0.3, exponent (x) = 0.6 and coefficient of variation
(Cvm) = 0.06. Two emitters are used for each plant. The average pressure is 100 kPa and
minimum pressure is 95 kPa .

Solution:

Given Cd = 0.3, x=0.6

H1 = 95 kPa, H2 = 100 kPa,

Cvm= 0.06, Ne = 2

Equation 7.10, the dicharge Q1 at 95 kPa pressure

\[{{\rm{Q}}_1}{\rm{}}={\rm{}}{{\rm{C}}_{\rm{d}}}{{\rm{H}}^{\rm{x}}}\]

= 0.3 × (95)0.6

= 4.61 Lh-1

For 100 kPa pressure, the discharge

\[{{\rm{Q}}_2} = {C_d}{H^x}\]

= 0.3 × (100)0.6

= 4.75 Lh-1

\[{E_u} = 100\left[ {1 - \frac{{1.27\left( {0.06} \right)}}{{\sqrt 2 }}}

\right]\frac{{4.61}}{{4.75}}\]

=100[0.946]*0.97

= 91.7 %

Emission uniformity of the drip system given in the Example 7.1 is in the recommended
range. If value of EU is lower than the recommended value the EU could be improved by
reducing the difference between Q1 and Q2 (by using larger diameter and/or shorter laterals
or by using pressure compensating emitters) or by using an emitter with a lower Cvm.

Emission uniformity of the drip system given in the Example 7.1 is in the recommended
range. If value of EU is lower than the recommended value the EU could be improved by
reducing the difference between Q1 and Q2 (by using larger diameter and/or shorter laterals
or by using pressure compensating emitters) or by using an emitter with a lower Cvm.

52 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 8. Hydraulics of Drip Irrigation System

system are made of plastics and comprise of the main line, sub-mains and laterals. Drip
irrigation system design must ensure nearly uniform discharge of the drippers in each
section that is controlled by a valve and irrigated as unit of the system. The maximum
pressure difference allowable in a system is 20% and the maximum difference in pressure
between the head end and the tail end of a lateral should not exceed 10%. The relationship
between pressure and discharge for different types of emission devices can be obtained from
the manufacturers catalogues. The pressure loss can be estimated from monographs tables or
using the relationships expressed in the form of equations. Head loss occurs due to friction
between the pipe walls and water as it flows through the system. Obstacles- turns, bends,
expansions, contractions of pipes, etc., along the way to flow increase head losses.

The head loss due to friction is a function of the following variables:

1. Pipe length

2. Pipe diameter

3. Pipe wall smoothness

4. Water flow rate

5. Liquid viscosity

8.1 Pressure Variation in Irrigation Pipe Line

The major requirement in most situations is that the irrigation system must apply water
uniformly over the entire field. The performance of the drip system is related to operating
pressure. The uniform water application from a drip emitter requires required desired
optimum pressure. Friction loss in pipes and fittings, and differences in elevation cause
pressure to vary in a field. Friction loss causes the pressure to decrease in the downstream
direction, while changes in elevation can cause either an increase or decrease in pressure due
to pipe running on uphill or downhill. The difference in pressure between locations along
pipe line can be estimated as

Where

Pd & Pu= pressure at down and upstream positions, respectively, kPa

hl = energy loss in pipe between the up- and downstream positions, m

ΔZ = elevation difference, m (+ve for uphill & -ve for downhill

53 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The energy loss (hl) includes head loss due to friction and minor loss, which can be estimated
as.

The energy loss (hl) includes head loss due to friction and minor loss, which can be estimated
as.

where

F =constant; f (number of outlets and method used to estimate, Hf)

Hf = friction loss in pipe between up and downstream locations, m

Ml = minor losses through fittings, m

Major and minor losses are two types of losses that occur in pipe flow.

a) Major losses

Major losses occur while water flow along straight pipes. The universal equation used to
calculate friction losses of water flow along a pipe is known as the Hazen-Williams equation,
given by

As the length of the pipe increases, the discharge in the pipe decreases due to emission
outlets and hence the total energy drop is less than as estimated by the above equation 8.3.
For this reason, a reduction factor F is introduced

where,

Hf (100)= head loss due to friction per 100 meter of pipe length, m/100m

K = a constant which is 1.22 × 1012 in metric units

D = inner pipe diameter, mm

C = friction coefficient (indicates inner pipe wall smoothness, the higher the C coefficient, the
lower the head loss)

Q = flow rate, L s-1

The Hazen-Williams equation is valid in a limited range of temperature and flow pattern. In
small diameter laterals, the Darcy-Weisbach equation gives better results in calculating head
loss due to friction in small diameter lateral pipes. It is given by

54 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

where

Hf = head loss, m L = pipe length, m

f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor V = Flow velocity, m s-1

g = gravitation acceleration (9.81, m s-2) D = inner pipe diameter, m

Both the Hazen-Williams and Darcy-Weisbach equations include a parameter for the
smoothness of the internal surface of the pipe wall. In Hazen-Williams, it is the
dimensionless C coefficient and with Darcy-Weisbach the roughness factor f, as the C
coefficient is higher, head loss will be lower. On the opposite, in the Darcy-Weisbach
equation, higher values of indicate higher head losses.

b) Minor losses

The minor losses through fittings can be estimated or obtained from standard tables available
in text books and hydraulics manuals/ hand books. Minor losses are created by the flow at
bends and transitions. If the flow velocities are high through many bends and transitions in
the system, minor losses can build up and become substantial losses. Minor head losses are
expressed as an equivalent length factor that adds a virtual length of straight pipe of the
accessory diameter to the length of the pipe under calculation.

The Darcy-Weisbach, Hazen Williams or Scobey equation can be used to compute head loss
due to friction, Hf. The general form of these equations can be written as

where

K = friction factor that depends on pipe material

L = length of pipe, m

Q = flow rate,L min-1

D = diameter of pipe, mm

c, m, n = constants can be obtained from Table 8.1.

55 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Table 8.1 Constants of friction loss equations

Equations for computing Hf c m n

Darcy-Weisbach 277778 2.00 1.00

Hazen-Williams 591722 1.85 1.17

Scobey 610042 1.90 1.10

(Source: James, 1988)

For the Darcy-Weisbach equation, K is given by the equation

where

f = friction factor can be obtained from the Moody diagram

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m s-2)

K for Hazen-William equation is computed by

C = Friction coefficient depends on pipe material and diameter.

K for Scobey equation is given by

where Ks = friction factor values depends on pipe diameter and pipe material.

There will be less friction loss along a pipe with several equally spaced discharging outlets
such as submains and laterals than along a pipe of equal diameter, length, and material with
constant discharge (constant discharge means that inflow to the pipe section equals the
outflow from the section). This occurs because the quantity of water in the submain or lateral
diminishes in the downstream direction because of outlet discharge (i.e. drippers or
sprinklers attached with laterals).

The term F in equation (8.2) equals 1 when there are no outlets between the up and
downstream locations along a pipe (i.e. discharge along the pipe is constant). Equations 8.7
and 8.8 can be used to estimate F when there is more than one equally spaced outlet.
Equation 8.7 is used when the distance from the pipe line to the first outlet is equal to the
outlet spacing.

56 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Equation 8.8 is used when the distance to first outlet is half of the outlet spacing.

where

m = Exponent, m (can be obtained from Table 8.1) depending on type of equation involved in
estimating Hf.

N = Number of emitters

When the discharge varies widely from outlet to outlet, the Equation (8.1) is applied between
successive outlets working from the known pressure to unknown pressure.

8.2 Design of lateral, sub main and main pipes

8.2.1 Lateral pipe Design

Drip irrigation lateral lines are the hydraulic link between the supply lines (main or submain
lines) and the emitters. The emission devices can be connected directly to the lateral line
(online or inline), mounted on a riser (micro sprinkler, jet) from a buried lateral or attached to
the lateral on a tree loop. The lateral line will have hydraulic fittings (tees, unions, etc.,) to
connect to the submain or main line. Lateral lines are usually made of LLDPE tubing ranging
in diameter 12 mm to 16 mm. Laterals with only one diameter tubing are normally
recommended to simplify installation and maintenance and provide better flushing
characteristics. The procedures include, determining such lateral characteristics as: flow rate
and inlet pressure; locating spacing of manifolds, which in effect sets the lateral lengths; and
estimating the differences in pressure within the laterals.

In lateral line design a first consideration is acceptable uniformity of emitter flow or emitter
flow variation. If the manufacturers variation is not considered, or assumed to be small, the
design can be made to achieve a completely uniform emitter flow by using different emitter
sizes or micro tube length (Kenworthy, 1972). In general practice the emitter characteristics
are usually fixed and the emitter flow rate is determined by pressure at the emitter in the line.

On fields where the average slope in the direction of the laterals is less than 3%, it is usually
most economical to connect laterals to both sides of each manifolds. The manifold should be
positioned so that starting from a common manifold connection, the minimum pressures
along the pair of laterals are equal. Spacing of manifolds is a compromise between field
geometry and lateral hydraulics.

Because of the possibility of laminar, turbulent or fully turbulent flow in drip laterals the
Darcy-Weisbach equation should be used to compute head loss due to pipe friction. The

57 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, f, for small-diameter drip tubing is related to the Reynolds
number, Re the Reynolds number (Re) is computed with the following equation.

Where,

Re= Reynolds number (dimensionless); D = diameter of pipe, cm;

ρ = density of water, g cm-3; V = average velocity, cm s-1;

μ = viscosity of the fluid, N s m-2; K = unit constant, 10 with these units

The equation used to compute friction factor (f) depends on the magnitude of NR. For Re less
than 2000 (laminar flow), the friction factor

For Re between 2000 and 10,0000 (turbulent flow)

For Re greater than 10,0000 (fully turbulent flow)

The Hazen-Williams equation with C =150 can also be used to estimate head loss due to pipe
friction Re> 1,00,000.

8.2.2 Submain Design

The submain line hydraulics are similar to that of lateral hydraulics. The submain line is
designed to allow approximately the same energy loss as compared to the lateral line for
several laterals and submain line. Keller and Karmeli (1975) recommended that the lateral
energy loss should be 55 percent and the submain energy loss should be 45 percent of the
total allowable energy loss.

The submain design depends on the location of flow or pressure regulation. Energy loss in
the submain is directly related to the length of the submain line. The energy loss cannot
exceed the allowable limits without lowering uniformity. On particularly steep slopes, each
lateral may require individual pressure or flow regulation. In this case the length and
diameter of the submain line are determined solely by balancing the energy cost and pipe
58 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
cost. Since each lateral in this case is regulated, uniformity is independent of submain energy
loss provided that submain losses do not interfere with the flow regulation.

The position of the inlet to the submain line depends on the field slope. Usually laterals are
placed on contours, if possible with submains running with the prevailing field slope. With
sloping submain lines, the inlet is positioned so that the uphill run is shorter than the
downhill run. On gently sloping land or level areas the submain inlet should be located near
the centre of the submain lines. Submain and main lines should be provided with either
manual or automatic flushing valves. Each lateral connection at the submain should have a
secondary filter screen to prevent entry of foreign material to the lateral and clogging the
emitters.

The submain hydraulics characteristics can be computed by assuming the laterals are
analogous to emitters on lateral lines. The hydraulic characteristics of submain and main line
pipe are usually taken as hydraulically smooth since PVC pipe are normally used. The
Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient (C) usually varies between 140 and 150. The energy
loss in the submain can be computed with methods similar to those used for the lateral
computations. The energy loss at the lateral connection will depend on the type of connection
used, i.e., tee, elbow, bends etc. The total submain energy loss should include energy loss
through filters, pressure valves, and other minor losses.

8.2.3 Mainline Design

Normally, flow or pressure control or adjustment values are provided at the submain inlet.
Therefore, energy losses in the mainline should not affect system uniformity. The mainline
pipe size is based on economic comparisons of power costs and pipe costs. The mainline pipe
size should be selected to minimize the sum of power costs and capital costs over the life time
of the pipeline.

Example 8.1 Design a drip irrigation system for a citrus orchard of 1 ha area with length and
breadth of 100 m each. Citrus has been planted at a spacing of 5 m ´ 5.5 m. The maximum pan
evaporation during summer is 8 mm day-1. The other relevant data are given below:

Land slope = 0.40 % upward from S – N direction

Water source = A well located at the S–W corner of the field

Soil texture = Sandy loam

Clay content = 18.4 %

Silt = 22.6 %

Sand = 59.0 %

Field capacity = 14.9 %

Wilting point =8%

Bulk density = 1.44 gcc-1

59 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Effective root zone depth = 120 cm

Wetting fraction = 0.4

Pan coefficient = 0.7

Crop coefficient = 0.8

Solution:

Solution of this Example is taken from Tiwari (2007).

Step I

Estimation of water requirement

Evapotranspiration of the crop = Evaporation from open pan *Pan coefficient Crop
coefficient* Crop coefficient

= 8 * 0.7 * 0.8

= 4.48 mm day-1

Volume of water to be applied = Area covered by each plant * Wetting fraction *Crop
evapotranspiration

= (5 * 5.5) * 0.40 * 4.48

= 49.28 L/day ~ 50 L/day

Step II

Emitter selection and irrigation time

Emitters are selected based on the soil texture and crop root zone system. Assuming three
emitters of 4 L h-1, placed on each plant root zone in a triangular pattern. These are sufficient
to wet the effective root zone of the crop.

Total discharge delivered in one hour = 4 * 3 = 12 L h-1

Irrigation time = 50 / 12 = 4 h 10 minutes

Step III

Discharge through each lateral

A well is located at one corner of the field. Submains will be laid from the center of field (Fig.
8.1). Therefore, the length of main, sub mains, and lateral will be 50 m, 97.25 m and 47.5 m
each, respectively. The laterals will extend on both the sides of the submain. Each lateral will
supply water to 10 citrus plants.

60 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Total number of laterals = (100/5.5) * 2 = 36.36 (Considering 36)

Discharge carried by each lateral, Qlateral = 10 * 3 * 4 = 120 L h-1

Total discharge carried by 36 laterals = 120 * 36 = 4320 L h-1

Each plant is provided with three emitters, therefore total number of emitters will be 36 * 10 *
3 =1080

Step IV

Size of lateral

Once the discharge carried by each lateral is known, then size of the lateral can be
determined by using the Hazen- Williams equation.

The reduction factor (F) can be estimated by Equation 8.7

\[F=\frac{1}{{1.852 + 1}}+\frac{1}{{2 \times 30}}+\frac{{\sqrt{1.852-1} }}{{6{{(30)}^2}}}\]

= 0.367

The head loss due to friction in lateral pipe can be estimated using equation 8.3,

\[{H_f}(100)\] = = 0.54 m

\[{H_f}\]= 0.54 * (47.5/100) = 0.26 m

For D = 16 mm, \[{H_f}\]= 0.063 m

The permissible head loss due to friction is 10% of head of 10 m (head required to operate
emitters of 4 L h-1discharge), which is 1 m. therefore lateral of 12 mm size is adequate and can
be chosen.

Step V

Determination of number of manifolds

Assuming the pump discharge = 2.5 L s-1 = 9000 L h-1

Discharge carried by each lateral = 120 L h-1

Number of laterals that can be operated by each manifold = 9000/120 = 75

Therefore, one manifold or sub mains can supply water to all the laterals at a time.

61 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Step VI

Size of sub main

Total discharge through the sub mains = Qlateral*Number of laterals

= 120 * 36

= 4320 L h-1 = 1.2 L s-1

Assuming the diameter of the sub mains as 50 mm. The values of parameter of the Hazen-
Williams equation are

\[C\]= 150

\[Q\] = 1.2 L s-1

\[D\]= 50 mm

\[K\]= 1.22 * 1012

\[{\rm{F}}\] = 0.364

= 0.31 m

\[{H_f}\for 97.25 m of pipe length = 0.31 * (97.25/100)

= 0.30 m

Therefore, frictional head loss in the sub mains = 0.30 m

Pressure head required at the inlet of the sub mains = H emitter + Hf lateral + Hf sub main + H slope

= 10 + 0.26 + 0.30 + 0.40

= 10.96 m

Pressure head variation =

= 6.38 %

Estimated head loss due to friction in the sub main is much less than the recommended 20%
variation, hence reducing the pipe size from 50 to 35 mm will probably be a good option.

62 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

= 1.75 m

\[{H_f}\for 97.25 m pipe = 1.75* (97.25/100)

= 1.70 m

Pressure head required at the inlet of the sub main = H emitter + Hf lateral + Hf sub main + H slope

= 10 + 0.26 + 1.70 + 0.40

= 12.36 m

Pressure head variation =

= 17%

Pressure head variation lies within the acceptable limit, hence submain pipe of 35 mm is
accepted for deisgn.

Step VII

Size of the main line

Assuming the diameter of main as 50 mm

Discharge of main, Q main = Discharge of sub main, Qsub main

The values of parameter of the Hazen- Williams equation are

\[C\]= 150

\[Q\]= 1.2 L s-1

\[D\]= 50 mm

\[K\]= 1.22 ´ 1012

\[{H_f}\](100) =

= 0.84 m

\[{H_f}\]for 50 m main pipe = 0.84 ´ (50/100) = 0.42 m

63 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Step VIII

Determining the horse power of pump

Assuming static head as 10 m, head variation due to uneven field and the losses due to pump
fittings, etc. is taken as 10 % of all other losses.

Hlocal = 10 % of all other loss

Total dynamic head = ( Hemitter + Hf lateral + Hf sub main + H slope )+Hf main+Hstatic+Hlocal

= 12.36 + 0.42 +10 +1.28

= 24.06 m

Pump Horse power(hp)=\[\frac{{H\times Q}}{{75\times{\eta _p}}}\]

where,

\[H\]= Total dynamic head, m

\[Q\]= Total discharge through main line, L s-1

\[{\eta _p}\]= Efficiency of pump

hp=\[\frac{{1.2\ \times\ 24.06}}{{75\times 0.60}}\] = 0.64 = 1.0

Hence 1 hp pump is adequate for operating the drip irrigation system to irrigate for 1 ha area
of citrus crop.

The design details of components micro irrigation system are estimated as

Length of each lateral= 47.5 m; Total number of laterals = 36;

Diameter of lateral = 12 mm; Length of sub main = 97.25 m;

Number of sub main = 1; Diameter of sub main = 35 mm;

Length of main = 50 m; Number of main = 1;

Diameter of main = 50 mm, Pump horse power required = 1 hp.

64 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

65 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 9. Pump Selection

All micro-irrigation systems require energy to carry water through the pipe distribution
network and discharge it through the sprinklers and [Link] some instances this energy
is provided by gravity as water flows downhill through delivery system. In most irrigation
systems, energy is imparted to the water by a pump that in turn receives its energy from
either an electric motor or an internal combustion engine. The combination of pump and
prime mover (electric motor or engine) is central to the performance of most irrigation
systems. Therefore, it is important that both the pump and the prime mover be well-suited
and matched to operate the irrigation system.

Wide range of pumps are commercially available forirrigation purposes. Some applications
have specialpump requirements, but there are many commonconsiderations in the selection
of an appropriatepump. Some of these are listed below:

• Requirement of pressure (or head) and discharge

• Conditionsat suction and pump

• Source of power available

• Cost per unit of powerconsumption

• Capital cost, depreciation and interest charges

• Frequency of operation

• Reliability

• Physical constraints (for example, pump must fit in a limited space such as in borehole)

• Housing of electrical motor and pump further to keep care of water proofing.

9.1 Types of Pumps

Pumps are classified in two main categories, based onhow energy is given to lift [Link]
two types are:

• Rotodynamic pumps (centrifugal pumps, mixed flow pumps and axial pumps)

• Positive displacement pumps (pistonpumps, and helical-rotorpumps).

The principal requirement for pumping equipment used in commercial micro-irrigation is

high efficiency against comparatively high pressures. This requirement usually limits pumps
used for spray systems to rotodynamic pumps. Centrifugal pumps are widely used in
agriculture andare a good example of the rotodynamic pump group. However, for small
66 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
systems requiring pump discharge less than 2 Ls-1 positive displacement pumps can be used
under certainconditions. These are normally used in fertilizer injection equipment. In
irrigation terms, a pumping rate of2 Ls-1 is a very low flow and would be applicable
tonurseries with misting jets, vegetable growers usingdrip irrigation, and domestic irrigation
situations.

9.1.1 Rotodynamic Pumps

Rotodynamic pumps have a rotating impeller whichgives energy to the water. The speed and
size of theimpeller determine the pressure and the rate of waterflow out of the [Link] two
main types of rotodynamic pumps are thevolute pump and the turbine pump.

a) Volute Type Centrifugal Pump

Volute pumps are widely used in irrigation. They areof simple in construction, the only
moving parts beingthe impeller and shaft. The impeller is housed in acasing (volute).The
volute pump most often used for irrigationpurposes is the (radial-flow) centrifugal [Link]
can be installed with the pump shaft in the verticalor horizontal position. Its size is specified
by theinternal diameter at the discharge outlet.

The advantages of the centrifugal pump include thefollowing:

• It can be installed above the water surface.

• It can be mounted on skids for rapid removal of water to avoid floods.

• Not being submerged, it is less liable tocorrosion, although most can operate submergedfor
short periods without damage.

• It can be installed as a portable unit and used atmore than one pumping site.

• Where its use is applicable, it is easy and simple toinstall.

• It is cheap to maintain.

Where large quantities of water have to be pumpedagainst low heads, mixed-flow volute
(MFV) pumpsare used. At low heads, it is possible to get higherefficiencies with MFV pumps
than with radialflowcentrifugal pumps. Another advantage is thatthe power requirements
(for a given speed) areapproximately constant through the range of head anddischarge.

b) Turbine Pump

Turbine pumps are mixed-flow and radial-flow(centrifugal) pumps which direct water to
thedischarge outlet with diffusion vanes. Axial-flowpumps, in which the impeller resembles
a ship‟s screw,are generally classed with the [Link] turbine pumps are most often
used for pumpingfrom bores, there is a limit on impeller diameter andthe pressure which can
be developed at a given [Link] pumps do not have this physical [Link] high
pressures are required from turbinepumps, extra impellers (stages) are added to the
[Link] pumps are driven by either a line-shaft or asubmersible electric motor
mounted below and closecoupled to the pump.
67 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
c) Jet Pumps

Jet pumps are single-stage centrifugal pumps fittedwith a special assembly called an ejector.
The ejectorallows the pump to draw water from depths notpossiblewith a conventional
centrifugal pump. Thedisadvantage of jet pumps is their very poor efficiencyand discharge
when used in high pressure applications.

9.1.2 Positive Displacement Pumps

The positive displacement (or reciprocating pump)consists of a piston (displacer) moving in a

cylinderfrom which liquid enters or leaves through a valvearrangement. The positive
displacement pump isa low volume, high head pump, and so is not usedextensively in
irrigation systems. These pumpsare used, where constant flow is needed such as in drip,
fertigation, spray or mistirrigation.

a) Piston Pump

Piston pumps have a horizontal cylinder sealed from both ends with a piston inside. As the
piston movesbackwards and forwards, water is drawn in during thesuction stroke and
discharged during the compressionstroke. The discharge pulsates because of this needs to be
smoothed out using an air chamber in thedelivery line.

b) Helical Rotor Pump

Helical rotor pumps are single screw pumpsconsisting of a rigid screw-like rotor rolling with
aslight eccentric motion in a resilient internal rubberlining (stator). The rotor and stator
engage so thata constant seal between the two is maintained. Thediameter, pitch and
eccentricity of the rotor controlthe pump‟s performance.

The characteristic curve for helical rotor pumps is verysteep: small changes in flow result in
large changes [Link] positive displacement pumps require a pressure reliefvalve at
downstream of the pump to protect the mainline.

9.2 Size of Pumping Unit

Pump Performance Parameters

Capacity, head, power, efficiency, required netpositive suction head, and specific speed
areparameters that describe a pump‟s performance.

Capacity

The capacity of a pump is the amount of waterpumped per unit time. Capacity is also
frequentlycalled discharge or flow rate (Q). Inmetric units it is expressed as liters per minute
(Lmin-1)or cubic meters per second (m3s-1).

68 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Head

Head is the net work done on a unit weight ofwater by the pump impeller. It is the amount
ofenergy added to the water between the suction and delivery sides of the pump. Pumping
head is measuredas pressure difference between the discharge andsuction sides of the pump.

Pressure in water can be thought of as beingcaused by a column of the water due to

itsweight, exerts a certain pressure on a surface. Thiscolumn of water is called the head and is
usuallyexpressed in meters (m) of the [Link] and head are two different ways
ofexpressing the same value. Usually, when the term"pressure" is used it refers to units in
kilopascals (kPa), whereas "head" refers to meter‟s (m).

Power Requirements

The power imparted to the water by the pump iscalled water horsepower or water power. To
calculate water power, theflow rate and the pump head must be known. Water power can be
calculated using thefollowing equation:

where

WP = water power, kilowatts

Q = flow rate (pump capacity),m3h-1

H = pump head,m

In any physical process there are always lossesthat must be accounted for. As a result,
acertain amount of power is imparted to the water a larger amountof power is imparted to
the pump shaft. Thispower is called brake horse power. The efficiency of the pump
determines how much more power is requiredat the shaft.

Where, E is the efficiency of the pump expressed as afraction, BP and WP are brake power
and waterpower, respectively.

Efficiency

Pump efficiency is the percent of power input tothe pump shaft (the brake power) that is
transferredto the water. Since there are losses in the pump, theefficiency of the pump is less
than 100% and theamount of energy required to run the pump is greaterthan the actual
energy transferred to the water. Theefficiency of the pump can be calculated from thewater
horse power (WP) and brake horse power (BP) and is given by

69 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

9.3 Power Requirement and Pump Selection

Determination of operating conditions

Before a pump is selected it is necessary todetermine the head (H) and discharge (Q) required
for the irrigation system (sprinkler/ drip). The system head versusdischargerelationship is
developed for theentire range of operating conditions. Most pumps operate for specific range
of head-discharge condition. The selection of pump becomes difficult for satisfying all
operation conditions when these existsin wide range of system head discharge variation.
Since most pumps are not very efficient over widerange in operating heads, the most
prevalentconditions should be determined and a pump thatoperates efficiently over this set
of conditions, andcan operate under all other possible conditions,should be selected.

Total dynamic head required by the system

For a given irrigation system a pump mustprovide the required flow rate at the required
head(or pressure). The total dynamic head (TDH) curveof the system (Figure 9.1) illustrates
the head isrequired to deliver desired flow through the system Fig. 9.1).

(Source: Haman et. al., 1992)

The pressure required for operating a given sprinkler nozzle or emitter represents only a
portion of thetotal dynamic system head. Additional pressure mustbe produced by the pump
to lift water from the wellor other water source, to overcome friction losses inthe pipe and
other components of the system, and toprovide velocity for the water to flow through
70 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
thepipe. As a result, the total dynamic head for thesystem is the sum of static head (distance
the watermust be lifted), well drawdown, operatingpressure(pressure required at the emitter
or sprinkler head),friction head (energy losses) and velocity head (energyrequired for water
to flow). Figure 9.1 illustrates thesecomponents of the system TDH. It can be expressedas:

Where,

Ht = total design head against which pump is working, m

Hn = maximum head required at the main to operate the sprinklers/ drip on the lateral at the
required average pressure,m

Hm = maximum friction loss in the main and in suction line, m

Hj = elevation difference between the pump and the junction of the lateral and the main, m

Hs = elevation difference between the pump and junction of the lateral and the main, m

Horsepower requirement of pump

The horsepower requirement of pumping unit is computed by using following equation

(Michael, 2010).

Where,

H = total head loss, m

Q = Capacity of drip/ sprinkler irrigation system Ls-1

ηp = Efficiency of pump, fraction

ηm = Efficiency of motor, fraction

System head variations

The total system head will vary with time due tovariations in well drawdown, head loss due
to friction, operatingconditions, and static water level. The static water level changes due to
seasons. The friction losses will increase with the life of pumping system [Link] is
due to corrosion or deposits in the pipeand other components. The static lift component ofthe
total dynamic head may vary due to fluctuatingwater levels throughout the season, or from
year [Link] some systems there is a periodic change in theoperating head of the system. It
may not be possibleto select a pump that is efficient under a wide rangeof system heads. In

71 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
some cases an additional(booster) pump, in series with a main pump, mayprovide the
additional head, when necessary.

Pump Selection

Pump selection is the last step in theirrigation system design [Link] irrigation designer
estimates field sizes,pipe size and layout, the number of valves, typeof filters and the
different types of fittings to be used. All oftheseinformationhelpsto determine the pressure
andflow rate required by the pump, and thus finally thepump selection is done.

9.4 Head - Discharge Curve

Characteristic curves

A set of four curves known as the pump‟s characteristic curve is used to describe the
operating properties of a centrifugal pump. These four curves relate head, efficiency, power,
and net positive suctionhead required to pump capacity (Figure 9.2). Pumpmanufacturers
normally publish a set of characteristiccurves for each pump model they make. Data forthese
curves are developed by testing several pumpsof a specific model. The operating properties
of apump depend on the geometry and dimensions of thepump‟s impeller and casing.

Head Vs Pump Capacity

This curve relates head produced by a pumpto the volume of water pumped per unit
[Link], the head produced decreases as theamount of water pumped increases. The
shape of thecurve varies with pump‟s specific speed and impellerdesign. Usually, the highest
head is produced at zerodischarge and it is called the shut-off head.

Efficiency Vs Pump Capacity

The efficiency of a pumpsteadily increases to a peak, and then declines as Qincreases further.
Efficiency varies between types ofpumps, manufacturers and models.

Brake power Vs pump capacity

The shape of the brake power versus dischargecurve is a function of the head versus
discharge andefficiency versus discharge curves. In some cases the highestpower demand is
at the lowest discharge rate and itcontinues to decline as the discharge increases. It
isimportant to notice that even at zero discharge, whenthe pump is operating against the
shut-off head, aninput of energy is needed.

Net Positive Suction Head Required Vs Pump Capacity

One of the curves typically published bymanufacturers is the net positive suction head
required (NPSHr) versus capacity (Q). For a typical centrifugal pump the NPSHr steadily
increases as Qincreases. To assure that the required energy isavailable, an analysis must be
made to determine thenet positive suction head available NPSHa which is a function of the
pumping system design.

72 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
All pumps come with a head discharge curve graph that shows their operating efficiency at
different flow rates and [Link] head discharge curve graphs work in meters head for
pressure, and cubic meters per hour or litres per minute for flow. It is very important to work
in the correct appropriate units. Table 9.1provides conversion of one unit to other required
units.

Table 9.1. Pressure conversions and flow conversions for different units

Pressure Conversions Flow Conversions

Convert from To Multiply by Convert from To Multiply by

kPa Meters head 0.102 L h-1 L s-1 0.017

Meters head kPa 9.8 L s-1 L h-1 3600

kPa psi 0.145 m3h-1 L h-1 1000

psi kPa 6.9 L h-1 m3h-1 0.001

(Source: www. [Link]/services/pump-training/#System Curve)

73 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Example 9.1: A field has 20 rows of tree with 30 treesper row. One 50 Lh-1microsprinkler is
located between each tree, plus one either end of the row. Select the required pumping unit
for the system by assuming required data.

The total number of micro sprinklers = 20 (rows) x 31 (micro sprinklers per row)

= 620 micro sprinklers

The required flow rate is calculated bymultiplying the number of emitters by the

output of one sprinkler: 620 x 50 Lh-1 =31,000 Lh-1.

This is the same as 31 m3h-1, 516 L m-1 or 8.6 L s-1.

Consider 200 kPa is emitter operating pressure (frommanufacturers specifications)

& 265 kPais system pressure losses (calculated by adesigner), then

Required Pressure = 200 kPa (emitters) + 265 kPa (system losses) = 465 kPa.

Therefore, we need a pump that can deliver discharge of 31,000 Lh-1at a pressure of 465 kPa.
Using this information we can now select the pump to best suit this irrigation system.

The pressure requirement is 465 kPa which is equal to 47.4 m head.

The flow rate requirement is 31,000 Lh-1 which is equal to 8.6 L s-1

Using these figures and the head-discharge curve graph one can check whether this pump
will run the irrigation system efficiently? Normally the pump efficiency should be greater
than 60%.

Using the head-discharge curve graph locate 47.4 m total head on the vertical axis and draw a
horizontal line across the graph. On the horizontal axis locate 8.6 Ls-1discharge and draw a
vertical line up. The point at which these two lines intersect shows the efficiency at which the
pump will operate under these flow rate and pressure [Link] pump selected would
be the pump with the 264 mm diameter impeller operating at 2900 rpm. This particular pump
is expected to be approximately 69% power efficient. This means that 69% of the energy
supplied to the pump from the motor is converted to the required pressure and flow.

There is a large range of pumps available in the market with their own set of head-discharge
curve graphs. By knowing the pressure and flow rate required to operate the irrigation
system effectively, one can compare one pump against another and select the most efficient
pump for a given set of condition.

74 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 10. Installation and Maintenance Guidelines

10.1 Micro-irrigation System Installation

The main items in the installation of drip irrigation system include installation of the head
assembly (control head), comprising the pumping set, non-return valve, water meter, filters,
fertilization equipment, and flow control, air release and pressure release valves. The next
step for installation include connecting mains, sub mains, laying of drip tape or lateralsand
connecting drippers.

10.1.1 Installation of Filters and Fertigation Equipment

A hard base made of concrete is constructed for installation filters and other head control
units as per the size. Care should be takento use of minimum number of accessories like
elbows and reducersso as to avoid huge head loss. The filter size should be in accordance
with the capacity of the system. The delivery pipe of the pump should be connected directly
to the hydrocyclone or the media filter followed by the fertilizer equipment and the screen
filter then connected with the main [Link] the sand/screen filters are installed in the
correct position the arrangement for back washing of filter is one of essential requirement.

In pressurized irrigation system the fertilizer injection unit is located between the sand filter
(if required) and the screen filter. The general recommendation is that the fertilizer solution
should pass through at least two 90-degree turns to ensure adequate time for thorough
mixing so as to remove precipitate with the help of the screen filter. It is must that fertigation
unit is installed at the upstream end of the screen filter so as to filter theundisolved matter
present in the fertilizer solution.

10.1.2 Installation of Mains and Sub-mains

Except for fully portable system, both the mains and sub mains are installed underground at
a minimum depth of about 0.5m such that they are unaffected by cultivation or by movement
of heavy harvesting machinery. Even for systems, which have portable laterals that are
removed at the end of each season, it is common practice to install permanent by
underground mains and sub mains. Generally sub mains run across the direction of the rows.

The United States Soil Conservation Service has recommended the following minimum cover
of earth over for various pipe sizes (Hamish, 1977):

75 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Pipe size Depth of earth cover

1.2 to 6 cm diameter 45 cm

6 to 10 cm diameter 60 cm

Over 60 cm diameter 75 cm

It is important to clean mud and other impurities deposited in the pipe before fitting of
mains, and sub-mains and gate valves. A ball valve is provided at the inlet end of the sub-
main. After the ball valve, air release valve is provided on drip tape and sub-main. A flush
valve facing the slope of the sub-mains is provided at the end of each sub-main to facilitate
sub-main flushing.

10.1.3 Laying of laterals

Once the gromate take offs are fixed on the sub-mains, lateral/polytube laying is done as per
the design. For this, holes are drilled on the sub-main, according to the gromate take off
(GTO) i.e., 11.9 mm dia drill for 8 mm ID GTO and 16.5 mm drill for 13 mm ID GTO. Then
gromates are fixed in it and then take off are fixed. Lateral is fixed to one end of the take off.
Lateral placement is done according to row distance, with sufficient shrinking allowance and
extra lateral is provided and the end. The drippers are punched on the laterals as per the crop
requirement.

Generally laterals are laid on the ground surface. Usually laterals are placed along contours
on sloping field. Burying laterals underground might be necessary or at least have some
advantages for some installations. Where this is done, the emission devices should be kept
above ground level. The downstream end of the lateral can be closed by simply folding back
the pipe and closing it with a ring of larger diameter pipe, known as end plug. This can be
easily slipped for flushing.

10.1.4 Punching of Laterals andFixing of Emitters

Punching of laterals should start from sub-main end. Water should be allowed to flow
through lateral so as to get bulging in pipe which makes easy punching. The dripper position
is fixed as per the crop spacing and requirement. All the drippers should follow straight line.
Drippers are fixed on laterals as per the arrows marked and it should be towards the sub-
[Link] fixing the dripper, push it inside the lateral and pull it slightly. The end of
lateral should be closed with end cap.

10.2 Operation of Drip Irrigation System

The proper operation of a drip irrigation system involves the following steps:

i) Acquiring complete information and instructions from the designer and dealer.

ii) Determining when and how long to irrigate.

76 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
iii) Checking the water meter readings and recording the values.

iv) Accurately setting the hydraulic metering valve.

v) Operating the head valve to begin irrigation.

vi) Checking the system along all components for proper operation, beginning with pressure
readings at the header.

vii) Checking the emitters discharge, at least on a random basis.

viii) Setting and operating the chemical and fertilizer injection equipment (US Soil Cons.
Service, 1984).

10.3 Maintenance of Micro Iirrigation System

Periodic preventive maintenance is required for successful operation of micro irrigation

system. The emitter functioning, wetting pattern and leakage of pipes, valves, and fittings
should be checked regularly. The placement of emitters should be ascertained. If the
placement is disturbed, put the emitter in proper location. Leakage through filter gaskets in
the lids, flushing valves & fittings etc. are monitored regularly.

10.3.1 Filter Cleaning

Filter is the heart of a drip system and its failure will lead to clogging of the entire system.
Pressure differential across the filter is the correct indication of the timing of cleaning of the
filter(Tiwari, 2009).

i) Hydro cyclone filter: Hydro cyclone filter should be installed before sand and screen filter.
Hydro cyclone filter requires least maintenance. For cleaning the dirt inside of under flow
chamber open back washing valve daily. Flush the chamber by opening flush valve/cap for
thorough cleaning.

ii) Sand filter: The sand filter should be backwashed every day for five minutes to remove
the silt and other dirt accumulated during the previous day‟s irrigation. Once in a week,
while back washing, the backwash water should be allowed to pass through the lid instead of
the backwash valves. The sand in the filter bed is stirred upto the filter candles without
damaging them. Thedirt accumulated deep inside the sand bed should be allowed to go with
the water through the lid. The need of back washing can be detected by monitoring the
pressure drop across the filter. When the pressure drops has increased to a pre-determined
level, the filter should be back-flushed. ASAE recommends that this pressure drop should not
exceed 70 kPa.

iii) Screen filter: Flushing at scheduled daily interval is necessary to maintain screen filter. It
is recommended to flush screen filter, if pressure drops more than 0.5 kg cm -2 (5 m water
column). Before the start of drip irrigation system, the flush valve on the filter lid should be
kept opened so that the dirt and silt is flushed out. The filter element is taken out from the
filter and it is cleaned in flowing water. The rubber seals are taken out from both the sides

77 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
and precaution should be taken while replacing the rubber seals, otherwise they may get
damaged.

10.3.2 Maintenance of Fertigation Equipment

Initially theventury injector should be operated with clean water for 10 to 15 minutes after
fertilizer application. It will prevent clogging of suction port of ventury from clogging. It is
important to note that equipment is resistant to acid attack. The lid of the fertilizer tank
should be fully tightened while in operation. In order to check leaks between the body and
bell housing in fertigation pump, clean the seal seating and put back the seal or change and
keep the position of bell housing at upright.

10.3.3 Sub-main and Lateral / Bi-wall Flushing

Sometimes silt escapes through the filters and settles in sub mains and laterals. Also some
algae and bacteria lead to the formation of slimes/pastes in the pipe and laterals. To remove
these formations the sub mains should be flushed by opening the flush valves. The lateral
lines should be flushed by removing the end caps. By flushing, even the traces of
accumulated salts will also be removed. The flushing is stopped once the water going out is
appearcleaned.

10.3.4 Chemical Treatment

Clogging or plugging of emitters/orifices of bi-wall is due to precipitation and accumulation

of certain dissolved salts like carbonates, bi-carbonates, iron, calcium and manganese salts.
The clogging is also due to the presence of microorganisms and the related iron and sulphur
slimes due to algae and [Link] clogging or plugging is usually removed by chemical
treatment. Chemical treatments commonly used in microirrigation system include addition
of chloride and/or acid to the water supply. The frequency of chemical treatment is decided
on the degree of clogging and quality of water. As a general rule, acid treatment is performed
once in ten days and chlorine treatment once in fifteen days.

i) Acid treatment: Hydrochloric acid is injected into the micro irrigation system at the rate
suggested in the water analysis report. The acid treatment is performed till a pH of 4 is
observed at the end of pipe. After achieving a pH of 4 the system is shutofffor 24 hours. Next
day the system is flushed by opening the flush valve and lateral end caps.

ii) Chlorine treatment: Chlorine treatment in the form of bleaching powder is performed to
inhibit the growth of microorganism like algae and bacteria. The bleaching powder is
dissolved in water and this solution is injected intothe system for about 30 minutes. Then the
system is shut off for 24 h. After that the lateral end caps and flush valves are opened to flush
out the water with impurities. The recommended chlorine dosage of 0.5 to 1.0 ppm
concentration is applied continuously or 20 ppm for 20 minutes at the end of each irrigation
cycle for algae while for slimes, 1.0 ppm free residual chlorine is maintained at the end of
each laterals. For iron precipitation, 0.64 times the Fe++ content are used to maintain 1.0 ppm
free residual chlorine at the end of each [Link] of chlorine injection is related to pH
of the water to be treated. More chlorine is required for a high pH of water. The rate of

78 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
injection of liquid chlorine or acid depends on the system flow rate and can be determined by
using the following equation

where

\[{{\rm{q}}_{\rm{c}}}\]= Rate of injection of the chemical into the system, L h-1

U= Desired concentration of chemical in irrigation water, ppm

\[{{\rm{Q}}_{\rm{s}}}\]= Supply flow rate, Lmin-1

\[{\rm{C}}\]= Concentration of chemical in the solution to be injected, per cent

79 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Module 3. Sprinkler Irrigation

Lesson 11. Sprinkler Irrigation

In this module appraisal of the adoptability, development and use of sprinkler irrigation
systems, sprinkler types and components, performance evaluation, design of sprinkler
system, maintenance and operation of sprinkler systems have been discussed.

11.1 Introduction

In sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall on the
ground surface somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed by the flow of water
under pressure through small orifices or nozzles. The pressure is usually obtained by
pumping. With careful selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the
amount of irrigation water required to refill the crop root zone can be applied nearly uniform
at the rate to suit the infiltration rate of soil. In sprinkler Irrigation water is applied through a
pressurized system. The pressure causes the water to flow out through the sprinkler nozzle.
Sprinkler pipe lines are light in weight, hence can be easily transported and installed in the
field. They are highly flexible, crack and impact-proof, sustains high pressure and
temperature, hence more durable. In this system the water is moved dynamically from the
water source through a sprinkler nozzle to a desired height at a high velocity where it breaks
up into small droplets and falls on to the soil or crop surface. Due to sprinkling action water
wastage is less and it requires less labour than surface irrigation. It can be adapted more
easily on sandy soils where infiltration loss is considerably high. Altering the land surface
slope for surface methods is always economical.

In sprinkler irrigation water is applied over the crop canopy in form of fine droplets or spray.
Sprinkler irrigation keeps soil moisture at its optimum beneficial level giving higher crop
yield. Aeration through soil is good so quantity as well as quality of produce is also good.
Sprinkler systems have several other uses such as spraying of water for germination, control
of soil temperature, control of humidity and frost protection. Several fertilizers and chemicals
can be applied quickly and economically.

11.2 Historical overview

Agricultural sector is the largest consumer of water. The demand of water has been
consistently increasing from various sectors like municipal, industry etc. and each of these
can often be at the cost of agricultural requirement. The dominant method of irrigation
practiced in large parts of the country is surface irrigation, under which crop utilizes less
than one half of the water released and remaining half gets lost in conveyance, application,
runoff and evaporation. The drip and sprinklers assume high importance due to high water
use efficiency. These methods are to be used for efficient distribution and application of
water for crop production. To overcome the problem of water scarcity, the sprinkler system
was first introduced in the mid-1950s by few progressive farmers of the Narmada valley in
Madhya Pradesh, Southern region of Haryana and north eastern part of Rajasthan and parts
80 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
of Punjab (Michael, 2010). The adoption of sprinkler system later spread in the states of
Maharashtra and Karnataka. It is estimated that About 1,35,000 sprinkler sets were in use in
India in 1997 (INCID, 1998). In India, the area irrigated by the sprinkler system is about 3.5 M
ha, which is less than 2.5 % of the total area under irrigation. Table 11.1 provides statistics of
an area under sprinkler and drip irrigation in different states of India. As on March 31, 2012
Rajasthan has largest area under sprinkler irrigation followed by Haryana. About 65 % of the
area under sprinkler irrigation is under field crops like cereals, pulses, oilseeds, cotton,
sugarcane and vegetables and the rest 40% under tea, coffee and cardamom plantations in the
Western Ghats region and in the North Eastern states. The popularization of sprinkler
irrigation in India received significant financial support from centrally sponsored subsidy
scheme from the Central Government and partial sharing state governments. In India, per
hectare investment for irrigation projects has increased enormously. It is necessary to bring
more area under micro irrigation because irrigated farms typically get higher yields and can
easily grow 1 to 3 crops per year provided adequate water is available. In view of the scarcity
of water and the cost escalation of irrigation projects, it is essential and necessary to
economize the use of water and at the same time increase the productivity per unit area. This
could be achieved only by large-scale adoption of micro-irrigation system for achieving
economy and high crop production. The application of sprinkler and drip irrigation was
implemented through National Committee on the use of Plastics in Agriculture under the
Ministry of Agriculture Government of India, later it is renamed as the National Committee
on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture. The Committee established twenty two
Precision Farming Development Centers in different agro climatic regions of the country for
conducting research on micro irrigation and to implement the proven technologies in
farmers‟ fields through demonstrations.

Experiments conducted in various places of India on different crops under flood irrigation
method (FIM) and sprinkler irrigation method (SIM) are grouped in three categories food
grains, oilseeds and other crops for the purpose of comparison (Table 11.2, INCID 1998). This
can be seen from the results that average increase in yield of various crops varies from
15.09% to 28.9% and saving in water varies from 30.15% to 40.04% over flood irrigation
method (FIM) due to sprinkler irrigation method (SIM).

Table 11.1 Area under Micro Irrigation (Drip & Sprinkler Irrigation)

Area as on 31.03.2012 (ha)

SN State Drip Sprinkler Total

1 Rajasthan 55715 1098133 1153848

2 Maharashtra 778660 347623 1126283

3 Andhra pradesh 665661 323457 989118

4 Karnataka 293593 385675 679268

81 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
5 Haryana 17772 542431 560204

6 Gujarat 309520 246222 555742

7 Madhya Pradesh 110550 176223 286774

8 Tamil Nadu 206756 28217 234973

9 West Bengal 589 150576 151165

10 Chhattisgarh 11328 136310 147638

11 Orissa 12320 46090 58410

12 Sikkim 3460 2339 14799

13 Punjab 27615 11559 39174

14 UP 13973 17328 31301

15 Kerala 17301 4280 21581

16 Bihar 752 36628 37381

17 Nagaland 0 3962 3962

18 Jharkhand 1273 8842 10115

19 Goa 874 761 1635

20 HP 116 581 697

21 Arunachal Pradesh 613 0 613

22 Assam 116 129 245

23 Mizoram 72 106 178

24 Uttara Khand 38 6 44

25 Manipur 30 0 30

26 Others 15000 30000 45000

Grand Total 2543696 3597479 6150176

Source: NCPAH (2013)

82 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Source: INCID (1998)

11.3 Adoptability and Limitations of Sprinkler Irrigation

Adoptability

i)Suitable to all types of soils except heavy clay.

ii)Suitable for irrigating crops where the plant population per unit area is very high. It is
suitable for oil seeds and cereal and vegetable crops.

iii)Water saving & expensive land levelling is not required

iv)Increase in yield. Saves land as no bunds or ridges are required for ponding or guiding
water flow.

v)Less problem of clogging of sprinkler nozzles due to sediment laden water as compared to
drip irrigation emitters.
83 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
vi)Chemical and fertilizer applications can be easily used with sprinkler systems.

vii)Water conservation, saving of labor, fertilizer and pesticides.

viii)Vegetables, citrus, apple, mango, litchi, and other fruit crops can be protected from fog,
frost and high solar radiations.

ix)The water use efficiency is high with proper planning and design of sprinkler irrigation
systems.

x)Soil moisture can be maintained at optimum level.

xi)Frequent and light irrigation is possible to get better crop response.

Limitations

i)High initial investment as compared to surface irrigation methods.

ii)The fine-textured soils which have a low infiltration rate cannot be irrigated efficiently.

iii)Sprinkler irrigation is not feasible in hot climate and high windy areas, as major portion of
water is lost through evaporation and water distribution is affected due to high wind speed.

iv)High operational costs due to higher energy requirements.

v) Not suitable for crops that require ponding water. However, research experiments on
paddy crops have given promising results.

vi)In humid regions, crops prone to diseases due to moist environment.

vii)Water with impurities and sediments may damage the system.

84 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 12. Classification and Components of Sprinkler Systems

Sprinklers, laterals, submains, and mainlines are the primary components of a sprinkler
irrigation system. Sprinklers spread water as “rain droplets” over the land surface. Laterals
get water from the mainlines and submains convey to the sprinklers. Mainlines convey water
from the water source to the submains and laterals. Types and components of sprinkler
systems are discussed in this lesson.

12.1 Types of Sprinkler Irrigation Systems

Sprinkler irrigation systems may be classified as portable, semi-portable, semi-permanent, or

permanent. On the basis water application the sprinkler systems are classified into the
following two major types:

1. Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system.

2. Perforated pipe system.

1) Rotating head

Small size nozzles are placed on riser pipes fixed at uniform intervals along the length of the
lateral pipe and the lateral pipes are usually laid on the ground surface. They may also be
mounted on posts above the crop height and rotated through 90 o, to irrigate a rectangular
strip. In rotating type sprinklers, the most common device to rotate the sprinkler heads is
with a small hammer activated by the thrust of water striking against a vane connected to it.
Fig. 12.1. shows the different types of rotating head sprinkler irrigation systems.

Fig.12.1. Rotating Head Sprinkler Irrigation System

(Source: [Link])

2) Perforated pipe system

This method consists of drilled holes or nozzles along their length through which water is
sprayed under pressure. This system is usually designed for relatively low pressure (1

85 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
kg/cm2). The application rate ranges from 1.25 mm to 50 mmh-1 for various pressures and
spacing.

Based on the portability, sprinkler systems are classified into the following types:

(i) Portable system: A portable system has portable mainlines, sub-mains, laterals, and a
portable pumping plant. The entire system can be moved from field to field. Fig. 12.2. shows
the fully portable sprinkler irrigation system.

(Source: [Link])

ii) Semi-portable system

A semi-portable system is similar to a fully portable system except that the location of water
source and pumping plant is fixed. Such a system may be used on more than one field where
there is an extended mainline, but may not be used on more than one farm unless there are
additional pumping plants.

iii) Semi-permanent system

A semi-permanent system has portable lateral lines, permanent mainlines, and a stationary
water source and pumping plant. The mainline are usually buried, risers are (located at
suitable intervals) to connect with laterals.

iv) Permanent system

A fully permanent system has buried mainlines, sub-mains, and laterals with a stationary
pumping plant and/or water source. Sprinklers are permanently located on each riser. Such
systems are costly and are suited to automation.

v) Solid set system

A solid set system has enough laterals to eliminate their movement. The laterals are installed
in the field early in the crop season and remain for the season.

vi) Set-move irrigation systems

Set-move sprinkle systems are moved from one set (irrigation) position to another by hand or
mechanically. Set-move systems remain stationary when water is applied. When the desired
86 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
amount of water has been applied, the water is shut off and the sprinkler laterals are drained
and moved to the next set position. When the move is complete the water is turned on and
irrigation resumed at the new set position. This sequence is repeated until the entire field has
been irrigated. Set-move systems commonly have a single mainline laid through the centre of
the field with one or more laterals on each side of the mainline.

a) Hand-move

In hand-move system laterals are moved by uncoupling, picking –up, and carrying sections
of lateral pipe by hand to the next set position where the lateral sections are reconnected.
Earlier hand-move sprinkler laterals were made up of aluminium now these are replaced
with HDPE of 50 to 150 mm(2 to 6 in) in diameter, and 6, 9, or 12 m (20, 30, or 40 ft) long are
difficult to handle and may not provide proper spacing for the common sprinkler sizes.

b) Tow-move

Tow-move sprinkler systems are the least expensive type of mechanically moved set-move
system. Each section of a tow-move lateral has skids or wheels so that the entire laterals can
be pulled to the next set position. Usually a tractor is hooked to the mainline end of the
lateral and the lateral is dragged in the other direction across the mainline in an opposite S-
shaped curve. The moves are made easier by buried mainlines.

Tow-move system are not used extensively because shifting of lateral is tedious, it requires
careful attention, and also damages crops. Tow-move systems are suitable to forage and row
crops.

c) Side-roll

A side-roll or wheel-move system, like the one is an extremely popular type of

mechanically moved set-move system. Each section of pipe in a side-roll lateral has a wheel,
with the pipe serving as the axle of the wheel. A gasoline engine and transmission with a
reverse gear at the centre or the end of the lateral supplies the power needed to roll the
lateral, which may be as long as 800 m (about one-half mile), from one set position to the
next. The lateral is commonly 100 or 125 mm (4 or 5 in) in diameter. Each lateral section is
usually 12.2 m (40 ft) long with a wheel at its centre and a sprinkler mounted on a short riser
at one end. Often the sprinklers have self –levellers to “right” the sprinkler when the lateral is
stopped so that the riser is tilted” from its upright position. A drain valve that opens
automatically when there is a loss of pressure is usually located opposite each rise. This
allows the lateral to be quickly drained and permits moving of lateral with a minimum time
loss. The most common spacing along the mainline is 18.3 m (60 ft). The Fig. 12.3 shows a
side-roll lateral sprinkler system used on a potato field.

87 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

(Source:[Link]

d) Gun-type

The set-move system consists of a larger-volume (big-gun) sprinkler mounted on a wheeled

cart or trailer that is moved from set to set with a tractor or by hand. Sprinklers with
capacities as large as 4700 L min-1(about 1250 gpm), wetted diameters of as much as 180 m
(about 600 ft), and a recommended operating pressure range of 480 to 896 kPa (70 to 130 psi)
are commonly used. These systems are sometimes used for waste water disposal.

12.2 Components of a Sprinkler System

Sprinklers, laterals, sub-mains, and mainlines are the primary components of a sprinkler
irrigation system. Sprinklers spread water as “rainlike” droplets over the land surface.
Laterals convey water from the mainline and sub-main to the sprinklers. Mainlines convey
water from the water source to the sub-mains and laterals. Fig.12.4. shows the component of
a portable sprinkler irrigation system. A sprinkler system usually consists of the following
components.

i) A pump unit

ii) Tubing‟s- main/sub-mains and laterals

iii) Couplers

iv) Sprinkler head

v) Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs and risers.

i) Pumping unit

Sprinkler irrigation systems distribute water by spraying it over the fields. The water from
the source (ground water / surface water) is pumped under pressure to sprinkler system.
The pressure created through pump forces the water through sprinklers or through

88 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
perforations or nozzles in pipelines and then forms a spray. A high speed centrifugal or
turbine pump can be used for operating sprinkler irrigation for individual fields. Centrifugal
pump is used when the distance from the pump inlet to the water surface is less than eight
meters. For pumping water from deep wells or more than eight meters, a turbine submersible
pump is used. The driving unit may be either an electric motor or an internal combustion
engine.

(Source: Schwab etal.1993 pp. 427)

ii) Tubings

The tubing consists of mainline, sub-mains and laterals. Main line conveys water from the
source and distributes it to the sub-mains. The sub-mains convey water to the laterals which
in turn supply water to the sprinklers. Aluminium or PVC or HDPE pipes are generally used
for portable systems, while steel pipes are usually used for centre-pivot laterals. Asbestos,
cement, PVC and wrapped steel are usually used for buried laterals and main lines.

iii) Couplers

Couplers are used for connecting two pipes and uncoupling quickly and easily. Essentially a
coupler should provide

a) a reuse and flexible connection

b) not leak at the joint

c) be simple and easy to couple and uncouple, and

d) be light, non-corrosive, and durable.

89 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
iv) Sprinkler head

Sprinkler head distribute water uniformly over the field without runoff or excessive loss due
to deep percolation. Different types of sprinklers are available. They are either rotating or
fixed type. The rotating type can be adapted for a wide range of application rates and
spacing. They are effective with pressure of about 10 to 70 m head at the sprinkler. Pressures
ranging from 16 to 40 m head are considered the most practical for most farmers.

Fixed head sprinklers are commonly used to irrigate small lawns and gardens. Perforated
lateral lines are sometimes used as sprinklers. They require less pressure than rotating
sprinklers. They release more water per unit area than rotating sprinklers. Hence fixed head
sprinklers are adaptable for soils with high intake rate. Fig. 12.5. shows the rotating head
sprinkler head.

(Source:[Link]/irrigation/popups%20and%20sprinklers/sprinklersystems htm).

v) Fittings and accessories: Fig 12.5 shows different types of sprinkler fittings and
accessories. The following are some of the important fittings and accessories used in sprinkler
system.

a) Water meters: It is used to measure the volume of water delivered. This is necessary to
operate the system to supply the required quantity of water.

b) Flange, couplings and nipples are used for proper connection to the pump, suction and
delivery.

c) Pressure gauge: It is used to measure operating pressure of sprinkler system. to ensure

application uniformity, the sprinkler system is operated at desired pressure.

d) Bend, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly valve and plugs are optimal components
of a sprinkler system. They are used as per requirements.

90 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

(Source: [Link])

e) Fertilizer applicator: Soluble chemical fertilizers can be injected into the sprinkler system
and applied to the crop. The fertilizer applicator consists of a sealed fertilizer tank with
necessary tubings and connections. A venturi injector is connected with the main line, which
creates the differential pressure suction and allows the fertilizer solution to flow in the main
water line.

91 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 13. Sprinkler Performance Evaluation

The basic purpose of sprinkler irrigation is to apply uniform depth of water to the field crop.
The water distribution pattern of a sprinkler nozzle is tested with the sprinkler operating
individually under a set of specific conditions. Operating pressure and nozzle geometry (i.e.,
nozzle opening size, shape, and angle) are the primary factors that control the operation of
sprinklers. The performance of a sprinkler is described by its discharge, distance of throw,
distribution pattern, application rate and droplet size.

13.1 Sprinkler Discharge, Distance of Throw and Application Rate

i) Sprinkler Discharge: Sprinkler discharge is the volume of water passing out of the
sprinkler nozzle. Common units for sprinkler discharge are liters per minute (1/min) and
gallons per minute (gpm) in the SI and English systems, respectively. Equation 13.1 can be
used to relate sprinkler discharge to operating pressure and nozzle geometry.

Where,

Q = sprinkler discharge;

n = number of nozzles;

K = constant that depends on unit used;

C = coefficient that depends on shape and roughness of opening in nozzle i;

A = cross-sectional area of the opening in nozzle i;

P = operating pressure in nozzle i;

exponent for nozzle i.

Thus, discharge of a multi nozzle sprinkler is the sum of the nozzle discharges.

Values of C and for each nozzle and normally determined empirically. Since is about 0.5 for
most sprinklers, higher pressures and/ or larger nozzle openings will increase sprinkler
discharge. Sprinkler manufactures commonly publish tables of pressure and discharge data
for various nozzle diameters. Sprinkler discharge is not related to nozzle angle.

ii) Distance of Throw: The spacing between adjacent sprinklers depends, in part, on the
distance sprinklers throw water. Spacing usually increases as the distance of throw rises.

92 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The operating pressure, and size, shape and angle of the nozzle opening determine the
distance a sprinkler throws water. Distance of throw also tends to increase as nozzle size
increases (other things remaining constant). Nozzles opening shapes that create smaller
diameter droplets tend to wet a smaller area than nozzle that emit larger droplets. Distance of
throw usually increases and then declines as nozzle angle rises above horizontal. Sprinkler
manufactures commonly publish wetted diameter or other measures of distance of throw for
different operating pressures, and nozzle sizes, shapes, and angles.

iii) Application rate: Application rate is an extremely important parameter that is used to
properly match sprinklers to the soil, crop, and terrain on which they operate. When
sprinkler application rates are too high, runoff and erosion can occur. Application rate has
dimensions of length per unit time. The average application rate of an individual sprinkler
can be computed using Eq. 13.2

Where

A = application rate (mmh-1, inh-1);

Q = sprinkler discharge (Lmin-1, gmin-1)

a = wetted area of sprinkler (m,2 ft2)

K = unit constant (K= 60.0 for A in mm/h, Q in Lmin-1, and a in m2.

K = 96.3 for A in inh-1 , Q in gmin-1, and a in ft2).

When several identical sprinklers are spaced in a L by S grid. Eq. 13.3 can be used to compute
the average application rate.

where

A = application rate (mm/h, in/h);

Q = discharge of individual sprinklers

L = distance between sprinklers along the lateral (m)

S = spacing between adjacent sprinkler lines or lateral set positions (m)

K = K in Eq. 13.2

The average application rate beneath a lateral of sprinklers can be computed using Eq. 13.4

93 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

where, A and S are as previously defined

= total flow rate into upstream end of lateral (Lmin-1, gmin-1);

= length of lateral (m, ft);

K = K in Eq. 13.2

For most sprinklers, variation in operating pressure has little, if any, effect on the average
application rate of an individual sprinkler. When operating pressure increases, for example,
the increase in Q tends to be offset by the increase in wetted area. The average application
rate of several identical overlapping sprinklers, however, tends to be directly related to
operating pressure, since L and S remain constant as Q increases. This is also true for the
average application rate beneath a sprinkler lateral.

The average application rate for an individual sprinkler varies widely depending upon
nozzle geometry. Deflector plate sprinklers, for example have relatively high average
application rates, since they wet a much smaller area than relatively high average application
rates, since they wet a much smaller area than do other types of sprinklers. Conversely,
conventional impact sprinklers are normally designed to achieve the maximum wetted area,
and thus lowest possible average application rate. Nozzle opening shapes that create smaller
droplets and wet a smaller area tend to have the highest average application rates. Average
application rate will usually decrease and then increase as nozzle angle increases above
horizontal. Increasing nozzle diameter usually increases the average application rate, since Q
normally increases more rapidly than wetted area.

There is also considerable variation in the instantaneous application rate (i.e., the rate at
which water is applied to a given point on the soil surface during an instant in time) from
sprinkler type to sprinkler type (James and Stillmunkes,1980). Conventional impact
sprinklers for example, apply water as a spray that covers all or nearly all of the wetted area
continuously. Thus the rate at which water is applied to a given point on the soil surface
during an instant of time, the instantaneous application rate, is less for deflector-plate
sprinklers than for conventional impact sprinklers. On some soils, lower instantaneous rates
of application can decrease the potential for runoff and erosion by reducing soil splash and
water ponding on the soil surface.

13.2 Droplet Size

Droplet size is an important factor affecting the formation of „„seals‟‟ on bare soil surfaces that
restrict water movement into the soil. Because small droplets possess less power when they
impact the soil surface, „„seals‟‟ that limit infiltration form more slowly than with larger
droplets. For these reasons, it is sometimes possible to reduce runoff and erosion by
converting from sprinklers that emit large droplets to ones with smallest droplets.

94 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Droplet size is especially important when sprinklers must operate in winds. Distribution
patterns from sprinklers that emit smaller droplets are more subject to wind distortion and
lower application uniformity. In addition, increased losses due to wind drift usually occur
with small droplet sprinklers.

Higher operating pressures normally increases the volume of water applied as smaller
droplets while decreasing the volume of larger droplets. A similar, but a significantly smaller
effect occurs on the larger droplets (not on the volume of water) as nozzle opening size is
decreased. Nozzle opening shape can have an important effect on droplet size while nozzle
angle has little, if any effect.

13.3 Distribution pattern

i) Uniformity coefficients: A measurable index of the degree of uniformity obtainable for

any size sprinkler operating under given conditions has been adopted and is known as the
uniformity coefficient (Cu). This uniformity coefficient is affected by the pressure nozzle size
relations, by sprinkler spacing and by wind conditions. The coefficient is computed from
field observations of the depths of water caught in open cans placed at regular intervals
within a sprinkled area. It is expressed by the equation developed by Christiansen (1942):

in which

= coefficient of uniformity

m = average value of all observations (average application rate), mm

n = total number of observation points

X = numerical deviation of individual observation s from the average application rate, mm.

A uniformity coefficient of 100 per cent (obtained with overlapping sprinklers) is indicative
of absolutely uniform application, whereas the water application is less uniform with a lower
percentage. A uniformity coefficient of 85 per cent or more is considered to be satisfactory.

ii) Pattern efficiency: The pattern efficiency (also known as distribution efficiency) can be
calculated after obtaining the total depths at each of the grid point. The minimum depth is
calculated considering average of the lowest one fourth of the cans used in a particular test.
Pattern efficiency is given by

95 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The pattern efficiency is useful in calculating the average depth to be applied for a certain
minimum depth. The pattern efficiency is influenced by the wind conditions.

Application

96 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 14. Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System-I

The sprinkler system is selected considering factors such as land topography, cost of land
leveling, soil texture, precipitation intensity of sprinkler nozzle, infiltration capacity of the
soil, type of crop being irrigated and overall economics of sprinkler system over conventional
irrigation system.

14.1 Sprinkler System Layout

Important factors affecting sprinkler system layout are topography, field shape and the
location of the water source. Several alternate layouts are considered to select the best layout
after careful analysis and pipe size. Depending on the water source location, the layout of
laterals, main and sub mains are decided. The source of water and pumping plant should be
located in such a way so as to minimize the pipe length that ultimately affects the pumping
cost. In case of drilling a well it should be located in the center of the farm. The layout of the
mains will depend on location of well. Fig. 14.1 shows the layout of stationary pump and
water source at center of field and laterals are moved to successive position up one side of the
main and then down on the other side. Fig. 14.2 shows movable pumping set and portable
sprinkler unit drawing water from a field channel running along one edge of the farm. In this
system a portable pumping set and sprinkler unit with the lateral extending to the field are
used to draw water directly from a stream/ channel and distribute in farm. Another
alternative is to have a permanent pumping plant at the source and distribute the water in
buried pressure pipelines. These pipelines will usually run down the center of the field so
that the outlets offer little hindrance to tillage and other farm operations.

Lateral should be laid across prominent land slopes to minimize the variation of pressure
along the lateral. The American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) recommends that
along the lateral pressure variation in set move and solid set systems should not exceed ± 10
per cent of the design lateral pressure. Thus if the design lateral pressure was 300 kPa, the
pressure at any sprinkler should not be less than 270 kPa or greater than 330 kPa. When it is
necessary to run laterals up and down prominent slopes it is preferable for water to flow
down slope rather than up slope. This will compensate the head loss due to friction and also
shorten the lateral length for the given pipe size. Laying laterals on uphill should be avoided
wherever possible. In case water is required to flow on uphill the length of lateral can be
reduced or flow regulators should be used.

Mains or sub mains are normally run up and down the slopes when laterals run across
prominent land slopes. Fig 14.3 shows layouts for set move sprinkler system. When it is
necessary to run laterals up and downhill, main lines or sub mains should be located on
ridges (Fig 14.c, d, e & f) to avoid laterals that run uphill. Split lateral layouts use set move
laterals that may operate on either side of them (Fig 14.3 a, b & e). The labour requirement is
reduced by eliminating the need for moving lateral pipes back to the starting point (as is
necessary in Figs. 14.3 c & d).

97 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
To obtain a reasonable degree of uniformity in the discharge of each sprinkler, the mains
should be located in the general direction of the steepest slope, with the laterals at right
angles thereto and as close as in practical to the contour. The usual design is based on the
lateral being level. If the lateral slopes upgrade appreciably, it is difficult to design laterals for
a reasonable length. If its slopes downgrade, the length can be longer than usual, but rarely
does the slope remain uniform for each setting.

The general guide lines for set-move sprinkler system are stated below:

i) Mains should be laid up and downhill.

ii) Laterals should be laid across slope or nearly on the contour.

iii) For multiple lateral operations, lateral pipe sizes should be limited to not more than two
diameters.

iv) If possible, water supply should be chosen nearest the center of area.

v) Layouts should facilitate minimal lateral movement during the season.

vi) Differences in number of sprinklers operating for various setups should be held to
minimum.

vii) Booster pumps should be considered where small portions of field would require high
pressure at the pump.

viii) Layout should be modified to apply different rates and amounts of water where soils are
greatly different in the design area.

ix) Mainline and sub main layout is keyed to lateral layout.

x) When laterals run across prominent slopes, mainline or sub mains will normally run up
and down the slopes.

xi) When it is necessary to run laterals up and down hill, mainlines or sub mains should be
located on ridges to avoid laterals that run uphill.

98 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

99 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
14.2 Parameters for Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System

The basic objective of sprinkler irrigation system is to apply uniform depth of water at
predetermined application rate. The sprinkler irrigation system should be designed properly
to achieve high irrigation efficiency. The inventory of resources and climatic conditions of the
field area are primarily required for the design of sprinkler irrigation system.

14.2.1 Inventory of resources and other parameters

Land: Land is often a major factor in irrigation system design as it influences the selection of
sprinkler device, irrigation efficiency, costs of land development, labour requirements, range
of possible crops, etc. The major factors of land which have a special bearing on sprinkler
irrigation design are: slope, infiltration rate, effective soil depth, texture & structure of soil
and size & shape of field.

Water: The source of water supply for sprinkler irrigation can be surface water (river, canal,
pond etc.) or ground water (a tube well or open well). Adequate water availability & quality
parameters play an important role in the design of sprinkler irrigation system.

Climate: Important climatic data required are solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity,
evapotranspiration rate, precipitation or rainfall and wind speed. These climatic parameters
are required to estimate peak consumptive use rate as well as total seasonal
evapotranspiration of crop(s).

Source of power: Electricity, diesel, solar, wind and biofuels are used to pump water from
the source. The selection of pump depends on type of power used to operate pump.

14.2.2 Soil water parameters

Net depth of water application

The depth of water application is the quantity of water, which should be applied during
irrigation in order to replenish the water used by the crop during evapotranspiration. The
difference between field capacity and permanent wilting point will give the available soil
moisture (water holding capacity), which is the total amount of water that the crop can use.
Depending on the crop sensitivity to stress, the soil moisture should be allowed to be
depleted only partially. For most field crops, a depletion of 60 to 65% of the available
moisture is acceptable. This is the moisture that will be easily available to the crop without
causing undue stress. The maximum net depth to be applied per irrigation can be calculated,
using Equation 14.1.

dnet = (θFC-θWP) x Drz x P ---- (14.1)

where,

dnet = readily available moisture or net depth of water application per irrigation for the
selected crop, mm

θFC = soil moisture at field capacity, mm/m

100 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
θWP = soil moisture at the permanent wilting point, mm/m

Drz = the depth of soil that the roots exploit effectively (m)

P = the allowable portion of available moisture permitted for depletion by the crop before
the next irrigation

In order to express the depth of water in terms of the volume, the area proposed for irrigation
is multiplied by depth.

Volume of water to be applied (m3) = 10 x A x d ----(14.2)

where,

A = area proposed for irrigation, ha

d = depth of water application, mm

Example 14.1

A twenty hectare area has medium texture loam soil grown with Wheat crop peak. Daily
water use of wheat crop is 6.2 mm day-1. The available soil moisture (θFC – θWP) is 120 mm m-
1. The allowable soil moisture depletion is 50%. The crop root zone depth (D RZ) is 0.8 m. Soil

infiltration rate is 6 mm h-1. The other climatic data are: average wind speed 10 km h-1.
Determine the maximum net depth of water application.

Solution:

Using Equation 14.1, net depth of water application per irrigation for the selected crop is
computed as

dnet = 120 x 0.8 x 0.5 = 48 mm

For an area of 20 ha, net application of 9600 m3 (10 x 20 x 48) of water will be required for
irrigation to bring the root zone depth of the soil from the 50% allowable depletion level to
the field capacity (Equation 14.2).

Irrigation frequency

Irrigation frequency refers to the number of days between irrigations during periods without
rainfall. Irrigation frequency depends on crop, soil and climate. After establishing the net
depth of water application, the irrigation frequency at peak moisture rate of crop should be
determined using the following equation 14.3.

Irrigation frequency (F) = dnet / wu ----(14.3)

Where, F = irrigation frequency, days; dnet = net depth of water application, mm

wu = peak daily water use, mm day-1.

101 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Example 14.2

The peak demand for wheat was estimated as 6.2mm day-1. Using the data available in
Example 14.1, determine the irrigation frequency.

Solution:

Irrigation Frequency (F) =48 mm / 6.2 mm/day = 7.7 days

The irrigation system should be designed to provide 48 mm in every 7.7 days. For practical
purposes, fractions of days are not used for irrigation frequency. Hence the irrigation
frequency in this example is taken as 8 days. The corresponding net depth of d net of water
application

dnet = 6.2x 8 = 49.6 mm

The moisture depletion

= 49.6/(120 x 0.8) = 0.52

The question arises as to whether the irrigation system should apply the d net in 8, 7, 6, right
down to 1 day. This choice will depend on the flexibility the farmer would like to have and
his/her willingness to pay the additional cost for different levels of flexibility. If irrigation is
to be completed in 1 day, the system becomes idle for the remaining 7 days, and the cost of
the system would be exorbitant, since larger sizes of irrigation equipment would be required.
On the other hand, for all practical purposes and in order to accommodate the time for
cultural practices (spraying etc), it is advisable that irrigation is completed in less than the
irrigation frequency. In the case of our example, 7 days irrigation and 1 day without
irrigation is considered adequate. The 7 days required to complete one irrigation in the area
under consideration is called the irrigation cycle.

Gross depth of water application

The gross depth of water application (dgross) equals the net depth of irrigation divided by the
farm irrigation efficiency. It should be noted that farm irrigation efficiency includes possible
losses of water from pipe due to leakage or from other sources.

dgross = dnet/E ------(14.4)

Where E = the farm (or unit) irrigation efficiency.

The farm irrigation efficiency of sprinkler systems varies from climate to climate.

Example 14.3

Assuming a moderate climate for the area under consideration and using application
efficiency of 75% of sprinkler irrigation, determine the gross depth of irrigation.

dgross =49.6/ 0.75= 66.13 mm

102 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
14.2.3 System capacity

The next step is to estimate the system capacity. The system capacity (Q), can be estimated
using Equation 14.5 given below

Q = (10 x A x dgross) / (I x Ns x T) -----(14.5)

Where Q = system capacity, m3 h-1; A = area, ha; d = gross depth of water application, mm; I
= irrigation cycle, days; Ns = number of shifts per day; T = irrigation time per shift, h.

Example 14.4

The irrigation system operates for 11 hours per shift. Two shifts per day during peak demand
is used in each irrigation cycle of 7 days to complete irrigation in 20 ha area. Determine the
capacity of irrigation system.

Solution: A=20 ha, dgross=66.13 mm, Ns=2, I = 7 days, T =11 h.

Substituting values in Equation 14.5, the system capacity is

Q = (10 x 20 x 66.13) / (7 x 2 x 11)

Q = 85.88 m3 h-1

14.2.4 Sprinkler systems selection parameters

Sprinkler selection and spacing

Based on specifications furnished by the manufacturers of the equipment the sprinkler

system components are selected. The important parameters include in selection are diameter
of coverage, pressure available, sprinkler discharge, combination of sprinkler spacing and
lateral moves, application rate suiting to soil and wind conditions. The required discharge of
an individual sprinkler is a function of the water application rate and the two-way spacing of
the sprinklers. The maximum application rate for different types of soils at different land
slopes is given in Table 14.1.

Discharge from a sprinkler is computed by

where,

q = required discharge of individual sprinkle, Ls-1

= spacing of sprinklers along the laterals, m

= spacing of laterals along the main, m

103 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
I = optimum application rate, mm h-1

Table 14.1 Maximum application rate for different type of soils at different land slopes,
cm h-1

Soil texture and profile 0 to 5% slope 5 to 8 % slope 8 to 12 % slope

Coarse sandy soils to 2 m 5.10 3.75 2.54

Coarse sandy soils over more compact soils 3.75 2.54 1.9

Light sandy loams to 2 m 2.54 2.03 1.5

Light sandy loams over more compact soil 1.9 1.27 1.02

Silt loam to 2 m 1.27 1.02 0.76

Silt loams over more compact soils 0.76 0.63 0.38

Heavy textured clays or clay loams 0.38 0.25 0.20

Source: Adapted from SCS (1993).

Example 14.5

A sprinkler system 18 m spacing along the main and 12 m along the laterals is used to irrigate
crop grown on coarse sandy soil over more compact soil land slope of 3 per cent. Twenty
sprinklers are used to irrigate field. Determine the total system capacity.

Solution:

Discharge from a single sprinkler

=12 m, = 18 m, I =3.75 cm h-1= 37.5 mm h-1, q = 0.75 L s-1

System capacity (q) = 20 × 0.75 =15 L s-1

Height of sprinkler riser pipes

Sprinklers are located just above the crops to be irrigated and therefore, the height of the
risers depends upon the maximum height of the crop. To avoid excessive turbulence in the
riser pipes the minimum height of riser is 300 mm for 25 mm diameter and 150 mm for 15
mm to 20 mm diameter. In general, 900 mm long G.I. pipe of 25mm diameter is used.

Sprinkler spacing

The uniformity of water distribution from sprinklers depends on the pressure of water, wind
velocity, rotation of sprinklers, spacing and nozzle diameter. The spacing of sprinklers in a
lateral and the laterals spacing are adjusted considering all these parameters. Generally at

104 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
satisfactory desired operating pressure the water distribution beneath sprinkler head
accumulate more and depth decreases gradually with distance from the sprinklers.

Normally sprinklers are spaced at 50 per cent of the diameter of the coverage by an
individual sprinkler. If there is a wind of considerable speed, the spacing between sprinklers
is reduced. Table 14.2 is used to adopt sprinkler spacing under windy condition. This overlap
is desired to achieve uniform application on water.

Table: 14.2 Spacing of sprinklers for different wind speed.

[Link]. Average wind speed Spacing

1 No wind 65% of the water spread area of a sprinkler

2 0-6.5 km h-1 60% of the water spread area of a sprinkler

3 6.5 to 13 km h-1 50% of the water spread area of a sprinkler

4 Above 13 km h-1 30% of the water spread area of a sprinkler

Source: Michael (2010)

105 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 15. Hydraulic Design of Sprinkler Systems

15.1 Introduction

Sprinkler system pipe lines are classified as mainlines, sub-mains or laterals. Mainline convey
water from the source and distribute it to the sub-mains. The sub-mains convey water to the
laterals that supplies water to sprinklers. Some lines sprinkler systems do not have sub-mains
in such systems laterals are connected directly with the main pipe line.

Pipe line for sprinkler systems is pressurized. The pipe lines must supply water at desired
pressure to each sprinkler and lateral. These pipe lines be strong enough to with stand
expected operating and surge pressures. The pipe materials and loading of buried pipes are
important factors that affect the design and operation of pipe lines for sprinkler systems.
Asbestos –cement, Aluminum, steel, Poly vinyl chloride (PVC) plastic and High Density Poly
Ethylene (HDPE) are standard pipe materials used for sprinkler system.

15.2 Computation of Pressure Variation in Pipes

The performance of sprinklers system is related to operating pressure in the pipe line, the
frictional loss in pipe and fitting, and differentials elevations caused pressures to vary in a
field. Frictional loss causes the pressure to decreases in the downstream direction, while
chances in evaluations can cause either an increase or decrease in pressure (depending on
where the evaluation is downhill or uphill). The difference in pressure between upstream
and downstream of a pipe line can be estimated by

where

= pressure at down and upstream positions, respectively ( kPa).

= this is energy loss in pipe between up and downstream positions (m).

= difference in elevation between up and downstream positions (m).

is (+) when change in elevation between the up- and downstream positions is uphill.
This sign is (-) when the elevation at the upstream location exceeds the elevation at the
downstream location.

106 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

= constant that depends on number of outlets(sprinkler or laterals) removing water from

the pipe between the up- and downstream location. The value of F can be selected from Table

15.1. F also depends on the method used estimate head loss due to friction ( ).

The value of F can be computed from Equation 15.3 when distance to the first sprinkler
equals the sprinkler head spacing.

F=

The values of F can be estimated from Equation 15.4 when the distance to the first sprinkler
equals one-half of the sprinkler head spacing.

F=

m = a constant depends on a particular equation to be used to compute

N = no. of sprinklers or outlets.

=friction loss in pipe between up and downstream locations(m)

minor loss through fittings (m)

Minor losses caused by sprinkler risers and other fittings are usually small and these are
neglected.

Head loss due to friction ( in pipe line can be computed using following equation

where

K = friction factor that depends on pipe material

L = length of pipe (m)

Q = flow rate (L min-1)

D = diameter of pipe (m)

c, m, n are constants to be used from following Table 15.2

107 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Table 15.1. Correction factor ‘F’ for friction losses in aluminum pipes with multiple
outlets

No. of sprin- 1st sprinkler

1st sprinkler is 1st sprinkler is 1st sprinkler
klers on lateral No. of is one
one sprinkler 1/2 sprinkler is1/2 sprinkler
sprinklers sprinkler
interval from interval from interval from
on lateral interval from
main main main
main

1 1.000 1.000 16 0.365 0.345

2 0.625 0.500 17 0363 0.344

3 0.518 0.422 18 0.361 0.343

4 0.469 0393 19 0.360 0.343

5 0.440 0.378 20 0.359 0.342

6 0.421 0.369 22 0.357 0.341

7 0.408 0.363 24 0.355 0.341

8 0398 0.358 26 0.353 0.340

9 0.391 0.355 28 0.351 0.340

10 0.385 0.353 30 0.350 0.339

11 0.380 0.351 35 0.347 0.338

12 0.376 0.349 40 0.345 0.338

13 0.373 0.348 50 0.343 0.337

14 0.370 0.347 100 0.338 0.337

15 0.367 0.346 >100 0.335 0.335

(Source: Michael A.M (2010)

Table 15.2 Constants needed to use Equation 15.5

Method of Computing, c (SI Units) m n

Darcy –Weisbach 277778 2.0 1.0

Hazen- Williams 591722 1.85 1.17

Scobey 610042 1.90 1.10

108 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
For the Darcy- Weisbach equation, K in Eq. 15.5 is given by

K = 0.811 ( )

where

f = friction factor to be obtained from Moody diagram

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m s-2)

For Hazen- Williams Equation, K in Eq. 15.5 is given by

The value of C depends on type of pipe material. It ranges from 100 (Brick sewer) to
150(Cement lined). For Plastic pipe, C is 140-150.

For Scobey Equation, K in Eq. 15.5 is given by

The values of depends on types of pipe material its fittings and diameter. It ranges from 0.33
(75 mm diameter Welded steel pipe) to 0.43 (Aluminum pipe with coupler each of 6 m long).

Table 15.3 is ready reckoner table for estimation of head loss due to friction from Aluminum
pipe or choosing size of pipe for a given discharge and friction loss.

Table 15.3 Friction loss in meters per 100 meters in lateral line of portable aluminum pipe
with coupling (Based on Scobey’s formula and 9 meters pipe length)

Diameter of pipe
Flow
litres/sec 5.0 cm 7.5 cm 10.0 cm 12.5 cm 15.0 cm
Ks 0.34 Ks 0.33 Ks 0.32 Ks 0.32 Ks 0.32

1.26 0.32

1.89 2.53

2.52 4.49 0.565 0.130

3.15 6.85 0.858 0.198

3.79 9.67 1.21 0.280

109 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
4.42 12.9 1.63 0.376 0.122

5.05 16.7 2.10 0.484 0.157

5.68 20.8 2.63 0.605 0.196

6.31 25.4 3.20 0.738 0.240 0.099

7.57 4.54 1.04 0.339 0.140

8.83 6.09 1.40 0.454 0.188

10.10 7.85 1.80 0.590 0.242

11.36 9.82 2.26 0.733 0.302

12.62 12.0 2.76 0.896 0.370

13.88 14.4 3.30 1.07 0.443

15.14 16.9 3.90 1.26 0.522

16.41 19.7 4.54 1.47 0.608

17.67 22.8 5.22 1.70 0.700

18.93 25.9 5.96 1.93 0.798

20.19 29.3 6.74 2.18 0.904

21.45 32.8 7.56 2.45 1.02

22.72 36.6 8.40 2.74 1.13

23.98 40.6 9.36 3.03 1.26

25.24 44.7 10.3 3.34 1.38

26.50 11.3 3.66 1.51

27.76 12.3 4.00 1.66

29.03 13.4 4.35 1.80

30.29 14.6 4.72 1.95

31.55 15.8 5.10 2.12

34.70 18.9 6.12 2.52

37.86 22.2 7.22 2.98

110 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
41.01 25.9 8.40 3.46

44.17 29.8 9.68 3.99

47.32 33.8 11.0 4.54

50.48 12.5 5.15

53.63 14.0 5.78

56.79 15.6 6.44

59.94 17.3 7.14

63.10 19.0 7.86

(Source: Michael A.M (2010)

15.3 Design of Sprinkler Laterals

The sprinklers are attached on laterals at equal spacing. The flow through lateral pipe is
spatially varied with decreasing discharge. In spatially varied with decreasing discharge. In
the beginning, the flow will equal the combined discharge of all the sprinklers. This will
decrease along the line until, at the farthest end, there will be only the flow of the last
sprinkler. Therefore the friction loss in a lateral will be much less than if the total flows were
carried through the entire length of the line. It is recommended that the total pressure
variation is the laterals should not exceed more than 20% of the higher pressure.

Where, the friction loss, Hf in the laterals is within 20% of the average pressure.

The average head (Ha) in a sprinkler line can be expressed approximately by

In which = pressure at the sprinkler at the sprinkler on the farthest end (Fig. 15.1).

= head loss due to friction

If the lateral is on nearly level land or on the contour, the pressure head ( ) at the main is
given by

By solving for Ho, in (15.9) by substituting in Equation (15.10), and by making an allowance
for differences in elevation along the lateral

111 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

in which,

He = maximum difference in elevation between the first and last sprinkler, m

= the riser height, m

The term is positive if lateral runs up the slope and negative, if lateral runs down the
slope. The term is an approximation since allowance for the difference in elevation varies
with number of sprinklers on the laterals.

Allowance due to lateral running on uphill and downhill conditions should be made while
determining the head variation. The design capacity for sprinklers on lateral is based on the
average operating pressure.

Size of Main Line Pipe

The size of main line is selected such that the annual water application cost is as low as
possible. Normally friction loss of 3m for small system and 12m for large systems is allowed.

15.4 Pumps and power units

In selecting a suitable pump, it is necessary to determine the maximum total head against
which the pump is working. This may be determined by in which,

Ht= total design head against which the pump is working, m

Hn = maximum head required at the main to operate the sprinklers on the lateral at the
required average pressure, including the riser height, m

112 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Hm = maximum friction loss in the main and in the suction line, m

HJ = elevation difference between the pump and the junction of the lateral and the main, m,
and

Hs= elevation difference between the pump and the source of water after drawdown, m

The amount of water that will be required is determined by multiplying the number of
sprinklers by the capacity of each. When the rates of pumping are known, the pump may be
selected from rating curves or tables provided by manufactures.

The horse power requirement of pump can be estimated by

where,

= unit of water

Q= pump discharge

H= Total head (m)

= efficiency of pump

Example: 37.1

Design a sprinkler irrigation system to irrigate 5 ha Wheat crop.

Assume

Soil type = silt loam

Infiltration rate at field capacity = 1.25 cm/h

Water holding capacity = 15 cm/m

Root zone depth = 1.5 m

Daily consumptive use rate = 6 mm d-1

Sprinkler type = Rotating head

Solution:

Step I

Maximum water application rate = 1.25 cm/h

113 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Step II

Total water holding capacity of the soil =15 x 1.5 = 22.5 cm

Let the water be applied at 50% depletion, hence the depth of water to be applied

= 0.50 x 22.5 = 11.25cm

Let the water application efficiency be 90 per cent

Depth of water to be supplied = 11.25 / 0.9 = 12.5 cm

Step III

For daily consumptive use rate of 0.60 cm;

Irrigation interval = 11.25 / 0.6 = 19 days

In period of 19 days, 12.5 cm of water is to be applied on an area of 5 ha. Hence assuming 10

hrs. of pumping per day, the sprinkler system capacity would be

= = 0.009 m3s-1

Step IV

Spacing of lateral (Sm) = 18 m

Spacing of Sprinklers in lateral (Si) = 12 m

This selection is based on after the following consideration:

Operating pressure of nozzle = 2.5 kg/cm2

Maximum application rate = 1.25 cm/h

Referring sprinkler manufacturer‟s M/S NOCIL, Akola chart (Table 15.4), the nozzle
specifications with this operating pressure and application rate is:

Nozzle size : 5.5563 x 3.175 mm

Operating pressure : 2.47 kg/cm2 and

Application rate : 1.10 cm/hr (which is less than the maximum allowable

application rate)

Diameter of coverage : 29.99 ≈ 30.0 m

Discharge of the nozzle : 0.637 L s-1 = 0.637 x 10-3 m3s-1

114 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Step V

Total no. of sprinkler required = = 14.12 ≈ 14 sprinklers

Therefore 7 nos. of sprinklers on each lateral.

Step VI

The sprinklers will be spaced at 12m intervals on each of two lateral lines spaced 18 m apart.

Step VII

Total length of each lateral = 12 x 7 = 84

Operating pressure = 2.47 kg/cm2

Total allowable pressure variation in the pressure head is 20%, hence maximum allowable
pressure variation in pressure = 0.2 x 2.47 = 0.494 kg/cm2 = 4.94 m

Variation of pressure due to elevation = 2 m

Permissible head loss due to friction = 4.94 – 2 = 2.94 m

Total flow through the lateral = 7 x 0.637 x 10-3 = 4.459 x 10-3 m3s-1

The head required to operate the lateral lines (Hm) = 24.7 + 2.94 + 2 + 1 = 30.6 m

Frictional head loss in main pipe line (Hf) = 30.6 0.2 = 6.12 m

115 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Or, D = 69.10 ≈ 75 mm

Total design head (H) = Hm+ Hf +Hj +Hs

Where

Hj = Difference in highest junction point of the lateral and main from pump

level = 0.5 m (assume)

Hs = Suction lift (20 m, assume)

H = 30.6 + 6.12 + 0.5 + 20 = 57.22 m

The pump has to deliver 0.009 m3s-1 of water against a required head of 57.22 m

Hence, the horse power of a pump with 60% efficiency

= 11.44 hp

(Source: Tiwari, 2009)

Table: 15.4 Design specifications of sprinkler with different nozzle size and operating
pressure for high pressure models Model HP.

Operatin Application rate

Dia of
Nozzle Size g Discharge
Spray
Pressure 12 x 12 12 x 18 18 x 18 18 x 24 24 x 24

Sprea Kg/c p L s- gp cm in/ cm in/ cm in/ cm in/ cm in/

Range m ft
d m2 si 1
m /h h /h h /h h /h h /h h

3 27 92. 0.5 7.7 1.5 0. NA N NA N N N

NA
0 .7 3 88 6 0 58 1.1 A 0.7 A A NA A
2.11 NA
3 29 99. 0.6 8.4 1.6 0. 0 0. 1 0. N NA N
2.47 NA
7/32” 1/8” 5 .9 7 37 0 0 63 1.1 42 0.7 28 A NA A
2.82 NA
5.5563 3.175 4 32 10 0.6 8.9 1.7 0. 0 0. 6 0. N NA N
3.17 0.6
mm mm 0 .0 6.7 80 7 0 67 1.2 45 0.8 30 A NA A
3.52 3
4 33 11 0.7 9.5 1.8 0. 0 0. 0 0. N 0.5 N
4.23 0.6
5 .9 3.0 21 1 0 71 1.3 47 0.7 32 A 2 A
9
5 35 11 0.7 10. 1.9 0. 0 0. 4 0. 0. N

116 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
0 .8 9.3 60 03 0 75 1.4 50 0.9 33 25 A
6 39 13 0.8 10. 2.1 0. 0 0. 3 0. 0. 0.
0 .2 0.7 33 99 0 82 53 36 27 20

3 31 10 0.8 11. 2.2 0. 1.5 0. 0.9 0. N N

0 .4 4.7 78 59 0 86 0 58 8 39 NA A A
3 34 11 0.9 12. 2.4 0. 1.6 0. 1.1 0. NA N NA N
2.11 5 .0 3.3 50 54 0 94 0 62 0 42 0.8 A NA A
2.47 4 36 12 1.0 13. 2.5 1. 1.7 0. 1.1 0. 5 0. NA N
9/32” 1/8”
2.82 0 .3 1.0 16 41 0 00 0 67 0 44 0.9 33 NA A
7.1438 3.175
3.17 4 38 12 1.0 14. 2.7 1. 1.8 0. 1.2 0. 0 0. 0.7 N
mm mm
3.52 5 .5 8.3 77 21 0 10 0 71 0 47 0.9 35 1 A
4.23 5 40 13 1.1 14. 2.8 1. 1.9 0. 1.3 0. 5 0. 0.7 0.
0 .6 5.3 35 98 0 10 0 74 0 50 1.0 37 8 28
6 44 14 1.2 16. 3.1 1. 2.1 0. 1.4 0. 0 0. 0.
0 .5 8.3 44 42 0 20 0 82 0 54 41 31

3 36 12 1.4 19. 3.6 1. 2.4 0. 1.6 0. 1.2 0. N

NA
0 .3 1.0 49 12 0 40 0 95 0 63 0 48 A
0.9
3 39 13 1.5 20. 3.9 1. 2.6 1. 1.7 0. 1.3 0. 0.
8
2.11 5 .2 0.7 68 69 0 50 0 00 0 69 0 51 39
1.0
2.47 4 41 13 1.6 22. 4.2 1. 2.8 1. 1.9 0. 1.4 0. 0.
3/8” 1/8” 0
2.82 0 .9 9.7 76 12 0 60 0 10 0 73 0 55 41
9.525 3.175 1.1
3.17 4 44 14 1.7 23. 4.4 1. 3.0 1. 2.0 0. 1.5 0. 0.
mm mm 0
3.52 5 .5 8.3 77 45 0 70 0 20 0 70 0 58 44
1.2
4.23 5 46 15 1.8 24. 4.7 1. 3.1 1. 2.1 0. 1.6 0. 0.
0
0 .9 6.3 72 71 0 80 0 20 0 82 0 61 46
1.3
6 51 17 2.0 27. 5.1 2. 3.4 1. 2.3 0. 1.7 0. 0.
0
0 .4 1.3 52 08 0 00 0 30 0 90 0 67 50
Table:15.5 Design specifications of sprinkler with different nozzle size and operating
pressure for low pressure models Model LP

Nozzle Operating Dia of Discharge Application rate

Size Pressure Spray
6x6 6x9 9x9 6 x 12 12 x 12

c c c c c
Rang Sprea Kg/ ps gp in/ in/ in/ in/ in
m ft L s-1 m m m m m
e d cm2 i m h h h h /h
/h /h /h /h /h

19 65. 0.41 5.5 4. 2. 1.1 1. 0.7 2. 0.8 1. 0.

.6 3 7 0 20 1.6 80 0 90 3 10 2 00 4
1.06 15 22 75. 0.48 6.3 4. 0 3. 1.3 2. 0.8 2. 0.9 1. 1
1.41 20 .6 3 1 4 80 1.9 20 0 10 4 40 5 20 0.
7/32” 1/8”
1.76 25 25 84. 0.53 7.0 N 0 3. 1.4 2. 0.9 2. 1.1 1. 4
5.556 3.175
2.11 30 .3 3 7 8 A NA 60 0 40 4 70 0 30 7
3mm mm
2.47 35 27 92. 0.58 707 N NA 3. 1.5 2. 1.0 2. 1.2 1. 0.
2.87 40 .7 3 8 6 A NA 90 0 60 0 90 0 50 5
29 99. 0.63 8.4 N NA 4. 1.7 2. 1.1 3. 1.3 1. 3
.9 7 7 0 A 20 0 80 0 20 0 60 0.

117 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
32 106 0.68 8.9 N 4. 1.8 3. 1.2 3. 1.3 1. 5
.0 .7 0 7 A 50 0 00 0 40 0 70 8
0.
6
3
0.
6
7

N
A
0.
18 63. 0.37 4.9 3. 2. 0.9 1. 0.6 1. 0.7 N
4
.9 0 4 3 70 50 8 70 5 90 4 A
1.5 2
21 72. 0.43 5.6 4. 2. 1.1 1. 0.7 2. 0.8 1.
0 0.
1.06 15 .8 7 1 8 30 90 0 90 5 20 5 11
1.7 4
13/6 1.41 20 24 81. 0.48 6.3 4. 3. 1.3 2. 0.8 2. 0.9 1.
1/8” 0 7
4” 1.76 25 .3 0 2 6 80 20 0 10 4 40 5 20
3.175 1.9 0.
5.159 2.11 30 26 89. 0.52 6.9 N 3. 1.4 2. 0.9 2. 1.0 1.
mm 0 5
4mm 2.47 35 .7 0 7 5 A 50 0 30 2 60 0 30
NA 2
2.82 40 28 96. 0.57 7.5 N 3. 1.5 2. 1.0 2. 1.1 1.
NA 0.
.9 3 1 3 A 80 0 50 0 90 0 40
NA 5
30 102 0.61 8.0 N 4. 1.6 2. 1.1 3. 1.2 1.
6
.8 .7 0 5 A 10 0 70 0 10 0 50
0.
6
0

N
A
16 55. 0.26 3.4 2. 1.0 1. 0.6 1. 0.4 1. 0.5 N N
.5 0 3 7 60 0 80 9 20 6 30 2 A A
19 63. 0.30 4.0 3. 1.2 2. 0.8 1. 0.5 1. 0.6 N 0.
1.06 15 .1 7 3 0 00 0 00 0 30 3 50 0 A 3
1.41 20 21 71. 0.33 4.4 3. 1.3 2. 0.8 1. 0.5 1. 0.6 0. 5
5/32” 1/8”
1.76 25 .3 0 9 7 40 0 30 9 50 9 70 7 88 0.
3.968 3.175
2.11 30 23 78. 0.37 4.8 3. 1.5 2. 0.9 1. 0.6 1. 0.7 0. 3
8mm mm
2.47 35 .4 0 1 9 70 0 50 7 60 5 90 3 93 7
2.82 40 25 84. 0.40 5.2 4. 1.6 2. 1.1 1. 0.7 2. 0.7 1. 0.
.3 3 1 9 00 0 70 0 80 0 00 9 00 3
27 90. 0.42 5.6 4. 1.7 2. 1.1 1. 0.7 2. 0.8 1. 9
.0 0 9 6 30 0 90 0 90 5 20 4 10 0.
4
2

118 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 16. Multipurpose and Special Applications

Sprinkler irrigation system is adaptable to a variety of special uses in addition to ordinary

irrigation to control soil moisture. Chemigation involves injecting a water soluble-fertilizer,
herbicide, insecticide, fungicide or namaticide into the irrigation system. When fertilizer is
injected is called fertigation, which is an important multipurpose function of all types of
sprinkle system. Germination, frost protection, bloom delay, micro climate control and
disposing of waste water the most important special use functions of sprinkler systems. Some
additional special uses of sprinkler equipment are: providing farm fire protection, providing
cooling and dust control for feed lots and poultry building, providing moisture for earth fill
construction and curing log piles.

16.1 Germination

Application of sprinkler irrigation has been found very effective in seed germination.
Particularly when salts contained in irrigation water accumulate on the surface of the furrow
irrigated beds, sprinkler irrigation is applied during seed germination to provide a low
salinity seed bed (Robinson, 1968). This allows seedling roots to penetrate below the zone of
salt accumulated on the surface of furrow irrigated beds. Sprinkling water enhances initial
radical development.

16.2 Environmental Control

i) Preventing frost damage

Portable and fixed lateral sprinkler irrigation systems can be used to protect crops from frost.
The equipment must be specially set up for frost control. There are two approaches to
protecting against frost. One is to protect the leaves, flowers or fruit from freezing when
temperatures fall. The other is to use evaporative cooling to delay early bud formation on
fruit trees until after the last expected frost. The first is called frost protection and the later
bloom delay.

Overhead systems are the most versatile and can protect some crops down to temperature as
low 70C. The liquids in the plant parts being protected have higher freezing point than water
due to salts and sugars in them. Buds, blossoms, leaves or young fruit for the crops of
greatest interest for frost protection can survive wet bulb temperatures ranging from roughly
-1 to -30C. The actual lethal temperature depends on the crops and stage development. The
protective effect of overhead sprinkling is mainly from the release of 80 kcal/L of latent heat
as water freezes. The freezing water encases the plant parts being protected in ice this keeps
their temperature at 00C, the freezing point of water, which is higher than the lethal
temperature. The plant parts being protected will remain at the freezing point of water as
long as ice continues to form around them. The main design consideration for overhead frost
protection by sprinkling is the recommended application rate for different environmental
situations, crops and crop growth stages. The required rate can be easily converted to system

119 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
capacity, because the area being protected by overhead sprinkling must be watered
continuously.

In the fall, deciduous tree, vines and bushes lose their leaves and enter a condition known as
winter rest. Plants are normally incapable of growth during this period and fruit buds do not
develop until the rest period has been completed. After rest is completed, changes occur in
the buds that will eventually cause blossoming and leafing of the trees. The rate of bud
development depends upon the air temperature around the buds after the completion of rest.
Bud development accelerates and the trees blossom early if the early spring temperatures are
above normal. If early bud development is followed by a sudden cold spell, the potential for
frost damage becomes serious. Overhead sprinkling can be used to cool the buds before they
develop and keep them dormant until after the major danger of frost damage is past. The
cooling is caused by evaporation. Therefore, overhead sprinkling for bud delay is not
effective during periods of high humidity.

Evaporative cooling with sprinklers during early spring months, when frost danger is still
prevalent, seems to be an effective way to delay bud development. Automated sprinkler
system has been used to actuate and deactivate irrigation system to delay bud development.

ii) Foliar spraying for micro climate control

Research studies in California, Lousiana and Georgia on some of the crops cooled by
sprinkler irrigation are almonds, apples, beans, cherries, carton, cucumbers, grapes,
strawberries. At intermittent sprinkling rate of 2 mm h-1 with a 15 min on- 15 min off period
gave good temperature reduction and improves crop quality. The color of the red delicious
apples was found to be enhanced by reducing fruit temperature by over-head sprinkling.

Foliar cooling requires two to six short applications of water every hour, which is practical
only with automated fixed sprinkler systems. The small amounts water intermittently
applied cool the air and plant, raise humidity and to improve the produce quality and yield.
When water is applied on the plant surfaces, the plant is cooled and the excessive
transpiration demand reduced. Each crop has an upper demand above which it can no longer
function efficiently. Fixed sprinkler systems used for foliar cooling require high quality water
and up to double the capacity of ordinary high-frequency system. Foliar cooling systems
must have sufficient capacity to satisfy the excess transpiration demand on a minute-by-
minute basis through out the peak water use rate days. To accomplish this, the system
capacity must be 1.5 to 2.5 times greater than for a conventional periodic move system in
similar environment.

iii) Frost and freeze protection

Frost control is another special use for irrigation by coating plants with water, the heat of
fusion is released as the water freezes, maintaining plant temperatures that would otherwise
drop well below freezing. The ice coating on the plant must be continually in contact with
unfrozen water until the ice melts. Sprinkler has been successfully used for frost protection in
small fruits, potatoes and grapes (Addink et al., 1980).

120 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
16.3 Fertilizer and Chemical Applications

Sprinkler systems are also used to apply fertilizer, herbicides, and pesticides. Both liquid
forms that dissolve and dry powder in water suspension can be injected through sprinkler
irrigation systems. The main consideration in the design of sprinkler systems for chemical
application is the method of injection. The methods to inject chemicals and fertilizers are:

(a) delivering the liquid to the suction side of a centrifugal pump from a supply tank, (b)
injecting the chemical into the main lines using a pressure pump, (c) pressurizing the
chemical supply tank from the main sprinkler lines and injecting the liquid at the low
pressure area of a pitot tube, and (d) pressurizing a supply tank with a pitot tube facing in
the upstream direction of flow and then injecting the liquid into the system with a second
pitot tube facing downstream.

The most important consideration in designing the injection system is preventing

contamination of the water supply. It is also important to provide check and vacuum relief
valves (anti-siphon devices) for preventing the chemical from draining or siphoning back
into the irrigation well or other water supply. The vacuum and check valves must be located
between the pump and the point of chemical injection. If water is bled from the main
irrigation supply into the chemical supply tank, the connecting line too must be equipped
with a check valve to prevent the supply tank from overflowing and contaminating the
adjacent area with chemical solution. In some countries codes are developed for proper
plumbing of chemical injection systems into irrigation systems.

The coefficient uniformity of (CU) should be between 80 to 90% for uniform application of
the chemicals to the area that is being fertilized or treated with herbicides or pesticides. Non
uniform systems would results in poor placement of the chemicals and therefore, poor
control.

The sizing of the pump or rate of injection into the sprinkler system should be checked
closely so that sufficient quantities of the chemicals can be injected to obtain the desired
application rate of the chemical. The rate of injection depends also on whether a continuous
injection is made or whether the entire volume of chemical is injected in the beginning or at
the end of the irrigation set. Intermittent injection allows the system to be flushed and
chemicals to be either flushed from or left on the crop canopy.

16.4 Irrigation for Turf

Turf grasses are used in urban areas to provide multiple benefits to society and the
environment. They cover millions of acres of home lawns, commercial properties, roadsides,
parks, etc. A turf grass can be watered with a moveable sprinkler or an underground
irrigation system. In either case, they require spray overlap for even coverage. Typical lawn
sprinklers are inexpensive and must be moved throughout the lawn. A pop-up spray head
system allows for greater flexibility in timing cycles and proper application rates. Pop-up
lawn spray heads are those which raise

The nozzle above the surrounding grass during operation then drop down to the level of the
ground when not in use. The pop-up feature minimizes the need for trimming the grass

121 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
around the heads and at the same time improves water distribution since the head is high
above the grass when in operation. Pop-up spray heads are usually spring-operated and
require a certain pressure level to operate the pop-up mechanism. Operation of the pop-up
mechanism may be a problem where the water contains large amounts of sulfur, iron or
alkalines. Average precipitation of spray nozzles is relatively high, approximately 25 mm h -1.
These nozzles are used for rapid watering of lawns. However, use on steep slopes and heavy
(clayey) soils may result in runoff. Therefore all irrigated areas of the system should be
examined for proper selection and location of nozzles to avoid runoff.

16.5 Effluent Irrigation

Land application of waste waters by sprinkler irrigation can be a cost-effective alternative to

conventional waste water treatment. Waste waters are divided into municipal, industrial and
agricultural categories. Municipal sewage requires extensive treatment before it can be safely
discharged into the natural drainage system. Industrial waste waters may also require
extensive treatment. It can range from simple screening to primary and secondary treatment
for removing oils, greases, metals, harmful chemicals and pH adjustment and chlorination.
The design of a system for land application of waste water is similar to the design of an
ordinary sprinkle irrigation system. The rules of good design must be followed, keeping in
mind that the effluent is not plain water, but a mixture of water and both dissolved and
suspended wastes. Furthermore, waste waters that contain abrasive or corrosive materials
will shorten the life of the system. Deep sandy or loamy soils are most suitable for land
application of waste water. The soils must be well-drained; therefore, some sites may require
subsurface drainage. For best results the application rate should be less than 75% of the
infiltration rate of the soil. Either portable aluminum or buried plastic or corrosion resistant
pipe may be used for main and lateral lines of periodic-move or fixed sprinkler systems.
Single nozzle sprinklers should be used to reduce nozzle clogging.

16.6 Erosion control

Keeping the soil surface continually moist by using sprinkler can control soil erosion by
wind. In areas with high winds and sandy soils, it may be necessary to irrigate daily or even
more frequently to keep the surface wet for satisfactory erosion control. Solids set systems are
found most suitable for wind erosion control. It has been estimated that sprinkling rate of 2.5
mm h-1 is adequate for erosion control.

122 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 17. Operation and Maintenance of Sprinkler System

17.1 Operation of Sprinkler System

Good operation of any irrigation system includes matching the irrigation duration with the
rate of application and the intake rate of soil to maximize the fraction of water stored in the
root zone. To realize the full benefit of sprinkler system, it must be operated according to
design. To achieve uniform application, the sprinkler spacing or move distance need to be
adjusted to compensate for variations due to wind or exceptionally hot summer days.

The system should be operated in keeping with good irrigation practices. It should be
ensured that the prime mover and the pump are in alignment. For these the drive shaft as
well as the pump shaft should lie at nearly the same height to prevent too great an angle on
the universal shaft.

While laying the main and lateral pipes, always begin laying at the pump. This necessarily
gives the correct connection of all quick coupling pipes. While joining couplings, it is ensured
that both the couplings and the rubber seal rings are clean. In starting the sprinkler system,
the motor or engine is started with the valves closed. The pump must attain the pressure
stated on type-plate or otherwise there is a fault in the suction line. After the pump reaches
the regulation pressure, the delivery valve is opened slowly. Similarly, the delivery valve is
closed after stopping the power unit. The pipes and sprinkler-lines are shifted as required
after stopping. Dismantling of the installation takes place in the reverse order to the assembly
described above.

The principle of operation of the hand-move system is based on the movement of the laterals
from one position to the next after a predetermined irrigation event. Each irrigation event has
a set time that depends on the amount of water required by the crop at that stage of growth.
For the semi portable irrigation system, the lateral is coupled directly to the valve control,
elbow or to a header, which intern coupled directly to the valve control elbow. After
irrigating in one position, the lateral is uncoupled and moved to the next position. Pipes
should not be dragged along the ground as this result in damage and besides that soil would
enter the pipes. Care should be also taken that when the pipes are moved is an area with
electricity lines, there is a no contact with the lines. For drag-hose sprinkler systems, the hose
is lateral. The hose is connected with garden tap or turf hydrant at one end and the riser on
the other end. Hose clips and adapters are used to secure the hose. After irrigating one
position, all sprinklers, risers and tripod are moved to the next position. Of particular
importance to this system is that users should clearly mark on the hose all position of the
sprinkler, so as to ensure that they place the sprinkler at the same position each time that
position is irrigated and also to ensure that the overlap envisaged in the design is
maintained.

123 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
17.2 Maintenance of Sprinkler System

Irrigation system maintenance is necessary to ensure most efficient use of water that is being
applied. The best design cannot compensate for inadequate system maintenance.
Maintenance actually deals with system installation. Improper installation will cause trouble
throughout the life of the system. A sprinkler system like any other farm equipment needs
maintenance to keep it operating at peak efficiency. Parts of the system subject to wear are
the rotating sprinkler heads, the pumping set, the couplers and the pipeline. General
principle regarding the maintenance of the pipes and fittings and sprinkler heads are given
below:

i) Pipes and fittings:

The pipes and fittings normally do not need much maintenance. The following precautions
can be observed for pipes and fittings:

Any dirt or sand accumulated on the groove of the coupler in which the rubber sealing ring
fits be occasionally cleaned. The pipes made up of Aluminum or plastics should not be
dumped on the damp concrete or fertilizer sacks. The pipes are automatically emptied and
ready to be moved. When the pump is first started and before the pressure has built up in the
system the seals may give a little leakage. With full pressure in the system the couplers and
fittings will be effectively leak free.

ii) Sprinkler heads:

The sprinkler heads should be given the following attention.

(a) When moving the sprinkler lines make sure that the sprinklers are not damaged or
pushed into the soil.

(b) Do not apply oil, grease or any lubricant to the sprinklers. They are water lubricated and
using oil, grease or any other lubricant may stop them from working.

(c) Sprinkler usually has a sealed bearing and the bottom of the bearing there are washers.
Usually it is the washers that wear and not the more expensive metal parts. The washers be
checked for wear once a season or every six months this is especially important where water
is sandy. Replace the washers if worn.

(d) After several seasons operation the swing arm spring may need tightening. This is done
by pulling out the spring end at the top and rebending it. This will increase the spring
tension. In general check all equipment at the end of the season and make any repairs and
adjustment and order the spare parts immediately so that the equipment is in perfect
condition to start in the next season.

As a rule, the underground component of the system requires no maintenance. However, at

times, because of careless errors during cultural practices, pipes have to be replaced in order
for the system to operate at designated pressure. The above ground components of the
sprinkler system, it carefully operated and maintained, are expected to last for about 15
years. This would require careful movement of aluminum/ plastic pipe, after each riser and
124 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
sprinklers have been disconnected from the pipe to facilitate ease of movement to the next
position. Portable aluminum / PVC pipes connected through coupling with rubber rings in
order to ensure water tight connections. These rings have a life of 2 years and need to be
replaced accordingly.

The hoses used for sprinkler systems are rated at 7 meters pressure and are reinforced. There
life expectancy is 8 years. However, at times perforations or cuts occur during cultivation.
Line joiners can be used to repair the hoses.

With respect to sprinklers, it is necessary that all nozzles are replaced at least every two years
(four seasons), in order to maintain the correct flow and distribution of water from the
sprinkler. This is particularly important when surface water with high load of suspended
solids is used for irrigation. The tension of the sprinkler spring and rear of some of the plastic
seals also require attention. It is therefore necessary that every 4-5 years the sprinklers are
taken to the supplier for an overall check up.

17.3 Trouble Shooting and Remedies

The following are the general guidelines to identify and remove the common troubles in the
sprinkler systems:

1) Pump does not prime or deliver water

a) The pump suction lift should be checked, is it within the limits? If not lower the pump
closer to the water surface.

b) Air leak from the suction pipeline and all connections should be checked. All connections
and flanges should be made air tight.

c) The strainer of the foot valve should be checked for blockage.

d) Check that the flap in the foot valve in free to open fully.

e) Check the pump gland (s) for air leaks. If required repack the gland (s) using a thick grease
to seal the gland satisfactorily.

f) Check that the gate valve on the delivery pipe is fully closed during priming and opens
fully when the pump is running.

g) Check that the direction of rotation of the pump is correct.

2. Sprinklers do not turn

a) The operation pressure of pump should be checked.

b) Check that the nozzle is not blocked. Preferably unscrew the nozzle or use a small soft
piece of wood to clear the blockage.

125 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
c) Sprinkler bearing should be free and smooth. Sprinkler can usually be pushed down
towards the riser pipes so that the water pressure flushes out the bearing. If the bearing is
still stiff dismantle and then clean it. Oil, grease or any lubricant should not be used.

d) The condition of washers at the bottom of the bearing should be checked and it should be
replaced then, if found worn or damaged.

e) The swing arm should be checked for free movement further the spoon which moves into
the water stream is not bent by comparing it with a sprinkler which is operating correctly. If
it is bent then very carefully bend it bring into position.

f) Adjust the swing arm spring tension. Usually it should not be necessary to pull up the
spring by more than about 6 mm.

3. Leakage from Coupler or Fittings

The sealing rings in the couplers and fittings are usually designed to drain the water from the
pipes when the pressure is turned off. This ensures that the pipes are automatically emptied
and ready to be moved. When the pump is first started and before the pressure has built up
in the system the seals may give a little leakage. With full pressure in the system the couplers
and fittings will be effectively leak-free. If, however, there is a leakage, check the following:

a) There is no accumulation of dirt or sand in the groove in the coupler in which the sealing
ring fits. Clean out any dirt or sand and refit the sealing ring.

b) The end of the pipe going inside the coupler is smooth, clean and not distorted.

c) In the case of fittings such as bends, tees and reducers ensure that the fitting has been
properly connected into the coupler.

(Source: Michael, 2010)

126 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Module 4. Fertigation System

Lesson 18. Fertigation

18.1 Introduction

Fertigation is precise application of plant nutrients with irrigation system in the crop root
zone according to the crop demand during crop growing season.

In fertigation, fertilizer application is made in a small and frequent dose that feed within
scheduled irrigation interval matching the plant water use to avoid leaching. The right
combination of water and nutrients is the key for high yield and quality of produce. Table
18.1 provides details of saving in the use of fertilizers and increase in yield.

Table: 18.1 Saving in fertilizer and increase in crop yield due to fertigation as compared to
conventional method of fertilizer application

S. No. Crop Saving in fertilizer, % Increase in yield, %

1 Okra 40 18

2 Onion 40 16

3 Broccoli 40 10

4 Banana 20 11

5 Castor 60 32

6 Cotton 30 20

7 Potato 40 30

8 Tomato 40 33

9 Sugarcane 50 40
(Source: Anonymous, 2001)

18.2Need of Fertigation

It has been reported that Indian soils are deficient in nutrients. In order to achieve high crop
production it is required to supplement nutrient by adding chemical fertilizers and nutrients.
These fertilizers are expensive. Large quantities of fertilizers are imported to meet the
growing demand. On the other hand country is facing low fertilizer utilization efficiency
hence there is need for using fertigation system.

127 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Fertigation has been seen as a tool that can help to accomplish the goals of agronomic and
aesthetic lushness with relative ease. It enhances the efficiency of meeting the nutritional
needs of plants. Fertigation allows the selection of nutrient inputs as needed or whatever fits
the “prescription” to match stage of growth, time of year, as well as saving in operating
money. It is a safer application method, as it eliminates the danger of affecting roots due to
higher dose.

18.3Advantages and Limitations of Fertigation

Advantages

 Synchronization with plant requirement: In drip fertigation, fertilizer application is

synchronized with plant need which varies from plant to plant. In drip fertigation, the
amount and form of nutrient supply is regulated as per the need of critical stages of
plant growth.

 Economics: Saving in amount of fertilizer, due to better fertilizer use efficiency and
reduction in leaching. Reduction in labour and energy cost by uniform water and
nutrient distribution.

 Balanced nutrient availability: Optimization of nutrient balance in soils by supplying

the nutrients directly to the effective root zones as per the requirement.

 Higher yield: Greater yield and quality of produce is obtained.

 Higher fertilizer use efficiency: Ensures a uniform flow of water and nutrients. Timely
application of small but precise amounts of fertilizers directly at the plant roots zone,
this improves fertilizer use efficiency and reduces nutrient leaching below the root
zone. Improves availability of nutrients and their uptake by crop.

 Safer application method, as it eliminates the danger affecting roots due to higher
dose.

Limitations

 High initial investment: The drip and fertigation equipment components are
expensive.

 Relatively higher maintenance cost: The maintenance cost of drip and fertigation
system is higher.

 Clogging of drip emitter: Good quality water is very essential. Due to precipitation of
chemicals, clogging of drip emitters may cause a serious problem.

 Availability of water soluble fertilizers& its compatibility: It needs water soluble

fertilizers, the availability of these types of fertilizers is limited. Adjustment of
fertilizers to suit the need is not easy.

128 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
 Subsidy in drip system: Area under micro irrigation is increasing mainly because of
subsidy in micro-irrigation, if subsidy is withdrawn, the area under micro-irrigation
may also reduce. So same may be the fate of fertigation.

 Overdosing: Due to fear of yield loss, because of relatively lower dose of fertilizers in
fertigation, farmers have the tendency to add additional fertilizers and irrigation water
by traditional methods too. This may result in crop loading (sugar cane) lower yield
and lower profits.

18.4 Types of Fertilizers

A large range of fertilizers, both solid and liquid, are suitable for fertigation depending on
the physicochemical properties of the fertilizer solution. For large scale field operations, solid
fertilizer sources are typically a less expensive alternative to the commonly used liquid
formulations. The solubility of these fertilizers does vary greatly.

The main fertilizers/chemicals used for fertigation are:

Nitrogen: Nitrogen is usually applied through the system as anhydrous ammonia, aqua
ammonia, ammonium phosphate, urea, ammonium nitrate, calcium nitrate or several other
mixtures. Careful consideration must be made for the pH in irrigation water since some
nitrogen sources, particularly aqua ammonia and anhydrous ammonia will increase pH. The
increased pH can result in precipitation of insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates that
can clog the drip system. Urea and urea-ammonium nitrate mixture are highly soluble and
usually do not cause large pH shifts.

Phosphorus: Phosphoric acid is soluble and with low pH water has no clogging problems.
Sulfuric acid injection together with phosphoric acid may be sufficient to prevent
precipitation of calcium and magnesium especially as the phosphoric acid boundary passes.
Inorganic phosphate, orthophosphate and glycerophosphate have also been used to supply
phosphorus.

Potassium: Potassium can be applied as potassium chloride and potassium nitrate. These
potassium sources are soluble and have few precipitation problems. The Potassic fertilizers
are water soluble and quick acting such as potassium chloride or muriate of potash,
potassium sulphate, potassium magnesium sulphate, also known as Sulphate of potash
magnesia.

The K ions are absorbed in the soil and thus remain available, and largely protected against
leaching. However, split application is advisable where higher leaching losses may be
expected. Some immobilization into clay lattice layers reduces availability but strong fixation
into completely unavailable forms is limited to a few special soil types.

All types of fully-water soluble granular and liquid fertilizers are suitable for fertigation.
However, for higher yield and quality, chloride-free fertilizers such as Multi-K (potassium
nitrate), Mono ammonium Phosphate and Mono Potassium Phosphate are preferred. Soluble
dry fertilizers containing N, P and K in different combinations are also available in the
market.

129 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Micronutrients:Manganese, zinc,iron, copper, etc., may be applied as soluble salts through
the irrigation system. These should be injected separately and apart from other fertilizers and
chemicals to avoid chemical interaction and precipitation. Iron, copper, zinc and manganese
may react with salt in irrigation water and result in precipitation. However, the more soluble
chelated forms such as iron or zinc EDTA (ethyl-enediaminetetraacetatedidhydrate) usually
cause little clogging problem.

18.5 Fertilizers solubility and their compatibility

Solubility of Fertilizers

The quantity of fertilizer that can be dissolved in unit quantity of water is called the
solubility. Normally nitrogen and potassic fertilizers do not have solubility
[Link], phosphatic fertilizers such as DAP & SSP do not readily dissolve in water.
The solubility is greatly affected by the temperature variations. The solubility decreases with
decrease in temperature. Table 18.2 provides the solubility limit (g/l) of nitrogenous, potassic
and phosphatic and micro nutrient fertilizers.

Table: 18.2a Solubility of Nitrogenous Fertilizers

Types of Fertilizer Nitrogen content(%) Solubility(g/L)

Ammonium Sulphate 21 750

Urea 46 1100

Ammonium Nitrate 34 1920

Calcium Nitrate 15.5 1290

Table: 18.2b Characteristic of Nitrogenous Fertilizers Suitable for Fertigation

Fertilizers Grade Formula pH(1g/L at 200C)

Urea 46-0-0 CO(NH2)2 5.8

Potassium Nitrate 13-0-46 KNO3 7.0

Only Fertigation grade

Ammonium Sulphate 21-0-0 (NH4)2SO4 5.5

Urea Ammonium nitrate 32-0-0 CO(NH2)2.NH4NO3

Ammonium Nitrate 34-0-0 NH4NO3 5.7

Mono Ammonium Phosphate 12-61-0 NH4H2PO4 4.9

130 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Calcium Nitrate 15-0-0 Ca(NO3)2 5.8

Magnesium nitrate 11-0-0 Mg(NO3)2 5.4

Table: 18.2c Solubility of PotassicFertilizers

Fertilizer K content (%) Solubility (g/L)

Potassium Sulphate 50 110

Potassium Chloride 60 340

Potassium Nitrate 44 133

Table: 18.2d Characteristic of Potassic Fertilizers Suitable for Fertigation

Fertilizers Grade Formula pH(g/L at 200C) Other Nutrients

Potassium Chloride@ 0-0-60 KCl 7.0 46% Cl

Potassium Nitrate 13-0-46 KNO3 7.0 13% N

Potassium Sulphate# 0-0-50 K2SO4 3.7 18% S

Potassium Thiosulphate* 0-0-25 K2S2O3 - 17% S

Monopotassium Phosphate 0-52-34 KH2PO4 5.5 52% P2O5

@ only white, # only Fertigation grade, * liquid.

Phosphatic Fertilizers:

 P + Ca = Calcium phosphate (insoluble).

 P +Ammonium + Magnesium = Magnesium ammonium phosphate (insoluble).

 P + Iron = Iron phosphate (insoluble).

 Even good P sources like poly phosphates get precipitated if Ca + Mg in water is>
50ppm and Bicarbonate > 150ppm. If Bicarbonate content is < 100ppm, the Ca + Mg
content can go upto 75ppm.

131 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Table: 18.2e Characteristics of Phosphorus Fertilizers suitable for fertigation

Fertilizers Grade Formula pH (1g/ L at 200C)

Phosphoric acid 0-52-0 H3PO4 2.6

Mono- potassium Phosphate 0-52-34 KH2PO4 5.5

Mono ammonium phosphate 12-61-0 NH4H2PO4 4.9

Table: 18.2f Solubility of Micro-nutrient Fertilizers

Fertilizer Content (%) Solubility (g/L)

Solubor 20B 220

Copper Sulphate 25 Cu 320

Iron Sulphate 20 Fe 160

Magnesium Sulphate 10 710

Ammonium Molybdate 54 430

Zinc Sulphate 36 965

Manganese Sulphate 27 1050

(Source: [Link] Oct 09, 2012)

Compatibility

Mixing the solutions of two or more than two water soluble fertilizers can sometimes result
in the formation of a precipitate. Their solutions should be prepared in two separate tanks.
Table 18.3 gives compatibility chart of different water soluble fertilizers.

Interaction between fertilizers nutrients-compatibility

When preparing fertilizer solution, the solubility product of the different materials must be
taken into consideration. The solubility of the mixture fertilizer, getr required due to
formation of precipitates:

a) Calcium nitrate with any sulphates= formation of CaSO4 precipitate (gypsum)

Ca(NO3)2 + (NH4)2SO4 ◊ CaSO4↓ + ………….

b) Calcium nitrate with any phosphates = formation of Ca phosphate precipitate

Ca(NO3)2 + NH4PO4 ◊ CaHPO4 ↓ +…………

132 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
c) Magnesium with mono-ammonium phosphate = formation of magnesium phosphate
precipitate

Mg(NO3)2 + NH4H2PO4 ◊ MgHPO4 ↓ + ………...

d) Ammonium Sulphate with KCl or KNO3 : formation of K2SO4 precipitate

SO4(NH4)2 + KCl or KNO3 ◊ K2SO4 ↓ + ………..

e) Phosphorus with iron = formation of iron phosphates precipitate.

Table: 18.3 Compatibility chart for different water soluble fertilizers

Mono Mono
Ammonium Ammonium Calcium Potassium
Fertilizers Urea Ammonium Potassium
Nitrate Sulphate Nitrate Nitrate
Phosphate Phosphate

Urea C C C C C C

Ammonium Nitrate C C C C C C

Ammonium Sulphate C C LC C C LC

Calcium Nitrate C C LC NC NC C

Mono Ammonium
C C C NC C C
Phosphate

Mono Potassium
C C C NC C C
Phosphate

Potassium Nitrate C C LC C C C
C=COMPATIBLE, NC=NOT COMPATIBLE, LC=LIMITED COMPATIBLE.

Table: 18.3b Fertilizer evaluation for suitability to fertigation

Property NH4NO3 (NH4)2SO4 K2SO4 KCl KNO3 H3PO4 MAP

Solubility High Medium Low Medium Medium High Medium

Precipitation Low High High Low Low Low High

Compatibility Good Poor Poor Medium Medium Medium Good

Corrosion Medium Poor Poor Poor Good Poor Medium

(Source: [Link]

133 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
18.6 Safety precautions and back flow prevention

Fertigation safety devices

Backflow can occur in a system due to cross connection between a water source and an
irrigation system. For example, water may be turned off, but the chemical injection unit may
continue to work, which contaminate the water source. To protect groundwater and drinking
water supplies from chemical contamination, backflow – whether from backsiphonage or
backpressure – must be prevented. The main chemigation safety devices which are used to
prevent backflow are shown in the Fig 18.1.

Backsiphonage is the reversal of normal system flow, caused by negative pressure (vacuum
or partial vacuum) in the supplying pipe. Backsiphonage occurs due to low pressure in the
water source. For example, the mainline source pipe may break at a spot lower than the
irrigation system or pressure may be reduced drastically because a supply pump fails. Such
situations can be avoided by installing check valves, vacuum relief valves or vacuum breaker
valves.

Backpressure is the reversal of normal system flow due to downstream pressure increasing
above supply pressure. Backpressure may occur if a system operates at higher pressures than
its water supply, perhaps due to use of booster pumps or interconnection of a water source to
other water systems. Such situations can be avoided by installing double check valves or
special valves that combine check valves with reduced pressure zones commonly known as
reduced pressure principle backflow prevention valves (Encisoand Porter, 2005)

(Source: Encisoand Porter, 2005)

134 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The following safety precautions should be observed for successful fertigation system.

1. Operating pressure variations should be minimum in order to achieve uniform mixing

of nutrients and irrigation water in the drip irrigation system.

2. Compatibility of two fertilizers should be checked to avoid precipitation that may

cause clogging of drip emitters and filter system.

3. To eliminate entry of solid particles or undissolved fertilizers a small screen/ strainers

should be placed at the end of suction line.

4. Adjustment of the water pH should be made as per the pH of fertilizer solution.

5. Pesticides and chlorine should not be injected in combination with fertilizer solution.

6. To remove undissolved fertilizer particles or precipitates, the fertilizer injection point

must be at the upstream end of the filter system so that the adequate filtration can be
made.

7. Irrigation and fertilizer injection pumps should be compatible to prevent entry of

fertilizer in the irrigation line. The controlfor the motors of both the pumps should be
electronically interlocked.

8. Check valves should be installed in the fertigation injection line to prevent the back
flow of water from irrigation system into fertilizer supply tank.

9. Check and vacuum relief valves should be installed to prevent water or mixture of
water and fertilizer from draining or siphoning back into water source.

135 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 19. Fertigation System Design

In drip irrigation the wetted soil volume is limited, the root system is confined and
concentrated. The nutrients from the root zone are depleted quickly, therefore continuous
application of nutrients along with the irrigation water is desired.

Factors crucial for effective fertigation design include (i) estimation of available nutrients in
soil, (ii) estimation of amount of fertilizer required, (iii) frequency of fertigation, (iv) fertilizer
tank capacity, (v) irrigation water requirement, (vi) capacity of drip system, (vii) injection
duration, (viii) estimation of concentration of nutrients in irrigation water and (ix) injection
rate.

19.1 Fertigation Parameters

For the effective fertigation, four criterions must be considered. These items are pedalogical
and related with plant as stated below

 the kind of fertilizer required by crop,

 climatic conditions,

 physical and chemical properties of soil,

 exchange capacity of soil.

With fertigation system, the, plant nutrients can be applied alongwith irrigation water in a
given interval at required concentration. With this approach, leaching of nutrients especially
nitrogen decreases and improves the fertilizer use efficiency. Fertigation reduces fluctuations
of soil solution salinity due to fertilizer thereby improving soil solution conditions
particularly for salt sensitive crops (Phene and Beale, 1976; Popadopoulos and Eliades, 1987).
In general with fertigation, chemical fertilizers can be dissolved and applied for long time on
sustainable basis without contaminating soil and water (Source:
[Link] /research/wasia/pdf/theme2_guidelines.pdf).

19.2 Estimation of Fertilizer Requirement

Requirement of fertilizers changes according to the stage of plant growth. The amount of
nutrients to be applied during fertigation and the total amount to be applied during active
crop production season depend on the frequency of fertigation, soil type, nutrient
requirements of the crop and its availability in the soil. Required amount of fertilizer may be
estimated by using the following equation

Where
136 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Fn= nutrient requirement, kg ha-1

R= recommended dose of fertilizer for the crop, kg ha-1

An= available fertilizer in the soil, kg ha-1

Fcf= fertilizer correction factor (based on factors modifying nutrient requirements i.e. manure,
pre-crop residue incorporation, irrigation etc.)

To determine the quantity of fertilizer to be injected into the system for each setting, the area
irrigated in each setting of the lateral line is obtained by multiplying the length of the lateral
coverage and the move of the lateral. The quantity of fertilizer to be injected is calculated
using the following equation

where

Df = amount of fertilizer per setting, kg.

DS = distance between sprinklers, m

De= distance between laterals, m

Ns = number of sprinklers, and

Wf = recommended fertilizer dose, kg ha-1.

Example 19.1 A lateral has 20 sprinkles spaced 10 meters apart. The laterals are spaced 20
meters on the main line. Determine the amount of fertilizer to be applied at each setting when
the recommended fertilizer does is 100 kg ha-1.

Solution: Using the Eq. 19.2, Ds = 10 m, De = 20 m, Ns = 20 and Wf = 100 kg ha-1. The quantity
of fertilizer to be applied is estimated as

= 40 kg

19.3 Frequency of Fertigation, Duration and Capacity of Fertilizer Tank

a) Frequency of fertigation

Fertilizers can be injected into the irrigation system at various frequencies once a day or once
in every two days or once in a week. The frequency depends on system design, irrigation
scheduling, soil type, nutrients requirement of the crop and the farmer‟s preference. It is also
important to monitor the application of water, as fertilizer application is linked to water
137 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
application (Locascio and Smajstrla, 1989). In any cases, it is extremely important that the
nutrients applied in irrigation are not subject to leaching either during the same irrigation or
during subsequent irrigation.

b) Injection Duration in Fertigation

The maximum injection duration depends soil type and nutrient and water requirements of
the crop. A maximum duration of 45 to 60 minutes (Clark et al., 1990) is generally
recommended with enough time for flushing of fertilizer residues from the lines before
shutting the pump off. The injection duration is sufficient for uniform distribution of
nutrients throughout the fertigation zone. Better to inject for long duration to leave enough
time to flush chemicals out of system rather than in a “slug” where highly concentrated
solutions of fertilizer usually injected in much less than 45 minutes.

Injection duration is kept within permissible limits to prevent the application of too much
water, because excessive water leaches plant nutrients below the root zone. In addition, too
much water saturates the soil, causing damage to roots and plants.

c) Fertilizer Concentration

The actual concentration of nutrients needed in the irrigation water depends on the type of
crop. Many systems will have flowing water with a requirement to maintain a desired
concentration of a chemical in the system. This requires injecting a supply mixture at proper
rate to maintain the desired concentration level.

According to Howell et al. (1980) fertilizer concentration in the irrigation water is estimated
by

Where,

Cf = concentration of nutrients in irrigation water, ppm

Tr = ratio between fertilization time and irrigation time

Id = gross irrigation depth, mm

Fr = rate of fertilizing irrigation cycle, kg ha-1

d) Fertilizer Injection Rate

The fertilizer injection rate into the system depends on the concentration of the liquid
fertilizer and the desired quantity of nutrients to be applied during irrigation.

The following equation is used to determine the fertilizer injection rate. The injection rate
may be predetermined by the capacity of the injector or the flow rate of the irrigation system.

138 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The desired injection rate can also be calculated by using the following formula if all the
parameters are known.

Where, qfi = injection rate of liquid fertilizer solution into the system, L h-1

Fr = rate of fertilizing (quantity of nutrient to be applied) per irrigation cycle, kg ha-1

A = area irrigated (ha) in time, It

c = concentration of nutrient in liquid fertilizer, kg L-1.

tr = ratio between fertilization time and irrigation time

It = duration of irrigation, h.

Injection time should be limited to prevent over-application of water that will leach
chemicals.

e) Fertilizer Tank Capacity

The size of the fertilizer tank will depend on the volume of chemical mixture to be
injected, which in turn will depend on either the total amount or volume of chemicals to be
applied or on the length of the injection period. Low cost tanks are practical where an
injection pump or venturi is used. A large tank provides a good place to store fertilizer tank
ranges from 30 to 600 L. This is not enough, because some fertilizers need larger, the capacity
varies from 300 to 600 L. This is not enough, because some fertilizers need larger quantities
because of high application rates or low solubility. The stock solution is prepared based on
the solubility of the fertilizers used. Normally highest concentration is not desirable and it is
recommended that stock solution is prepared with slightly lesser concentration.

The fertilizer tank capacity is computed by using following equation

where

Ct = capacity of fertilizer tank, L

Fr = rate of fertilizing per irrigation cycle, kg ha-1

A = area irrigated (ha) in time, It

c = concentration of nutrient in liquid fertilizer, kg L-1.

139 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 20. Fertilizers Application Methods

Fertilizers are substances containing chemical elements that improve the growth of plants.
They give nutrition to the crops. Fertilizers do not only assist in increasing yields but also
promote healthy growth and development of plants. They contain nitrogen which acts as a
growth booster which can be characterized by the green color of plants. Phosphorus
substance in fertilizers aids in the faster formation of seeds and root development. In order to
get maximum benefit from manures and fertilizers, they should not only be applied in proper
time and in right manner but any other aspects should also be given careful consideration.
Different soils react differently with fertilizer application. Similarly, the N, P, K requirements
of different crops are different and even for a single crop the nutrient requirements are not
the same at different stages of growth.

Theses fertilizers are available in solid granules and are fully soluble or partially soluble.
Fertilizers are also available in liquid form. The modes of application solid and liquid
fertilizers differ.

20.1 Solid Fertilizers Application Methods

The different methods of solid fertilizer application are shown through the following
classification chart.

20.1.1 Broadcasting

The broadcasting refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field. It is suitable to
crops with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole volume of the soil. Normally
broadcasting increases application of high doses. Insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock
phosphate are used in this method of application. The broadcasting of fertilizers is of two
types.

140 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
a) Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application)

The main objectives of broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to uniformly distribute
the fertilizer over the entire field and to mix it with soil.

b) Top dressing

It is the broadcasting of fertilizers particularly nitrogenous fertilizers in closely sown crops

like paddy and wheat, with the objective of supplying nitrogen in readily available form to
growing plants.

Disadvantages of broadcasting

The main disadvantages of application of fertilizers through broadcasting are:

i) Nutrients cannot be fully utilized by plant roots as they move laterally over long distances.

ii) The weed growth is stimulated all over the field.

iii) Nutrients are fixed in the soil as they come in contact with a large mass of soil.

20.1.2 Placement

1. It refers to the placement of fertilizers in soil at a specific place with or without

reference to the position of the seed.

2. Placement of fertilizers is normally recommended in small quantity of fertilizers

application. Due to poor root development and low soil fertility and Phosphatic and
Potassic fertilizer requirements, this method is preferred.

The most common methods of placement are as follows:

a) Plough sole placement

1. In this method, fertilizer is placed at the bottom of the plough furrow in a continuous
band during the process of ploughing.

2. Every band is covered as the next furrow is turned.

3. This method is suitable for areas where soil becomes quite dry upto few centimeters
below the soil surface and soils having a heavy clay pan just below the plough sole
layer.

b) Deep placement

It is the placement of ammoniacal nitrogenous fertilizers in the reduction zone of soil

particularly in paddy fields, where ammoniacal nitrogen remains available to the crop. This
method ensures better distribution of fertilizer in the root zone soil and prevents loss of
nutrients by runoff.

141 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
c) Localized placement

It refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close to the seed or plant in order to
supply the nutrients in adequate amounts to the roots of growing plants. The common
methods to place fertilizers close to the seed or plant are as follows:

Drilling:

In this method, the fertilizer is applied at the time of sowing by means of a seed-cum-
fertilizer drill. This places fertilizer and the seed in the same row but at different depths.
Although this method has been found suitable for the application of Phosphatic and Potassic
fertilizers in cereal crops, but sometimes germination of seeds and young plants may get
damaged due to higher concentration of soluble salts.

Side dressing:

It refers to the spreading of fertilizer in between the rows and around the plants. The
common methods of side dressing are:

1) Placement of nitrogenous fertilizers by hand in between the rows of crops like maize,
sugarcane, cotton etc., to apply additional doses of nitrogen to the growing crops and

2) Placement of fertilizers around the trees like mango, apple, grapes, papaya etc.

20.1.3 Band placement

If refers to the placement of fertilizer in bands. There are two types of band placement of
fertilizer and these are stated below:

a) Hill placement

It is practiced for the application of fertilizers in orchards. In this method, fertilizers are
placed close to the plant in bands on one or both sides of the plant. The length and depth of
the band varies with the nature of the crop.

b) Row placement

When the crops like sugarcane, potato, maize, cereals etc., are sown close together in rows,
the fertilizer is applied in continuous bands on one or both sides of the row, which is known
as row placement. Fig. 20.1 shows the row placement of fertilizer.

20.1.4 Pellet application

1. It refers to the placement of nitrogenous fertilizer in the form of pellets 2.5 to 5 cm

deep between the rows of the paddy crop.

2. The fertilizer is mixed with the soil in the ratio of 1:10 and made small pellets of
convenient size to deposit in the mud of paddy fields.

142 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

(Source:[Link]
ml)

The main advantages are as follows:

i) When the fertilizer is placed, there is minimum contact between the soil and the fertilizer,
and thus fixation of nutrients is greatly reduced.
ii) The weeds all over the field cannot make use of the fertilizers.
iii) Residual response of fertilizers is usually higher.
iv) Utilization of fertilizers by the plants is higher.
v) Loss of nitrogen by leaching is reduced.
vi) Being immobile, phosphates are better utilized when placed.

20.2 Liquid fertilizers application methods

Liquid fertilizers and water soluble granular fertilizers can be applied in different ways.
These methods are shown through following classification chart.

20.2.1 Starter solutions

It refers to the application of solution of N, P2O5 and K2O in the ratio of [Link] and [Link] to
young plants at the time of transplanting particularly for vegetables. Starter solution helps in
rapid establishment and quick growth of seedlings.
The disadvantages of starter solutions are

(i) Extra labour is required, and

(ii) The fixation of phosphate is higher.

143 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
20.2.2 Foliar application

1. It refers to the spraying of fertilizer solutions containing one or more nutrients on the
foliage of growing plants.

2. Several nutrient elements are readily absorbed by leaves when they are dissolved in
water and sprayed on them.

3. The concentration of the spray solution has to be controlled; otherwise serious damage
may result due to scorching of the leaves.

4. Foliar application is effective for the application of minor nutrients like iron, copper,
boron, zinc and manganese. Sometimes insecticides are also applied along with
fertilizers.

20.2.3 Injection into soil

1. Liquid fertilizers for injection into the soil may be of either pressure or non-pressure
types.

2. Non-pressure solutions may be applied either on the surface or in furrows without

appreciable loss of plant nutrients under most conditions.

3. Anhydrous ammonia must be placed in narrow furrows at a depth of 12-15 cm and

covered immediately to prevent loss of ammonia.

20.2.4 Aerial application.

In areas, where ground application is not practicable, the fertilizer solutions are applied by
aircraft particularly in hilly areas, forest lands, grass lands, sugarcane fields etc. In this
method considerable amount of fertilizer is lost. In a very special case this method is
adopted.

20.2.5 Fertigation

The combined application water soluble solid or liquid fertilizers with irrigation water
through pressurized irrigation system is known as fertigation. Generally nitrogenous
fertilizers such as urea and other ammoniatic fertilizers easily water soluble are applied along
with irrigation water. The fertigation increases yield minimizes soil and water pollution. This
also saves fertilizers. Therefore, it saves foreign revenue, as these fertilizers are expensive and
imported from other countries.

144 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
20.3 Methods of Fertigation

Three principal methods are used for the injection of fertilizers or soluble chemicals into the
micro-irrigation system.

1. Pressure Differential

2. The Venturi (vacuum)

3. Injection pump

20.3.1 Pressure Differential

In the pressure differential system, the tank is under pressure (usually main line pressure). A
pressure difference is created by a valve and pressure regulator between the tank inlet and
outlet. The difference in pressure between the connection and the constriction in pipe is
sufficient to cause the flow of water through the tank under pressure. A gradient of 0.1 to 0.2
bars (1 to 2 m) is required to redirect an adequate stream of water through a connecting tube
of 9-12 mm diameter. A sealed airtight pressure supply tank is required to withstand
maximum operating pressure. Precise control valves are necessary to maintain a preset
injection rate. The pressure differential device is cheap and simple. A wide dilution ratio can
be attained with no source of external source of energy.

The nutrient cannot be precisely regulated prior to each application, the tank has to be
refilled with fertilizer. Valve throttling generates pressure losses, and the system is not
straight forward automated. Two types of fertilizer tanks shown through Figs. 20.2 and 20.3
are generally used in this method.

Proportional models are generally vertical tanks with the size varies from 10 to 300 litres.
Quantitative models are: 5, 30, 60, 90, 120 L of capacity (vertical tanks) and 120, 220 litres
(horizontal tanks).

Fertilizer tanks are made up of mild steel. These tanks are powder coated with more than 70
micron thick deep blue colored epoxy-polyester from both inside and outside surface for
protection against corrosion and weather effects. Normally fertilizer tanks have a 100 micron
protective coating of extra durable polyester applied electrostatically and oven cured on a
zinc-phosphate layer for maximal anti-corrosion protection.

(Source: [Link]
145 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
20.3.2 Venturi Injection Method

Suction of the fertilizer solution is generated by water flow through a constricted

passageway. The high flow velocity of water in the constriction reduces water pressure
below atmospheric pressure so that the fertilizer solution is sucked from an open tank in to
the constriction through a small diameter tube. The process of injection of fertilizer solution
can be explained by Bernoulli‟s principle, assuming inlet and outlet ports of venturi are at
same elevation and total energy at a point is constant. This can be given by energy equation

where P = Pressure, V = Velocity, Z = Elevation, γ = unit weight of water g =

acceleration due to gravity.

Considering inlet and outlet ends of a venturi injector are as points 1 and 2 respectively and
they are located at same elevations, therefore Z1=Z2. The equation (20.1) becomes

The change in velocity V2 from V1 due to constriction in venturi pipe diameter causes suction
(change in pressure from P1 to P2) below atmospheric pressure, thereby suction of fertilizer
solution. Figure 20.5 explains the principle of operation of a venturi injector. Fig. 20.6 shows
use of venturi injector for application of fertilizer in banana field.

(Source:
[Link]

146 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

(Source: [Link])

Advantages

1. Very simple to operate, no moving parts.

2. Easy to install and to maintain.

3. Suitable for very low injection rates.

4. Injection can be controlled with a metering valve.

5. Suitable for both proportional & quantitative fertilization.

Disadvantages

1. Creates considerable pressure loss in irrigation pipe line and sometimes a booster pump
is required.

2. Quantitative fertigation is difficult.

3. Automation is difficult

20.3.3 Fertilizer Injection Pump

In this method a pump is used to lift the fertilizer stock solution from the storage tank and
inject it under pressure in a pipe carrying irrigation water. The injection rate can be set to
create a desirable mixing ratio. The fertilizer solution is normally pumped from an
unpressurised storage tank.

147 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Pumping is a common method of injecting fertilizer into a drip irrigation system. Fertilizer
pumps are driven by electricity, internal combustion engines, tractor PTO or hydraulically
the inherent water pressure in the irrigation system. Hydraulic pumps are versatile reliable
and low operation and maintenance costs. A diaphragm or piston movement injects the
fertilizer solution into the irrigation system. Positive injection pumps include single or
multiple piston pumps, diaphragm pumps, gear pumps, and roller pumps. Where two or
more different types of fertilizers are required, multiple pump units can be used to avoid or
reduce precipitation problems. All of the injection pumps can be regulated to achieve the
desired rate of application, usually by adjusting the length of stroke of the piston pump or by
selecting the appropriate pulley diameter. Another means of adjusting fertilizer application is
with variable-speed motors. The system should flush itself with clean water at least once after
injecting the fertilizer solution. The major advantages of the system are flexibility and high
discharge rate, the system does not add to the head loss in a pressurized irrigation system
and that it maintains a constant concentration of nutrients throughout the period of fertilizer
application. High equipment cost and high operation and maintenance costs (Michael, 2010)
are the limitations of this method of fertigation.

(Source: [Link]

148 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Module 5. Quality Assurance & Economic Analysis

Lesson 21. Standardization and Quality Assurance of Micro Irrigation System

Components

21.1 The Bureau of Indian Standards

Standardization of any product process or service in India is carried out by the Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS). The Government of India established Indian Standards Institution
(ISI) in January 1947. With fast pace of development and industrialization the existing
structure was found to be inadequate. ISI was therefore restructured with statutory authority
and Bureau of Standards Act was passed in December 1986. The BIS became functional from
April 1987.

Bureau has several technical divisions to look after the Indian Standards, of which one of the
important divisions has been Agriculture and Food Division. This division has several
technical committees. FAD-35 was one of such committees that formulated the standards for
drip irrigation. This was later modified as Irrigation and Farm Drainage Equipments and
System Sectional Committee FAD-54.

Institutions Framing Standards

At the international level there are several institutions formulating standards for crop
irrigation. Some of these are

i) Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

ii) British Standards Institute (BSI)

iii) American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM)

iv) International Organization of Standards (ISO)

v) American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE)

vi) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

21.2 Testing of Micro-irrigation Components for Standards

The parameters needed for testing of micro-irrigation components are described below:

i) Melt Flow Index: This test is used to determine the right combination of materials used to
manufacture laterals and other plastic materials. The melt flow indexer is used to conduct
this test.

149 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
ii) Tensile Strength: This test is carried out for a special shaped piece obtained by a dumb
bell and elongation is tested at 27oC temperature by a universal testing machine.

iii) Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance: This test indicates the strength of material
against breakage of poly-tube/lateral under various environmental conditions. The water
bath with thermostatic control, vernier calipers, ball ended micro meter and forced air
circulation oven maintained at 50 oC ± 3 oC capable of reestablishing that temperature in 5
minutes are required for this test.

iv) Reversion test: This test is conducted to study the internal stress during processing in the
lateral. A pipe of about 200 m long is subjected to a temperature around 100 oC for about an
hour and cooling to the room temperature. The changes in the dimensional should not be
more than 3%. Thermostatic oven is required for this test.

v) Carbon Black Content: The concentration of carbon black is essential to ascertain that the
lateral can provide appropriate UV stability. The carbon black should have specified density.
The manufacturer is permitted to add carbon black to an extent of 10%. Carbon content
analyzer with ultra pure nitrogen cylinder is required to determine the carbon black content.

vi) Carbon Dispersion: Proper dispersion of carbon black is essential for good UV stability of
lateral pipes. A micro scope with magnifier (200 times magnification) is needed for
determining carbon dispersion.

vii) Hydraulic Characteristics: Internal Pressure Creep Rupture of poly-tubes is required to

conduct hydraulic characteristics of drip pipes. This essentially consists of two important
tests: a) Acceptance test and b) Quality test. Acceptance test is carried out at a lower
temperature for test duration of a given time (say 1 h) under an induced stress as specified by
prevailing standards. The quality test is conducted to test the standard of material and
procedure of pipe material and carried out at a higher temperature with longer duration (say
100 h) to stand the specified induced stress of 2.5 MPa and 20 OC for 1 h at induced stress
of 6.9 MPa. Pressure Creep Rupture tester is required to conduct this test.

21.3 Indian Standards for MI Components

Indian standards published by BIS on various components of micro irrigation system are
given in Table 21.1. These standards are prepared based on corresponding International
standards with suitable modifications to meet Indigenous requirements.

21.3.1 Drip Laterals: Polyethylene pipes for irrigation laterals should withstand the internal
pressure creep rupture test which is conducted at a temperature of 700 C for 100 h at induced
pressure of 2.5 MPa and 200 C for 1 h at an induced stress of 6.9 MPa. Maximum longitudinal
reversion of the pipe after keeping it at a temperature of 100 ± 2 0 C for 1 h shall be in the
range of ± 3%. Similarly tensile strength and elongation at break at 27 ± 2 0 C and testing
speed of 100 mm/min. ± 10 mm/ min shall not be less than 10 MPa and 350% respectively.
Pipe for laterals shall also withstand the accelerated test for susceptibility to environmental
stress cracking.

Melt flow index and density are two properties that control the uniformity of compounds
used for the manufacture of laterals. Tensile strength and resistance to internal pressure are
150 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
the major properties to be tested for laterals. Tensile strength indicates the strength of
material and elongation shows extension of the material under load. The Indian standard for
quality assurance of drip lateral is IS: 12786-1989.

Table 21.1. Indian standards published by BIS on various components of micro irrigation
system (Source: Singh and Kumar, 2001)

1) Drip irrigation system components Standards

i) Main and sub-main pipes

a) PVC pipes IS 4985 : 2000
b) HDPE pipes IS 4984 : 1995

ii) Lateral: High quality PE lateral in 12 mm and 16 mm IS 12786 : 1989

iii) Emitting pipe system IS 13488 : 1992

iv) Emitters/drippers (Pressure and non pressure compensating types) IS 13487 : 1992

v) Micro-tubes IS 14482 : 1998

vi) Micro-sprayers IS 14605 : 1998

2) Filteration system
i) Strainer type filters IS 12785 : 1994
ii) Media filters IS 14606 : 1998
iii) Hydro-cyclone filters IS 14743 : 1999

3) Fertigation IS 14483(Part
i) Fertilizer and chemical injection system part I Venturi injectors I):1997

4) Others
i) Pressurized irrigation equipments terminology IS 14178 : 1994
ii) Design, installation and field evaluation of IS 10799 : 1999
micro-irrigation system- code of practices
iii) Recommended criteria for adoptability of different irrigation methods IS 11711 : 1986
iv) Prevention and treatment of blockage problem in drip irrigation system- code of
practice IS 14791 : 2000
21.3.2 Emitting Pipe: Uniformity of emission of emission rate should not deviate from
declared value by more than ± 5% for category A and ± 10% for category B pipes. Emitting
pipe shall withstand the hydrostatic pressure 1.8 times the recommended working pressure
at ambient temperature for 1 h and at temperature of 60 ± 2 0 C for 48 h without any leakage
and any permanent deformation or damage. Emitting pipe shall also bear the tensile forces of
180 N when applied for 15 minutes at elevated temperature of 50 ± 2 0 C joint between fitting
and emitting pipe shall not come out on pull of 180 N when applied for 1 hour.

151 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
21.3.3 Main and Sub-main pipe

The material used for pipe is polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The different grades of resins are
available for various usages and these are selected according to the essential properties such
as density, melt flow index/K-value, molecular weight distribution, etc. The BIS
specifications of plastic materials in various applications are given in Table 21.2. For PVC
pipe, the base material density of the resin should be between 1.40 and 1.46 g/cc, and K-
value minimum 64 and other additives which may help the manufacturing process and good
finish. For HDPE pipes, base material density of 0.9405 to 0.9460 g/cc and Melt Flow Index
0.4 to 1.1 g/10 min at 1900C/5 kg/load are desired. Carbon black should be added to the tune
of 2-3% and should be well dispersed for long service life of lateral. The pipe shall not have
any detrimental effect on the composition of the water flowing through these pipes.

The extrusion is carried out under strict quality control conditions to ensure that the internal
and external diameters remain with specified tolerances. As the strength of the plastics are
stress and time dependent, the short-term hydraulic test has been specified to detect the
manufacturing defect periodically and the long term hydraulic test to assess the durability of
pipes. For the safe use of PVC pipe for drip irrigation it should meet all the requirements as
per IS: 4985-2000. Similarly, for HDPE pipes, the applicable standard is IS: 4984-1995.

Table 21.2. BIS standards & criteria of plastic materials in various applications (Source:
Kumar, 2007)

Value

Material characteristics PVC pipe HDPE pipe IS:4984- LDPE/LLDPE Laterals

IS:4985-2000 1995 IS: 12786-1989
IS: 12818-1992 IS:14151-1999 (Drip laterals)

Density (g/cc) 1.40 – 1.46 0.9405 - 09464 0.920 – 0.930

K-value Min.64 -- --

MFI (G/10) -- 0.4 – 1.1 0.9 – 1.0

Carbon black content (%) -- 2-3 2-3

should be well
Carbon black dispersion -- should be well dispersed
dispersed

Mechanical Properties Tensile

Minimum 45 Mpa Minimum 19 Mpa Minimum 10 Mpa
strength at break (kg/cm2)

Elongation at break (%) -- Minimum 600% Minimum 350%

21.3.4 Emitters (IS 13487 : 1992): The smallest measured flow path dimension shall not be
smaller than the dimension declared by the manufacturers. Emitters shall be tested to
resistance to hydrostatic pressure and leakage at pressure twice the maximum working
pressure. The mean emission rate of 25 randomly selected emitters shal not deviate from the
nominal discharge rate by more than ±5% for category A and ±10% for category B emitters.
152 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
When inserted on the lateral emitter shall also bear a pull of 40 N for on-line emitters and a
radial force of 500 N for inline emitters.

21.3.5 Micro-tubes (IS 14482 : 1997): Micro tubes shall conform to the requirements for
longitudinal reversion, tensile strength and environmental stress cracking test for polythene
laterals. In addition micro tube shall also withstand hydrostatic pressure 1.2 times the
maximum operating pressure for 1 h without suffering damage and pulling out from
assembly.

21.3.6 Micro-sprayers (IS 14605 : 1998): Micro-sprayers shall bear the hydrostatic pressure of
1.2 times the maximum working pressure for a period of 1h without any damage, leakage
and pull out from assembly. Threaded connections shall withstand a torque of 20 Nm for
metal to metal contact and 4 Nm for plastic to plastic or plastic to metal contact without
showing any sign of damage. Upper and lower specification limits for uniformity of flow rate
are ±10% for regulated sprayers and ±7% for non regulated sprayers. In case of regulating
type micro sprayer, the maximum and minimum flow rates shall not deviate by more than
±10% from the nominal flow rate within the regulation range and average flow rate shall not
deviate by more than ±2.5% from the nominal flow rate, the effective diameter of coverage
shall conform to the value supplied by the manufacturer within a permissible deviation of
±10%. After operating the micro sprayer for 1500 h, the measured flow rate of test sprayer
shall remain within ±10% of the initial flow rate and sprayer shall not show any visible
defect.

21.3.7 Strainer type filter (IS 12785 : 1994): Strainer should withstand internal hydrostatic
pressure at ambient as well as elevated temperature (60 ± 20 C) conditions. In addition, test
for resistance of filter element to buckling or tearing or tightness of filter element should also
be conducted at nominal pressure. The measured clean pressure drop should not be more
than 10% greater than the pressure declared by the manufacturer.

21.3.8 Media filter (IS 14606 : 1998): Test of hydrostatic pressure are same as for strainer
filter. In addition guidelines for sand media bed selection and recommended design flow
rates have also been [Link] between Sand used by the media is graded by mean
effective size (size of opening which will pass 10% of representative sample of sand) and
uniformity coefficient (D60/D10). Uniformity coefficient between 1.4 to 1.6 has been
recommended. Recommended design flow rates for media filter are given in Table 21.3.

Table 21.3. Recommended design flow rates for media filter (Source: Singh and Kumar,
2001)

Contaminant Contaminant concentration, mg/L Recommended design flow rate range

level (ppm) (m3/hr/m2)

Light 0-10 63-76

Medium 11-100 50-63

Heavy 101-400 43-50

153 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
21.3.9 Venturi Injector (IS 14483(Part 1): 1997): The application of fertilizers and or chemicals
with irrigation water has added advantage of improved application efficiency. Venturi
injector should withstand a hydrostatic pressure equal to 1.6 times the maximum operating
pressure when applied for one minute. Motive flow water suction rate of test liquid should
not vary by more than ±10% from the declared values. Similarly minimum pressure drop at
which the water is drawn through the suction port in relation to inlet pressure specified by
the manufacturers.

21.4 Code of Practice for Design, Installation, Operation and Field Evaluation of Micro-
irrigation System (IS 10799 : 1999)

This Indian Standards establishes minimum recommendations for design, installation,

operation and field evaluation of micro-irrigation system. Provision of this code of practice
primarily those that affect the adequacy and uniformity of water application, filtration
requirement, water treatment, water amendments and field performance. As for as design
installation and performance are concerned, this standard covers recommendations for
system capacity, emitter discharge rate, number and spacing of emitters, operating pressures,
manufactures coefficient of variation (Table 21.4), design emission uniformity (Table 21.5),
allowable pressure variation, filtration system requirements (location, size and type)
chemical water treatment, fertilization system, injection system, flow monitoring and safety
requirements. For comparison with recommendations given in the standard it also defines
field evaluation uniformity, water application efficiency and efficiency of micro irrigation
system.

21.5 Code of Practices for Prevention and Treatment of Blockage Problem in Drip
Irrigation System (IS 14791 : 2000)

Irrigation water may contains suspends solids, chemicals, minerals, dissolved solids and
other foreign materials. If proper care is not taken during operation of drip irrigation system,
severe blockage problem may occur which can cause the system failure. This standard covers
recommendations for testing of quality of irrigation water, chemical treatment devices, types
and causes of blockage problems, method of assessment of blockage problems, physical and
chemical treatments for prevention of blockage problems. It also covers recommended doses
of chlorine and acid treatment.

Table 21.4. Recommended classification of manufacture’s coefficient of variation (Cv)

(Source: Singh and Kumar, 2001)

Emitter type Cv range Classification

< 0.05 Excellent

0.05 to 0.07 Average

Point source
0.07 to 0.11 Marginal

0.11 to 0.15 Poor

154 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
> 0.15 Unacceptable

< 0.10 Good

Line sourec 0.10 to 0.20 Average

> 0.20 Marginal

Table 21.5. Recommended ranges of design emission uniformity (EU) (Source: Singh and
Kumar, 2001)

Spacing Slope EU range

Emitter type Topography
(m) (%) (%)

Uniform steep or <2 90 to 95

Point source on perennial crops >4
undulating >2 85 to 90

Point source on perennial or semi Uniform steep or <2 85 to 90

<4
permanent crops undulating >2 80 to 90

80 to 90
Uniform steep or <2
Line source on annual or perennial crops All 70 to 85
undulating >2

155 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 22. Terminologies in Economic Analysis

When planning any irrigation system both an economic and a financial feasibility evaluation
should be carried out. The economic feasibility evaluation assesses the economic viability of
the planned development and assists in selecting the farm irrigation system from among
adaptable alternatives, while financial feasibility evaluation assess the financial conditions
that will be encountered in developing and operating the irrigated farms.

Important part of irrigation system design is determining the expected annual cost of owning
and operating each feasible alternative design. Banks, government and financial agencies
evaluate the soundness of the project and make suitable repayment arrangements.

22.1 Types of Costs

In general, cost or total cost (TC) explains the total economic cost of production of particular
goods and comprises of variable costs (VC), which vary according to the quantity of goods
produced with inputs such as fertilizer, pesticide, labour etc. plus the fixed cost (FC) which
are independent of quantity of goods produced and include inputs such as buildings, rent of
land, machinery etc. which cannot be varied over short period of growing season.

i.) Fixed cost (FC)

Fixed costs are also known as annual ownership cost, as they are generally independent of
the level of system use as shown in Fig 22.1. Fixed costs include annual depreciation, interest
costs and yearly expenditure for taxes and insurance.

ii.) Depreciation

The depreciation means to distribute the cost of given component over the expected life.
Table 22.1 gives the expected useful life of several irrigation system components, has been
prepared by the researchers from numerous sources serves as a guideline for estimating
depreciation (Thompson et al. 1980). The useful life value is based on 2000 hours use in a
year.

Table 22.1 Annual maintenance and repairs, and depreciation guidelines for irrigation
system components.

Annual
Period
Components Depreciation Maintenance and
(year)
Repairs

Wells and casings - 20-30 0.5-1.5

Pumping plant structure - 20-30 0.5-1.5

156 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Pump, vertical turbine

Bowls 16000-20000 8-10 5-7

Column, etc. 32000-40000 16-20 3-5

Pump, centrifugal 32000-50000 16-25 3-5

Power transmission

Gear head 30000-36000 5-7

V-belt 6000 3 5-7

Flat belt, rubber and fabric 10000 5 5-7

Flat belt, leather 20000 10 5-7

Prime movers

Electric motors 50000-70000 25-35 1.5-2.5

Diesel engine 28000 14 5-8

Gasoline engine

Air cooled 8000 4 6-9

Water cooled 18000 9 5-8

Propane engine 28000 14 4-7

Open farm ditches 20-25 1-2

Concrete structure 20-40 0.5-1.0

Pipe, asbestos-cement and PVC buried 40 0.25-0.75

Pipe, aluminium, gated surface 10-12 1.5-2.5

Pipe, steel coated buried 20-25 0.5-0.75

Pipe, steel coated surface 10-12 1.5-2.5

Pipe, steel galvanised surface 15 1.0-2.0

Pipe, wood buried 20 0.75-1.25

Pipe, plastic, trickle, surface 10 1.5-2.5

Sprinkler heads 8 5-8

157 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Trickle emitters 8 5-8

Trickle filters 12-15 6-9

Reservoirs none 2.0-2.0

Mechanical move sprinklers 12-16 5-8

Continuously moving sprinklers 10-15 5-8

(Source: Thompson et al. 1980)

iii.) Interest costs

Interest is the return from productivity invested capital. When money is borrowed to finance
the initial cost of the irrigation system, interest is the money paid for the use of the borrowed
money.

iv.)Variable cost (VC)

Variable costs are those which vary as a total cost to the farmer when the output (agricultural
production) varies. In fact, variable cost will vary in exactly the same proportion as the
output (Fig. 22.1). These include cost of labour, electricity charges etc.

v.)Marginal cost (MC)

Marginal cost is the increase in variable cost associated to a unit increase in production. It can
be calculated using eq. 22.1.

MC = ΔTC/ΔQ = ΔVC/ΔQ (for an discrete change of Q)

MC= δTC/ δQ= δVC/ δQ (for an infinitesimal change of Q) (22.1)

where,

MC = Marginal cost,

Q is the total quantity of goods produced,

VC = Variable cost,

TC = Total cost

If oneimaginesincreasing production one unit at a time, then MC is the cost of last unit
produced.

vi.) Average cost (AC)

Average cost is the cost associated to each unit of production, that is, it is how much it costs
the average to produce one unit of output. This can be clarified in two ways as shown in Eq.
22.2:

158 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Average variable cost (AVC) = VC / Q

Average total cost (AC) = TC / Q (22.2)

vii.) Total production function

1st stage: The total production function is explained through Fig. [Link] output (maize
yield) increases more than proportionally to the input (seed) increase. This is because the
particular input combines better and better with other fixed factors.

2nd stage: The output (maize yield) increases less than proportionally to the input (seed)
increase. This stage must necessarily exist, given that other factors are fixed. For instance
increasing quantity of seeds increase output but not indefinitely.

3rd stage: The output (maize yield) decreases when increasing input (seed) usage (or remains
at the same level): when the maximum output is reached, it is impossible to increase further
the output, unless other factors are increased.

This is expressed as law of diminishing marginal returns: given the fixed factors, production
cannot increase indefinitely unless other factors also increase/decrease.

159 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
22.2 Supply and Demand

22.2.1Supply

It is the quantity of a commodity that sellers are able and willing to offer for sale atdifferent
prices per unit of time.

i)Law of supply: The law of supply states that the quantity of a good offered or willing to
offer by the producer/owners for sale, increases with the increase in the market price of the
good and falls if vice versa, all other things remaining unchanged.

Supply function expresses the relationship between supply and the factors affecting the
producer/supplier to offer goods for sale.

The supply function given below can be expressed as shown in Eq.22.3

Qs = f (P, Prg, S) (22.3)

where,

P = price;

Prg = price of related goods; and

S = number of producers.

ii) Supply curve

The supply curve is the graphical representation of the supply function and it shows the
quantity of a good that the seller is offering or willing to offer at various prices as shown in
Fig. 22.3.

22.2.2 Demand

Demand is the desire to possess and willingness and ability to pay for particular goods i.e.
it‟s an effectiveness of desire which explains ability and willingness to pay for a particular
commodity. Say, if a person has desire to buy sprinkler system, he has willingness but not the
ability to pay for it. Then it becomes a want or a simply wish. So ability and willingness both
160 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
are important. The major characteristics of demand are (i) ability and willingness to pay for a
particular commodity (ii) the demand is always at a given price (iii) demand is always per
unit of time.

i.)Law of Demand

It states that as price increases the consumer/buyer will buy less of a particular commodity
and vice-versa.

In Table 22.2 the demand of buyers A, B, C and D are the individual demands. Total demand
by the fourbuyers is market demand. Therefore, the total market demand is derived by
summing upthe quantity demanded of a commodity by all buyers at each price.

Table 22.2 Market demand

Price, Rs. Buyer A Buyer B Buyer C Buyer D Market demand

150 2 0 5 0 7

120 5 1 10 3 19

80 9 3 15 9 36

50 12 5 20 12 49

40 17 7 25 13 62

ii.) Demand Curve

Demand curve is a diagrammatic representation of demand schedule. It is a graphical

representation of price- quantity relationship. Individual demand curve shows (Fig. 22.4) the
highest price which an individual is willing to pay for different quantities of the commodity.
As price falls from P1 to P2 the quantity demanded increases from Q1 to Q2. This is a negative
relation between price and quantity, hence the negative slope of the demand schedule; as
predicted by the law of demand.

161 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
22.3 Net Present Value and Benefit-Cost Ratio

Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) provides a systematic set of procedures by which a firm or
owner can assess whether to undertake a project or an irrigation system or a cropping pattern
or a technology when there is choice between mutually exclusive projects or programs or
[Link] Benefit Analysis is used to assess the value for money of large projects or adaption
of new technology in agriculture or change in cropping pattern (Boardman et al. 2006).

The Net Present Value (NPV) of a project simply expresses the difference between the
discounted present value of future benefits and the discounted present value of future costs,
which is NPV = PV (Benefits) – PV (costs). A positive NPV for a given project signify that
project benefits are greater than its costs and vice versa. The formula to calculate the present
value (PV) for given future value (FV), interest rate (r), and number of accounting periods (n)
is given by Eq.22.4,

NPV decision rule:

For accept or reject decisions, if NPV ≥ 0, accept, if NPV ≤ 0, reject

Benefit cost ratio decision rule states that

BCR = PV (Benefits)/PV (costs)

Denominator of BCR includes the present value of all project costs, not just the capital costs.

Decision rules:

If BCR ≥ 1 then accept the project, if BCR ≤ 1 then reject the project. It should be clear that
when,

NPV ≥ 0, then BCR ≥ 1

and NPV < 0, then BCR < 1

22.4 Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

The internal rate of return of a project is defined as the interest rate at which the net present
value of that project equals zero. Let‟s consider a case in which cost of financing the project is
15% and IRR is 23%. Now, as the rate of return, the IRR is greater than the cost of financing
the project, and thenone should accept the project. If IRR is less than the cost of finance, the
project should be rejected. The decision rule for IRR can be given as

When IRR ≥ r, then accept and when IRR < r, then reject.

162 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
NPV and IRR give the identical results to accept Vs. reject decisions then considering
individual project using Payback period as given in Eq.22.5

Example: Suppose forrice production, the initial investment is Rs. 100,000 and net cash inflow
is Rs.40000, then the payback period is given by:

100000/40000 = 2.50 years

In the same manner, the payback period for wheat production with initial investment of Rs.
150,000 and net cash inflow of Rs. 58,333 then payback period will be: 150000/58333 = 2.57
years

From above data, one can decide in favour of a project with shorter payback period. Decision
can be taken solely based on payback period criteria and does not involve other decision
variables.

22.5 Sensitivity Analysis

In engineering economics, sensitivity analysis measures the economic impact resulting from
alternative values of uncertain variables that affect the economics of the project. Sensitivity
analysis is the study of how the variation in the output of a model (numerical or otherwise)
can be approached qualitatively or quantitatively to different sources of variation. Sensitivity
analysis can be used to determine model resemblance with the process under study, quality
of model definition, factors that mostly contribute to the output variability, region in the
space of input factors for which the space of factors for use in a subsequent calibration study,
and interaction between factors. Possible situations where sensitivity analysis can be used;

i.) Volume of sales increase by 10%:In this case both the revenue and the labor and inputs
would increase by 10%. So the corresponding increase in net income can be analyzed.

ii.) Prices increase by 10%, but nothing else changes: This may arise if one decides to increase
prices and assume that one will be able to still sell the same volume. Then one can see the
corresponding increase in profit/net income.

22.6 Break Even Analysis

Break-Even analysis is used to give answers to questions such as “what is the minimum level
of sales that ensure the company will not experience loss” or “how much can sales be
decreased and the company still continues to be profitable”. Break-even analysis is the
analysis of the level of sales at which a company (or a project) would make zero profit. As its
name implies, this approach determines the sales needed to break even.

Break-Even point (B.E.P.) is determined as the point where total income from sales is equal to
total expenses (both fixed and variable). In other words, it is the point that corresponds to
this level of production capacity, under which the company operates at a loss. If all the

163 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
company‟s expenses were variable, break-even analysis would not be relevant. But, in
practice, total costs can be significantly affected by long-term investments that produce fixed
costs. Therefore, a company in its effort to produce gains for its shareholders – has to
estimate the level of goods (or services) sold that covers both fixed and variable costs.

Break-even analysis is based on categorizing production costs between those which are
variable (costs that change when the production output changes) and those that are fixed
(costs not directly related to the volume of production). The distinction between fixed costs
(for example administrative costs, rent, overheads, depreciation) and variable costs (for
example production wages, raw materials, sellers‟ commissions) can easily be made, even
though in some cases, such as plant maintenance, costs of utilities and insurance associated
with the factory and production manager‟s wages, need special treatment. Total variable and
fixed costs are compared with sales revenue in order to determine the level of sales volume,
sales value or production at which the business makes neither a profit nor a loss (Diewert,
1984).

(Source: [Link]

In the Fig. 22.5, the line OA represents the variation of income at varying levels of production
activity. OB represents the total fixed costs in the business. As output increases, variable costs
are incurred, meaning that total costs (fixed + variable) also increase. At low levels of output,
Costs are greater than Income. At the point of intersection, P, costs are exactly equal to
income, and hence neither profit nor loss is made i.e. Break-even point.

Breakeven point can be calculated using Eq. 22.6

Breakeven point (BEP) = TFC / (SP – VCP) (22.6)

where,

BEP = Breakeven point (units of production)

TFC = Total fixed costs

VCP = Variable costs per unit of production

SP = Selling price per unit of production

164 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 23. Optimal Flow Criterion for Economic Drip Irrigation Pipes Selection

In pressurized irrigation systems, the selection of proper diameter of the pipeline is an

important part in the design process. The logical diameter of an irrigation pipeline is the one
that results in the lowest annual cost for particular operating conditions. The general layout
of a drip irrigation system may include an extensive pipe network of lateral and sub mains
connected to the main line. The main pipeline in the drip irrigation system is the pipe line
that carries water from the source to the sub mains. Main pipelines are selected based on both
economic and hydraulic considerations. Selection based on economic consideration means
that the pipelines have the lowest annual cost for the entire life of the irrigation system
compared with both next larger and next smaller available pipe diameters. Optimal sizing of
the pipe is a key step in the optimization process that a given flow can result in minimum
combined fixed and operating costs. In the past, economic chart and life cycle costing (LCC)
technique have been used in the selection of the most economical pipe size for a given set of
economic parameters and in the analysis and optimization of distribution pipe network
(Keller, 1965 and Mohatar, 1985).

According to ASAE (1991) the hammer in irrigation pipeline can be minimized by limiting
velocity of flow to 1.5 ms-1. A main pipeline diameter is selected on the basic of maximum
allowable velocity of 1. 5 ms-1 and pressure rating adequate for the normal operating
pressure.

23.1 Theoretical Considerations and Development

The selection of economical pipe sizes is an engineering consideration of as much importance

as the solution of the hydraulic problems involved. Life cycle costing technique is used for
optimizing the pipe diameters to determine optimal flows between adjacent pipe diameters.
The parameters necessary for the economic optimization are market available pipe sizes and
their costs per unit length, existing interest rates, cost of energy, hours of operation of the
system per year, overall system efficiency.

According to the definition of optimal flow, it is the flow rate at which the total annual costs
between two adjacent pipes can be equated in order to find out optimal flow between the two
pipe diameters. The criteria followed for deriving optimal flow expression presented in this
lesson is taken from Reddy and Tiwari (2006).

Let D1, D2 be two adjacent pipe sizes and C1, C2 be their costs per unit length, respectively.
Annual costs of these pipes can be obtained by multiplying their costs with capital recovery
factor (CRF) as given in Eq. 23.1 (James and Lee, 1971)

165 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
where,

i = yearly interest rate, %

n = life period, years.

The total annual cost of a system (TAC1), for the pipe diameter, D1can be written as Eq. 23.2

TAC1 = (AC1) pipe + (AC1) pump (23.2)

where,

(AC1) pipe = annual cost of pipe line with pipe diameter D1

(AC1) pump = annual cost of pumping with pipe diameter D1

Similarly, the total annual cost of the system (TAC2), for the pipe diameter D2can be written
as Eq. 23.3

TAC2 = (AC2) pipe + (AC2) pump (23.3)

where,

(AC2) pipe = annual cost of pipe line with pipe diameter D2

(AC2) pump = annual cost of pumping with pipediamter D2

According to the optimal flow definition, the total annual cost of two adjacent pipe diameters
will become equal at a particular flow rate. Hence, the optimal flow rate (Qc) exists between
two diameters D1 and D2, the annual cost of two pipes can be equated as given in Eq.23.4.

(AC1) pipe + (AC1) pump = (AC2) pipe + (AC2) pump (23.4)

In the above equation (23.4), if annual costs of pipe and pump are replaced by fixed and
operating costs, then above Eq. 23.4 may be written as

(FC1) pipe + (OC1) pump = (FC2) pipe + (OC2) pump (23.5)

In Eq. 23.5 the operating cost of pipe line and fixed cost of pump are not considered. The
change of pipelines from D1 to D2 will have little effect on these aspects and they are
considered equal in both cases.

By considering only the energy cost required towards the frictional head component of the
total operating cost of the pump due to pipe diameters D1 and D2 equation 23.5 can be
written as

(FC1) pipe + (Qu H1) CWHP = (FC2) pipe + (Qu H2) (23.6)

75×3600 75×3600

166 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

where,

H1 and H2 = head losses due to friction corresponding to pipessof sizes D1 and D2

respectively,

Qu = total flow into the unit, L h-1

DF = difference in annual fixed cost per unit length of pipes D1 and D2, Rs.

CWHP = cost of water horse power

Ho = hours operating of system per year

Co = energy cost, Rs./bhp h

Ef = overall pumping efficiency

Now,

Above Eq. 23.9 can be modified further by estimating the head losses H1 an H2 in terms of
flow taking place in the pipes by using proper friction factors for different flow regimes.
Assuming the flow is in turbulent range, substitution of equation 23.10, Eq. 23.11 and Eq.
23.12 for the estimation of frictional head loss (Darcy- Weisbach formula), Reynolds number,
and friction factor (Blasius formula) respectively in the above Eq. 23.9 will lead to
development of Eq. 23.13.

Modified Darcy-Weisbach (DW) equation for frictional head loss is given by Eq. 23.10

Hf = 6.3755 f L Q2 D-5 (23.10)

where,

Hf = frictional head loss, m

f = Darcy‟s frictional factor

L = length of pipe, m

Q = flow rate, L h-1

D = internal diameter of pipe, mm

167 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The frictional head loss coefficient „f‟ depends upon Reynolds number and the relative
roughness of the pipe. Drip irrigation laterals have surface made of smooth. Flow in laterals
is generally turbulent at its upstream end and becomes laminar at the downstream reach. The
flow regime is characterized by Reynolds number (Re) and for cylindrical flow path this is
given by

where,

Q and D are as defined above

k = a constant equal to 3600

η = kinematic viscosity of water, m2 s-1

For turbulent flow, the Blasius equation is

f = 0.316 Re -0.25 (4000 > Re < 10000) (23.12)

where,

QC = optimal flow rate, L h-1

Assuming that the flow through the unit is equal to optimal flow (Qu = Qc), the above
equation can be converted in the following form for the calculating the optimal flow between
adjacent diameters D1 and D2 as shown below.

where,

k2 0.465 (23.16)

Hence, the optimal flow between any two adjacent pipe diameters can be obtained by using
the data on available pipe sizes in the market, their costs, bank interest rate, energy cost,
hours of operation per year and overall pumping efficiency.

168 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The Eq. 23.14 can be written in generalized form for different flow regimes as shown below

Similar derivations are made to include friction factors for laminar range, fully turbulent
range and also by using Hazen-Williams equation. The resultant constants are presented in
Table 23.1.

The developed equation with coefficients makes it possible to derive optimal flows between
the adjacent pipe sizes available in the market. This optimal flow criterion can be used for
selection of sub main and main pipe sizes required for drip irrigation.

Table 23.1. Coefficients of optimal flow Eq. 23.17 under different flow regimes

Friction factor
Type of equation Flow regime K2 a b
(Wu and Gitlin, 1973)

Laminar range f = 64 Re -1.0 1.157 4.000 0.2500

Darcy-Weisbach
Turbulent f = 0.316 Re -0.25 0.465 4.750 0.3636
(DW)
Fully turbulent f = 0.130 Re-0.172 0.302 4.828 0.3506

Hazen-Williams (HW) C = 150 0.294 4.871 0.3506

23.2 Optimal Flows in Drip Pipes

In the present study, a model equation for determining optimal flows between adjacent pipe
sizes by using both Darcy-Weisbach and Hazen-Williams equations was developed and
shown in Eq. 23.17 along with its associated values was used in this section for deriving the
optimal flows. The objective of this study was to find out suitable pipe sizes for sub main and
main lines for drip system.

Based on available pipe sizes suitable for sub main and main lines for irrigation purpose the
economical analysis has been carried out using the required input values for economical
model. The input data required for deriving optimal flows between adjacent pipe sizes,
annual interest rate, and life period of pipe, annual operating hours, overall pumping
efficiency and energy cost. Life period of pipes vary based on pipe material. Hence, suitable
value for life period should be taken considering the type of pipes used in the analysis.

169 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

The details of pipe sizes and their costs per meter length are as follows:

Pipe size, mm Unit cost, Rs. m-1

40 13.0

50 20.5

63 25.5

75 36.5

90 53.5

Optimal flows are derived using following assumptions:

Life period of pipe lines: 10; Annual operating hours: 2000 h; Annual interest rate :12%;
Overall pumping efficiency: 65% and Energy cost is Rs. 1 bhp h (1 US$ = Rs. 55 approx.).

The optimal flows are derived for the successive sizes of the pipes under turbulent and fully
turbulent range with DW equation and also with HW equation with C = 50 and shown in Fig.
23.1.

Fig. 23.1 indicates the optimal flows estimated under the three cases for turbulent range, fully
turbulent range and with HW equation for C= 150 gave almost same values. With DW
equation the temperature of water was considered 200C. With other temperatures,
incorporating suitable correction in formula will result in different optimal flows. Fig. 23.1
shows for the given criteria, the flow rate in the pipeline at which the pipe size has to be
changed from one to other. By using DW equation for turbulent flow, the optimal flows for
the pipe size combinations of 40-50 mm, 50-64 mm, 63-75 mm and 75-90 mm are found to be
5085, 6406, 13521 and 21049 L h-1,respectively. These values indicate the flow rates at which
pipe size has to be changed. For example, if the flow rate is expected in pipe line in between
13521 L h-1 to 21049 L h-1, use of 75 mm size pipe is advisable. But when, flow rate exceeds
170 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
21049 use of 90 mm pipe size will prove to be economical. This means the annual cost of 90
mm pipe size will be lower than 75 mm pipe size when flow in the pipeline is beyond 21049

L h-1.

Hence, the optimal flow criteria will provide useful tool for making pipe size selection in the
pressurized irrigation system.

23.3 Model application

The proposed theoretical developments were used for the analysis of optimal flow criteria for
the pipe size selection and design of economic layouts of drip irrigation system.

23.3.1 Design of economical layouts

In this section, suitable design layouts are proposed using the computer program (Tricad)
developed using optimal flow criteria for the design of drip irrigation system for a 6 ha area
banana crop. Details of data used design are as follows:

Crop: banana; Spacing:2 m x 2 m; Area:6 ha (400 m x 150 m); Slope of the field:flat terrain;
Soil texture: medium textured; Peak evaporation rate:9.75 mm day-1;Source of water:well
and Static head:8 m.

Emission uniformity (EU) of greater than 90% and maximum limiting velocity in pipeline of
1.5 m s-1 are considered as criteria for designing the drip irrigation layouts.

23.3.2 Pipe sizes for the drip system

The following pipe diameters available in the market were considered for design purpose.
Data on pipe diameters and their costs are as shown in the Table 23.2. Each pipe size is
designated suitably indicating its size and suitability for lateral, sub main and main.

The pipe diameters of 10 mm, 12 mm and 16 mm were considered for lateral and designated
as Dl10, Dl12 and Dl16, respectively. The pipe diameters of 40 mm, 50 mm and 63 mm were
considered for sub main pipes and designated as Ds40, Ds50 and Ds63, respectively. The pipe
diameters of 63 mm, 75 mm and 90 mm are considered for main and designated as Dm63,
Dm75 and Dm90, respectively.

Table 23.2 Pipe sizes for drip irrigation lateral, sub main and main and their respective
costs

Diameter, mm 10 12 16 40 50 63 75 90

Cost, Rs. m-1 3.0 4.5 6.3 13.0 20.5 25.5 36.5 53.2

Lateral Dl10 Dl12 Dl16

Sub main Ds40 Ds50 Ds63

Main Dm75 Dm90

171 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
23.3.3 Planning Layout

The field size was considered as 400 m x 150 m with well located outside the boundary on the
width side of the field as shown in the layout (Fig. 23.2).

Based on water requirement estimates for the crop, it was considered to provide one 4 l h -
1 emitter for each plant. The total number of plants in 6 ha field is estimated to be 14,800 by

leaving one row space at the centre along the length for easy operation of subunits. Based on
emitter discharge and number of plants in the field, the pump discharge requirement is
computed to be 59,200 L h-1. This flow in the main line of Dm90 will cause the flow velocity of
2.59 m s-1, which was considered to be high for irrigation pipe lines,and also it would cause
the requirement of bigger size prime mover for operating the pump. In order to use specified
pipe diameter to Dm90, Dm75 and Dm63 for the main and also to reduce the pump capacity and
prime mover requirement, it is desired to irrigate field in two shifts. For this reason, the field
needs to be divided into two halves for irrigation purpose. This aspect has been considered
while planning irrigation layouts.

The proposed layout consists of subunits with laterals on one side of the sub main. The field
is divided into eight subunits with four on each side of main line. The length of sub main is
75 m with 37 rows and with 50 emission points on each row. The subunits are numbered
serially from 1 to 8 as shown in Fig 23.2.

23.3.4 Irrigation Plans

The field shown in layout (Fig 23.2) can be irrigated in through two different plans as shown
in Table 23.3.

172 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Table 23.3 irrigation plants for layout proposed

Irrigation plan Description

I1 Irrigating subunits 1,2,3, and 4 in one shift and 5,6,7, and 8 in another shift

I2 Irrigating subunits 1, 2, 7 and 8 in one shift and 3, 4, 5 and 6 in another shift

23.3.5 Design of Main Pipe Lines

Design of main pipes was made based on both optimal flow criteria and velocity limit in the
main line.

[Link] Based on optimal flow criteria

In order to design main line pipe sizes for laying in field the optimal flow rates were
computed for the successive pipe sizes to be considered for main line sizes. In estimating the
optimal flows, the following assumptions were made.

Life period of pipes, n:10 years; Interest rate, i:12%; Energy cost/bhp h:Rs. 1.00; Operating
hours per annum:2000 h and Overall pumping efficiency: 65%

In order to study the effect of time of operation on optimal flows, the analysis was made for
the operating hours from 500 to 2500 at an interval of 500 hours. The optimal flows estimated
are shown in Table 23.4.

Table 23.4 indicates the flow rates at which the pipe diameters are to be changed from lower
to higher sizes for the consequent pipe sizes of 63-75 mm and 75-90 mm for different annual
hours of operation. For, example at 2000 hours of operation, the pipe size required to be
changed from 63 mm to 75 mm when the flow in the network exceeds 13,520 L h-1 and
similarly, the pipe size need to be changed from 75 mm to 90 mm at 21,048 L h-1.

Table 23.4 Optimal flows for pipe size combinations of 63-75 mm and 75-90 mm for
different operating hours in a year

63-75 mm 75-90 mm
Operating hours
Lh-1 L s-1 L h-1 L s-1

500 22382 6.217 34843 9.678

1000 17396 4.832 27081 7.522

1500 15011 4.120 23369 6.491

2000 13520 3.756 21048 5.847

2500 12467 3.463 19408 5.391

173 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Table 23.4 indicates the flow rates at which the pipe diameters are to be changed from lower
to higher sizes for the consequent pipe sizes of 63-75 mm and 75-90 mm for different annual
hours of operation. For, example at 2000 hours of operation, the pipe size required to be
changed from 63 mm to 75 mm when the flow in the network exceeds 13,520 L h-1 and
similarly, the pipe size need to be changed from 75 mm to 90 mm at 21,048 L h-1.

[Link] Velocity Limit in the Main Pipe

An attempt has also been made to design the size of main pipe keeping the velocity limit as
1.5 m s-1 (ASAE, 1991). In order to select suitable pipe size for the expected flow rates and
corresponding velocity is worked ( Table 23.5). Table 23.5 is referred while applying the
velocity criteria in selection of main pipe.

Table 23.5. Flow velocities in the main pipeline for different diameters at various flow
rates

Velocity in different main line pipe sizes, m s-1

Expected flow, L h-1
63 mm 75 mm 90 mm

7400 0.66 0.47 0.32

14800 1.32 0.93 0.65

22200 1.98 1.40 0.97

29600 2.64 1.86 1.29

59200 5.28 3.72 2.59

23.3.6 Estimation of Main Line Pipes

With the help of Tables 23.4 and 23.5 and considering the layout and expected flows in the
main line in different zones, the requirement of the main pipelines was worked out and
presented in Table 23.6 for different irrigation plans.

In calculating the pipe sizes the maximum flow expected in each zone was considered. It was
also assumed that the water source was 10 m away from the field boundary. Hence, 10 m
length of the pipe was added to the segment at the beginning to arrive at the final estimates
of length of pipe and cost.

It is clear from the Table 23.6 that there are significant differences in the estimates of pipe
lines in the two irrigation plans. With optimal flow criteria in case of irrigation plan I1, the
requirement of the pipe were 100 m of 63 mm size, 100 m of 75 mm size and 110 m of 90 mm
size. With I2 plan, the requirement of the pipes was 100 m of 75 mm and 210 m of 90 mm. The
estimates were obtained based on the flow expected in each segment of the pipe. For
example, in case of I1, considering the subunits 1, 2, 3 and 4 are irrigated in one shift, the
main pipeline feeding the subunit 4 should carry the flow of 7,400L h-1 and accordingly 63
174 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
mm pipe size was found suitable. Similarly, the segment supplying water to 3 and 4 subunits
will carry 14,800 L h-1 and need 75 mm pipe size of 100 m length, then the pipe segment
carrying flow to 2, 3 and 4 sub units should carry 22,200 l h-1 and require 90 mm size of 100 m
length. Then the segment, which has to carry flow for all the subunits at the rate of 29,600 L h-
1, will be of 90 mm size and 10 m length. In the similar way estimates were made

for I1 assuming that 3, 4, 5 and 6 subunits are to be irrigated in one shift. The segment of pipe
carrying water to the subunits 4 and 5 should carry 14,800 L h-1 and should be of 75 mm and
100 m length. Then for entire area under subunits 3, 4, 5 and 6 the total flow; requirement
was 29,600 L h-1 and the pipe size should be of 90 mm of 210 m lengths. The cost of the main
line under 11 and 12 were found to be Rs. 12,052 and Rs. 14822 respectively. It shows net
saving of Rs. 2,770 was possible by adopting I1 over I2. This indicates that the selection of
irrigation pipe is an important aspect to optimize the pipe requirement. Similarly, main lines
estimates were made by considering the velocity criteria. Estimates were also made based on
the assumption that uniform size pipes could be used as main lines. By considering the initial
investment on the pipeline, the pipe sizes selected based on velocity criteria were found to be
less expensive than those selected under optimal flow criteria.

Table 23.6 Estimates of length of pipe line (m) required for main based on optimal flow
criteria and velocity limit

Irrigation plan Optimal flow criteria Velocity limit criteria

63 mm 75 mm 90 mm Total cost, Rs. 63 mm 75 mm 90 mm Total cost, Rs.

I1 100 100 110 12052 200 100 10 9282

I2 100 210 14822 100 210 13722

23.3.7 Comparison of Irrigation plans in terms of Main Pipe Selection

In order to compare the economics of pipe size selection for main line, the pipes sizes D m63,
Dm75 and Dm90 were also considered for mainlines separately without any sizing. The
frictional head loss in the mainline for different pipe sizes is estimated by considering the
amount of flow taking place in each zone. The details of the comparisons on frictional head
loss and annual costs are presented in the Table 23.7.

Table 23.7 furnishes the detailed calculations of the frictional head loss in the main, energy
cost to overcome friction, annual fixed costs and the horsepower requirement for the prime
mover for all the criteria under which the main size was selected. The annual fixed cost on
the main line was more for larger pipe sizes. However, the annual operating cost in order to
overcome the friction was less. The total annual costs are considered for purpose of
comparisons. The pipe size combinations with lower annual cost are better for selection. In all
irrigation plans the optimal flow criteria proves to be more economical. In calculating the hp
requirement, a constant loss of 2 m of head in accessories and 8 m static suction head were
considered. Considering the pressure head at the inlet of the subunit as 10 m, the total head
requirement estimated to be 20 m plus the frictional head loss in the main line as presented in
the Table 23.7.

175 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
In all the cases the optimal flow criteria proves to be requiring less horsepower to operate the
prime mover than with uniform sizes of Ds63 and Ds75. However use of uniform size of
Ds90would need less prime mover size, but the annual cost of the pipeline would be much
higher than those selected with optimal flow criteria. This shows the optimal flow criteria
should be the basis for pipe size selection in selection of the main line in drip irrigation
systems design.

Table 23.7 Comparison of different irrigation plans based on mainline pipes Selection.

Annual fixed Total hp of the

Irrigation Pipe sizes for Frictional head Energy cost
cost of the annual prime
plan main as per loss, (Hf), m due to Hf, Rs
main, Rs. cost, Rs. mover

Optimal flow 3.06 560.3 2401.2 2961.5 3.89

Velocity 5.88 1150.2 1849.3 2999.5 4.36

I1 63 mm 9.61 2152.8 1575 3727.8 4.99

75 mm 4.19 939.3 2254.4 3193.7 4.08

90 mm 1.77 395.6 3285.9 3681.5 3.67

Optimal flow 4.54 1139.6 2953.1 4292.7 4.14

Velocity 6.02 1588.8 2734 4322.8 4.39

I2 63 mm 21.12 6682.7 1575 8257.8 6.94

75 mm 9.23 2919.5 2254.4 5173.9 4.93

90 mm 3.88 1228.6 3285.9 4487.4 4.03

23.4 Summary

Optimal flow criterion and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) techniques were used for development
of an equation for economic pipe size selection. The model equation developed was based on
both economic and as well as hydraulic considerations. It estimates the flow rate at which the
designer should change from one size to another size pipes. The main line selection made for
6 ha banana plot was compared with other methods of pipe selection. Application of the
optimal flow method resulted in lowest annual cost of mainlines in comparison to the
selection on velocity basis and uniform size pipes. In all irrigation plans the optimal flow
criteria proved to be more economical.

176 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 24. Economic Viability of Micro Irrigation in Different Crops

Micro irrigation (MI) includes drip and micro sprinklers. Since micro irrigation is effective
method for conserving water resources, the Government of India considered all the water
emitting devices used for irrigation, such as overhead sprinklers, mini and micro sprinklers,
drip emitters, sprayers, water jets, bubblers, foggers, spitters, etc. under micro irrigation
system for providing financial supports to Indian farmers. The high cost of installation,
operation and maintenance of micro irrigation systems remains a major constraint to micro
irrigation expansion. Only crops with highest return are considered implementation of micro
irrigation.

International Committee on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) conducted a survey in 1991 and
reported that an average installation cost for micro irrigation system was USD $ 2000-4000
(Bucks, 1995). Estimates of operation and maintenance cost of MI ranged from USD $ 100-800
per hectare per year. This large range of variation was due to variable labor cost, large
variation in crop types, and difference in age of MI system.

The estimated cost of installing drip irrigation system as per government of India guidelines
prepared for different lateral spacings for calculation of subsidy is given in Table 24.1
(NMMI, 2010) for different crops.

The relative cost of drip installation decreases with increase in area, since certain essential
components remain the same irrespective of the area covered. Further, the cost of installation
will reduce for close growing vegetable crops by using laterals in paired row system. The life
of materials and accessories of the system is normally considered as 5 to 10 years.

Table 24.1. Estimated cost of drip system for various crops with different spacing

Sl. No. Fruit crops Estimated cost, Rs.

Lateral for crop spacing,
mxm
Wide spacing 0.4 ha 1 ha 5 ha

1. i) 12 x 12 13785 18820 73611

Mango/Sapota
ii) 10 x 10 14277 20041 79831

2. Moderate spacing

i) 6 x 6 16605 26551 109129

Mango / Sapota
ii) 5 x 5 17977 30143 126925

Orange and citrus species

3. Pomogranate 4x4 18621 31793 135459

177 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Grapes 3x3 20048 36551 153441

Ber 3x3 20048 36551 153441

4. Banana 2x2 31616 63598 305797

Papaya 2x2 31616 63598 305797

5. Closed spaced vegetable crops

Brinjal 1.5 x 1.5 35973 74737 360002

Tomato 1.2 x 0.6 43816 97548 474070

Chilli 1.2 x 0.6 43816 97548 474070

(Source: National Mission of Micro Irrigation Operational Guidelines, GoI, Ministry of
Agriculture, Deptt. of Agri. and cooperation, New Delhi 2010)

24.1 Economic Evaluation of Drip Irrigation

To evaluate the economic viability of drip investment both the Net Present Value (NPV) and
Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) are computed by utilizing discounted cash flow technique. The net
present value (NPV) is the difference between sum of present value of benefits and that of
costs covering items like capital and depreciation costs of drip system. In terms of the NPV
criteria, the investment on drip set can be treated as economically viable, if the present value
of benefits is greater than present value of costs. The BCR is also related to NPV as it is
obtained just by dividing the present value of benefit stream with that of cost stream.
Generally, if the BCR is more than one then, the investment of that project can be considered
as economically viable.A BCR greater than one obviously implies that the NPV of the benefit
stream is higher than that of cost stream. The NPV and BCR can be defined as follows:

where, Bt= benefit in year, t

Ct= cost in year, t

t = 1, 2, 3…, n

n = project life, years

i = rate of discount (or opportunity cost of investment)

178 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Since, the drip irrigation involves fixed capital, it is necessary to take into account the income
stream for the whole life span of drip investment. It is difficult to generate the cash flows for
the entire life span of drip investment in the absence of observed temporal information on
benefits and cost, we need to make few assumptions so as to estimate both cash inflows and
outflows for drip investment. These assumptions are:

i) The life period of drip set is considered as 5 to 10 years depending upon type of crop.
Considering 5 years for banana, papaya and 10 years for Mango, Sapota etc.

ii) The income stream from drip set is uniform and constant over its entire life for the crops.
However, this assumption is relaxed at later stage by considering alternative scenarios;
where in cash out flows are allowed to increase by 2% and 5% per annum over the
corresponding cash inflows.

iii) Differential rates of discount (interest rate) are considered to undertake sensitivity of
investment to change in capital cost. These are assumed at 10, 12 and 15% as alternatives
representing various opportunity costs of capital.

iv) Finally, the crop cultivation technology is to be assumed constant for considering same
group of crops.

24.2 Economic Analysis Considering Optimal Spacing of Laterals

The major limiting factor in large scale adoption of drip irrigation is its high initial
investment. Physical factors such as field dimensions, shape and topography will influence
the layout of pipe networks. Cost of the lateral and drippers are the main factors that
influence the system cost. Any effort made to reduce the length of lateral and number of
drippers in a drip system will cause reduction in the system cost.

a.) Water front advance studies for optimizing the spacing of laterals

Water front advance under a point source dripper depends on soil type, dripper discharge
and the operation time of the drip system. Larger operation time results into larger lateral
spacing but may simultaneously result into deep percolation losses because
of consequential larger vertical movement of water into soil. Horizontal advance
corresponding to the operation duration of the system that results into vertical advance equal
to the root zone depth should therefore be considered as maximum allowable lateral spacing.
Patel and Rajput (2001) determined the optimal spacing of laterals and appropriate number
of drippers for irrigating Okra crop in sandy loam soil. They obtained optimal operation
durations of drip system with dripper discharges of 2, 4 and 6 Lh-1 as 720, 480 and 240
minutes, respectively based on the horizontal and vertical advance of soil moisture. They also
reported drip system with 4 L h-1 dripper discharge capacity for a lateral spacing of 92.5 cm
apart is most economical system for a irrigating Okra crop.

Jaiswal et al. (2001) conducted experimental study to determine the optimal length of lateral
for various emitter discharge and emitter spacing. They reported optimal length of lateral
28.76, 59.7 and 171.1 m for the dripper capacity of 4 Lh-1 at 0.6, 1.2, 1.8 and 2.4 m emitter
spacing, respectively. For 8 l h-1 emitter at 0.6, 1.2 and 2.4 m emitter spacing optimal length of

179 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
lateral were 20.2, 33.6, and 49.8 and 63.8 m,respectively. They concluded that 4 Lh-1 emitters
resulted in more optimal length of lateral as compared to 8 lh-1emitter capacity.

b.) Economic studies considering planting geometry

Tiwari et al. (1997) conducted field experiment to study the effect of crop geometry on
biometric growth and yield of banana considering groups of 1 plant, 2 plants, 3 plants and 4
plants nearer to each other by placing each plant in a separate pit and adjusting their row to
row and plant to plant spacing such that area under each plant is 4 m 2. The required amount
of water estimated using modified Penman method was applied to the banana crop.
Standard agronomic practices were followed to carryout experiment. The biometric response
and yield data were observed for two crop seasons. The cost of cultivation as per prevailing
rate during experimental period (1994-95 and 1995-96) was worked out as Rs. 26,300 per
hectare. The planting geometry (2 m x 2 m) responded highest yield. This planting geometry
requires total length of laterals as 4900 m and results in B.C. ratio as 2.97 for one hectare area.
Among all the planting geometry, the planting geometry 1.33 m x 3 m requires lateral length
3290 m resulted in highest B.C. ratio as 3.09. Hence, plant to plant spacing of 1.33 m with one
plant in each pit and row to row spacing of 3 m (lateral to lateral spacing) recommended for
dwarf Cavendish variety of banana cultivation to minimize the cost of drip irrigation system.

24.3 Economic Analysis of Experimental Field Trials under Drip Irrigation

Large numbers of field experiments were conducted in Precision Farming Development

Centre projects sponsored by National Committee on Plasticulture applications in
Horticulture (NCPAH), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India to evaluate the benefit
cost analysis of drip/micro irrigation on various fruits, vegetables and other horticultural
crops. The biometric and yield responses of these horticultural crops were recorded for
different amount of water application through drip and conventional irrigation (ring basin,
check basin or furrow) methods. The amount of water to be given to the crop was estimated
by FAO56 (Penman Montieth) or using USWB open pan evaporation method. The economic
analysis of the data recorded from long term field experiments 3 years for seasonal
vegetables and fruit crop such as Banana, Papaya and Pine apple and 5-6 years for perennial
fruit crops (Mango, Sapota, Guava crops) were analyzed. The steps followed to carry out
economic analysis are stated below:

1. Determine the fixed cost of drip system

a) Use life of drip/micro irrigation system (i.e. 7 to 10 years).

b) Determine the depreciation cost.

c) Determine the interest (use prevailing bank interest rates for agriculture).

d) Determine the annual repair and maintenance cost (1% of annual cost).

e) Determine the total cost (b+ c +d).

180 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
1. Determine the cost of cultivation, Rs.
The cost of cultivation includes field preparation, seedlings, planting, intercultural
operations, cost of fertilizers and manures and their application, plant protection chemicals
and their application, harvesting and other relevant operations.

1. Determine the seasonal total cost (1(e) + 2.

2. Determine the amount of water applied through drip system and by conventional
methods. This is the water estimated by FAO56 or Pan evaporimeter and, considering
the wetting factor for drip system.

3. Estimate the yield response under drip (micro irrigation) and conventional method of
irrigation.

4. Determine the prevailing market selling price.

5. Estimate the income from production (5 x 6) due to drip/micro irrigation or

conventional irrigation.

6. Estimate the net seasonal income due to drip/micro irrigation and conventional
irrigation (7-3).

7. Estimate the additional area cultivated due to saving of water.

8. 10. Estimate the additional expenditure due to additional area (3 X 9).

9. 11. Estimate the additional income due to additional area (7X 9).

10. 12. Estimate the additional net income (11-10).

11. 13. Determine the gross cost of production (3+10).

12. 14. Determine the gross income (7+11).

13. 15. Determine the gross B.C. Ratio, (14/13)

14. 16. Determine the net extra income due to drip irrigation system over conventional
irrigation (12+8 (drip)-8(conventional).

15. 17. Determine the net profit per mm of water used (8/4).

16. 18. Determine the yield per mm of water used, (kg/ha/mm).

Precision Farming Development Centre located at Agricultural and Food Engineering

Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India conducted research
experiments on fruits and vegetable crops under drip/ micro sprinkler irrigation. The salient
results in terms of amount of water applied, yield, water use efficiency and B. C. ratio of
some of the crops are presented in Table 24.2

181 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Table 24.2. Salient findings of experimental trials of fruits and vegetable crops under drip
irrigation.

Sl. Yield, Water Fixed cost, WUE, B. C.

Fruit crop Source
No t/ha applied, mm Rs. kg/ha mm Ratio

Banana
1. 39.53 1059 45000 37.32 4.49 Tiwari et al., 1998
( 2 m X 2 m)

Guava Singh and Tiwari,

2. 37.70 206.0 30200 183.0 4.40
( 5 m X 5 m) 2007

3. Pine apple 70.00 1085.0 84000 64.5 6.85 Tiwari et al., 2005

Mango
4. 20.9 512.0 28210 54.42 7.01 Anonymous, 2004
(5 m X 5m)

Sapota
5. 15.6 232.5 10929 6.71 3.55 Anonymous, 2012
( 5 m X 5 m)

Vegetable
crops

Turmeric
(Intercrop to PFDC, Annual
6. 14.10 483.5 86674 29.16 2.25
Sapota) Report, 2013
0.5 m X 0.25 m

Potato
7. 250.86 220.0 118320 114.02 1.75 Tiwari et al., 2009
0.3 m X 0.5 m

Okra
8. 13.06 665.0 65666 19.64 1.77 Tiwari et al., 1998
0.6 m X 0.3 m

Tomato
9. 70.28 560.0 65000 125.5 6.79 Tiwari et al., 1998
(0.6 m X 0.6 m)

10. Cabbage 106.68 400.0 95279 266.7 6.99 Tiwari et al., 2003

11. Capsicum 13.57 282.71 6.38 Tiwari et al., 1998

12. Brocolli 19.63 48.05 2.79 Tiwari et al., 2003

Rao and Singh (1998) conducted field experiments on tomato crop under drip and check
basin irrigation to evaluate the economic feasibility of drip irrigation. Drip method consisted
of two treatments. i) one emitter in the center of 4 plants (double pair wise) ii) one emitter
between two plants (single pair wise) iii) one micro tube for each plant. The present worth of
total cash inflows, out flows, payback period and benefit cost ratio were estimated for all
these treatments. The least payback period of 13.28 years and maximum benefit cost ratio of
1.882 was obtained for double pairwise followed by micro tube drip treatment as 13.68 years
182 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
and 1.826, respectively. They recommended using pair wise drip system layout for irrigating
tomato.

Singh (2008) studied economic viability of drip irrigation for growing capsicum based on
discounted cash flow technique (NPV and BCR). The experiment was conducted with
different amount of water application through drip system to capsicum crop. Highest yield of
14.5 t ha-1 was found under full amount of water applied through drip with plastic mulch.
The net present value was highest under drip with full amount of water application and with
B.C. ratio of 3.12.

Summary

The micro irrigation has its advantages and limitations. Its advantages are in terms of saving
of water (50-60%) of that for conventional irrigation, effective use of fertilizers, less labour
and energy cost. Based on the economic analysis carried out, the micro irrigation system is
highly remunerative for high value crops. The limitation of this method is its high initial cost,
which is beyond purchasing capacity of small and marginal farmers, that‟s why it is normally
adopted by large land holdings farmers. As a policy to encourage the use of such system, the
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, provides subsidy to the tune of 50% to small
and marginal farmers under National Mission on Micro Irrigation.

183 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Module 6. Automation of Micro Irrigation System

Lesson 25. Automation

25.1 Introduction

Automation of micro irrigation system refers to operation of the irrigation system with
minimum or without manual intervention. A well-controlled irrigation system is one which
controls the spatial and temporal distribution of soil moisture to achieve maximum crop
yield and benefit cost ratio. The adoption of automated new micro irrigation makes possible
to grow advanced high value cropping system with new technologies which are difficult to
grow by conventional means. Using automation one can control the irrigation valves, pump
and fertigation equipment.

Some of the specific features of automation irrigation are stated below:

i) It eliminates the manual opening and closing of valves.

ii) It starts and stops pump exactly as and when required thus optimizing the

energy requirement.

iii) Irrigation system can be started at any desired time. One need not worry to visit farm
during odd time (night). This is specially in Indian condition, where power supply is
available for agricultural operation during night time.

iv) Possibility to change frequency of irrigation and fertilizer application as per the crop
need.

v) Use of water from different sources and increased water and fertilizer use efficiency.

25.2 The Need for Automation of Irrigation

The consumption of energy and water is quite high for agricultural production. Both of these
are scare national resources. It is therefore in the national interest to adopt newer
technologies to reduce their wastage. Automation of irrigation system is one way of doing it
as the same helps in optimal utilization of energy and water resources. The micro irrigation
system possesses all qualities to introduce automation in this irrigation system. Micro
irrigation includes drip surface and sub-surface, bubblers, mini and micro sprinklers and jet
that offers the means to maintain soil water nearly at constant levels and minimizes the water
stress. However, with frequent irrigation the control of the soil water root environment is
critically dependent upon the irrigation regardless whether it is manually or computer
controlled. Any disturbance is the irrigation schedule quickly creates detrimental water or
oxygen stress on the crop. On the control of high frequency micro-irrigation systems must be
automatic, redundant and capable of responding to small and rapid changes in soil water.
Hence automation of micro irrigation meets these requirements. To meet the increasing food
184 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
demand for growing population it is the need of the hour to increase agricultural production
with minimum expenditure and loss of resources. Automation of drip and micro irrigation
will serve as basic tool to achieve this. Although initial cost of drip and along with
automation unit is high. However, the long term benefits in saving water, labour, energy, and
fertilizer and also increase in agricultural produce as well as quality definitely covers up the
high initial cost in a less pay back period.

25.3 Merits and Demerits of Automation

A) Merits

An automated micro irrigation system increases crop yield, save water and energy and labor
costs as compared with the manual system. The automated irrigation system starts watering
just at the predetermined level of moisture content and stops irrigation as the desired soil
moisture content or field capacity is attained. The system accounts for effective rainfall to
schedule irrigation, eliminates the need to visit the farm frequently and ensures optimum soil
water condition in the root zone. This prevents leaching of minerals and nutrients vital for
the plant‟s healthy growth and eliminates the long term ill-effects of over irrigation that leads
to development of the salinity. The system is useful for both arid and humid areas where
unpredictable and unevenly distributed rainfall disrupts a fixed irrigation schedule. This
system also facilitates high frequency and low volume irrigation.

Automation results in higher production, increased productivity, better quality, improved

safety, shorter workweeks for labour. Higher output and increased productivity. Automated
systems typically perform the irrigation process with less variability than human workers,
resulting in greater control and consistency. Also, increased process control makes more
efficient use of irrigation water, resulting in less water consumption or high water use
efficiency.

i) Reduced labour

As the irrigator is not required to constantly monitor the progress of irrigation, the irrigator is
available to perform other tasks uninterrupted.

ii) Improved life style

The irrigator is not required to constantly check the progress of water down the bays being
irrigated. The irrigator is able to be away from the farm, relax with the family and sleep
during night.

iii) More timely irrigation

Irrigators with automation are more inclined to irrigate when the plants need water, not
when it suits the irrigator.

iv) Assists in the management of higher flow rates

Many irrigators are looking to increase the irrigation flow rates they receive through
installing bigger channels and bay outlets. Such flow rates generally require an increase in

185 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
labour as the time taken to irrigate a bay is reduced thus requiring more frequent change
over. Automation allows for these higher flows to be managed without an increase in the
amount of labour.

v) More accurate cut-off

Automation of the irrigation system allows cut-off of water at the appropriate point in the
bay. This is usually more accurate than manual checking because mistakes can occur if the
operator is too late or too early in making a change of water flow.

vi) Reduced runoff of water and nutrients

Automation can help keep fertiliser on farm by effectively reducing runoff from the farm.
Retaining fertiliser on farm has both economic and environmental benefits.

vii) Reduced costs for vehicles used for irrigation

As the irrigator is not required to constantly check progress of irrigation, motor bikes, four
wheelers and other vehicles are used less. This reduces the running costs of these vehicles
and they require less frequent replacement.

B) Demerits

Automated irrigation system requires high capital expenditure to invest in automation.

i) Cost

There are costs in purchasing, installing and maintaining automatic equipment.

ii) Reliability

Can the irrigator trust an automatic system to work correctly every time? Sometimes failure
will occur. Often these failures are because of human error in setting and maintaining the
systems. A reuse system is good insurance to collect any excess runoff when failures occur.

ii) Increased channel maintenance

There is a need to increase maintenance of channels and equipment to ensure the system
works correctly. Channels should be fenced to protect the automatic units from stock
damage.

25.4 Semiautomatic and Fully Automatic Systems of Automation

i) Semiautomatic

Semiautomatic systems and controls require manual attention at each irrigation and are
usually simpler and less costlier than the fully automatic systems. Most semi-automated
systems use mechanical or electronic timers to activate control structures at predetermined
times. The irrigator usually determines when to begin irrigation and its duration and
manually resets or returns the devices to their original positions or moves them from one

186 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
location to another before the next irrigation. The parts of given system may be automatic
while other parts are semiautomatic or manually operated. Such systems require
communication between the controller and system components located in the field.
Communication may be by direct interconnecting electrical wires, by hydraulic or pneumatic
conduits or by radio telemetry.

ii) Fully Automatic

Fully automatic systems normally operate without operator attention except for periodic
inspections and routine maintenance. The irrigator may determine when and how long to
irrigate and turn water into the system or start programmed controllers to initiate the
automated functions. Fully automatic systems may use soil moisture sensors, such as
tensiometers or electrical resistance blocks to activate electrical controls when soil water is
depleted to predetermined levels. Meteorological data using climate based sensors can also
be used to predict when to irrigate and the output from a microprocessor controller can
automatically begin irrigation. Once irrigation has been started water is diverted into the
farm distribution system and irrigation is completed without operator intervention. Irrigation
duration may be controlled by programmed timers, soil moisture sensors or surface water
sensors. Fully automatic systems require a water supply available on demand such as from
wells or farm reservoirs. Most farm systems however do not have the flexibility required for
complete automation (Hart et al., 1980).

25.5 Automatic Controllers

Micro irrigation system use automatic controller, which can be simply mechanical clocks that
open/close a single valve on a pre-set time schedule to microcomputers. These can be
programmed to interrogate with soil moisture and/or climate sensors, decide when to start
and stop irrigation, start/stop pumps and open/close valves to accomplish the irrigation and
to apply exact amount of water and fertilizer to each block within the field.

A timer type controller uses a clock (either solid state or motor driven electric) and
programmed for starting and to sequence the irrigation. The controller‟s supplies electrical or
hydraulic power to activate remote solenoid valves located on individual laterals or sub-
mains (manifolds). Electrical cables wires, hydraulic or pneumatic conduit or radio telemetry
are used for communication between controller and valves.

Microprocessor/microcomputer-based controllers can be programmed to control pumps,

fertilizer injection equipment, filters, etc., as well as activate/deactivate solenoid valves using
data from tensiometers, pyranometers, evaporation pans, thermocouple, humidity meters,
anemometers, flow meters, pressure transducers, and other sensors. These controllers pull
soil and/or climate sensors data according to a schedule specified by the irrigator. The
controller is programmed to use these data to determine the need for irrigation in each field
and block. It then operates the pumps, filters, injection equipment, and valves needed to
accomplish the irrigation. Data from flow meters and pressure sensors are used to determine
the need for such things as flushing and to detect system malfunctions.

187 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Some controllers are also able to diagnose system malfunctions and take corrective action.
Some even turn the system off during rain storms and then restarts the system when the
storm ends (James, 1988).

188 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 26. Components of Automation System

26.1 Introduction

Automation in micro-irrigation system is typically achieved by a centralized decision making

control device supported with a set of hardware (control valves, relays etc.) to carry out
irrigation commands and sensors to input environmental measurements for making
irrigation decision.

The basic structure and components of a relatively comprehensive irrigation control system
are shown in Figure 26.1.

For automation of irrigation, the irrigation controller is used. The irrigation controller is an
electronic device to store and execute irrigation scheduling program based on soil/plant
water content and using criteria of when and how much water to supply. The following are
the decision making steps to execute irrigation.

i) Geospatial data are provided to the controller to generate site specific water assessment or
demand for water to irrigate field crops.

189 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
ii) Assessment of water demand using a) soil moisture/plant water status sensors in-situ or
remotely located, b) meteorological based soil-water balance estimation and c) calendar
based soil-water balance.

iii) Direct continuous communication between these sensors and irrigation controllers is
essential, which can be achieved by directly connecting the sensors output to the analog
interface panel for wired system or through wireless transmitters/receivers.

iv) If irrigation is to be given after knowing soil-water status, the irrigation is given using a
pump attached with source of water and network of pressurized irrigation pipe lines. In case
of additional pressure requirement the booster pump can be operated electrically or fossil
fuel.

v) The set of control and monitoring devices are deployed to execute irrigation command to
complete the irrigation. Solenoid valves are used to turn on/off water flow with the amount
of water monitored by water meter. Sometimes timer is used to apply water for set time.

vi) Fertigation or chemigation is important process in micro-irrigation. This may be with or

without automation.

vii) Sometimes filters cleaning and backwashing are automated/manually operated. The last
step involves system monitoring to ensure system maintenance. This is accomplished by
supervisory control and remote monitoring to ensure optimal irrigation.

26.2 Automation Equipments and Their Application

The devices used for automation of micro-irrigation (MI) system are: controller, control
valves, metering pumps, flow transducers, sequencers sensors, master relay etc. The brief
description of these hardware equipments are presented in this section. Fig. 26.2 shows
different components of computer controlled automated irrigation system developed at IIT
Kharagpur, India.

190 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
26.2.1 Controller

The PLC (Programmable Logic Controllers) is used extensively for various industrial
applications including irrigation. These are available for inputs/outputs varying from 6 to
512. The analog input/output modules enable interfacing of base unit of PLC with many
sensors, transducers and output devices. These systems can be programmed to issue
command for operation of solenoid valves, pumps, booster, fertilizer injectors, backwashing
of filters etc. according to irrigation cycle (Dhingra & Kumar, 2001). Micro-processor,
personal computers, laptops, palmtops are also used as controllers.

The controller is heart of the automation, which co-ordinates operation of the entire system.
The controller is programmed to run various zones of an area for their required duration. In
some cases moisture sensors is used with it which gives feed back to the controller about field
moisture level.

The controller has in-built 24-hr clock. There is an option to have different irrigation schedule
for different days of the week. These are mostly multistation controller i.e. they can control
4/6/8/12 and even more number of solenoid valves are connected through them. Other
facilities available with the controllers are multi programme facility to suit different weather
conditions, weekly/fortnightly calendar or skip days interval option and option to connect
moisture sensors, temperature sensor, or other sensors having analog output (Joshi 2001).
The different types of controller are: cyclic controller, stand alone battery operated controller,
light commercial controller, coded signal controller and satellite based computerized control
system. The cyclic controller can be used for one station where as satellite based controller
can be used for as maximum as 999 stations.

26.2.2 Control Valves

Control valves are activated electrically, hydraulically or pneumatically and used to switch
on or off water supply, filter flushing, mains and laterals, sequence water from one field or
segment to another.

a) Solenoid valve: Controllers are connected electrically operated valves (solenoid valve).
These valves are fitted in place of manual gate valve in an automatic system. One valve
controls one section. As soon as the signal is received from the controller the solenoid gets
activated and valve is turned on which allows passing of water through it. After the signal is
stopped the valve shuts off. These are normally two way open and close valves and operate
on 24 volt DC or 220 volt AC motor.

b) Hydraulic valves: These valves are operated on hydraulic pressure. The operation of a
hydraulic valve depends on the type of valve and whether it is NC (Normally closed) or NO
(Normally open) in principle.

A command can be transmitted to these hydraulic valves by means of control tubes and
solenoid coil. These solenoid coils are mounted on the main line and connected to the valve
by control tubing.

c) Solenoid coil: Solenoid coil is used to translate electric pulses into hydraulic pulses which
enable opening and closing of specific hydraulic valve. These solenoid coils require 24V AC
191 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
input for its operation. Solenoid coils mounted on the valves are connected to controller
electrically. The size of the cable is the function of the distance between solenoid valve and
the controller. The solenoid coil has a metal plunger inside the electromagnetic coil. The coil
gets actuated after receiving required voltage. It pulls up the plunger and water passes from
the lower orifice port to control tubing towards the hydraulic valve. When operation time is
over, the controller stops sending signals to the solenoid coil to deactuate. Thus the plunger
again seals the orifice port to close.

d) Automatic metering valves: These valves are used in volume based irrigation system. The
volume of water required for the irrigation can be adjusted in these automatic metering
valves. It shuts itself off after a preset quantity of water has flown through. These valves are
available with different capacity (10 L h-1 to 10 m3 h-1).

The sequential arrangement of these valves in the system is also possible. All automatic
metering valves are interconnected in series with the help of control tube. During the
sequential operation next valve in the series opens after the first valve closes. Shut down of
the irrigation pump can be made automatic after closure of the last valve in series by
connecting to a micro switch.

26.2.3 Metering pumps

These pumps are suitable for feeding of known quantity of fertilizers/chemicals. The
capacity of pumps varies from 1.5 to 3.5 L h-1. These pumps are micro-processor based
solenoid driven diaphragm type. The control can be manual or remote.

Peristaltic pumps: These are ideal system for accurate pumping of fluids at low flow rates.
These can be used for accurate dosing of chemicals as and when desired. The flow rate is
directly proportional to rotor speed and thus dependent on motor drive voltage.

26.2.4 Flow transducers

These can be used for measuring flow rate and totalizing the flow. The fluid passes through
internal fluid flow straightners, to stabilize turbulence, before impacting on the vaned turbine
rotor, which rotates at speed proportional to the flow rate. Each rotor blade has a stainless
steel tip which is detected by a sensor mounted externally to the glass tube. The pulse output
which is proportional of flow rate, is measured by the counter. Flow measuring feedback
devices allow the computer to determine the rate and volume of water applied for estimating
whether the irrigation scheduling algorithm and recommendations are followed.

26.2.5 Sequencer systems

Electromechanical and electronic time driven sequencer systems are available for use in
automatic micro-irrigation system. The electromechanical system consists of cam sequencer
assembly frame, gear box, gears and synchronous motor. The cam shaft contains 2,4,6 or
more adjustable cams, to operate switches and SPDT contacts. The gears can be used to
provide a variety of time periods for a single revolution of cam shaft. This type of system is
cheaper compared to electronic sequencer.

192 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
26.2.6 Master relay

This relay controls function of pump whenever any of the solenoid valve is switched on, one
pulse is sent to activate master relay which in turn starts the pump through Pump Starter.

26.2.7 Sensors

Sensor is defined as an element that senses a variation in input energy to produce a variation
in another or same form of energy. Different types of sensors used to monitor soil and plant
parameters are as follows:

i) Electromagnetic

ii) Optical

iii) Mechanical

iv) Electrochemical

v) Airflow

vi) Infrared sensors for plants temperature and

vii) Climatological parameters monitoring

Brief description of sensors used for soil and plant water monitoring and irrigation execution
is discussed in this section.

[Link] Soil-plant water monitoring sensors: Different types of devices used to monitor soil-
plant water status and to automate irrigation system are listed below:

a) Tensiometer

b) Resistance block

c) Gypsum block

d) Granular matrix sensor

e) TDR based soil moisture sensor

f) Infrared sensors for leaf air temperature

g) High frequency capacitance type soil moisture sensor

a) Tensiometer: The tensiometer is a device, which provides direct measure of tenacity with
which water is held by the soil. Any change in soil water causes corresponding change in
soil moisture tension. In automated irrigation controller, the tensiometer is modified to read
change in soil moisture tension in terms of change in voltage or resistance, it consists of
electro tensiometer, an electronic switching unit and a solenoid valve. Fig. 26.3 shows a

193 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
typical automated irrigation controller using a tensiometer to trigger irrigation based on soil-
water potential (Joshi et al. 1999).

b) Resistance Blocks: In this type of sensor, the electrical resistance between the electrodes
varies with moisture content of resistance block. The moisture of resistance block is in
equilibrium with the soil moisture. The presence of salt or salinity in irrigation water or soil
affects the observations. The gypsum block and granular matrix type sensors are commonly
used for soil moisture sensing and irrigation automation.

c) Gypsum Block: It consists of two electrodes inserted in a solid block of gypsum. Gypsum
neutralizes the affect of salt content. Gypsum blocks are easy to use and economical. The
limitation of this type of sensor is gypsum gets dissolved with water. Therefore, the
calibration changes with the passage of time.

d) Granular Matrix: The granular matrix sensor uses granular matrix of standard size with
uniform pore size. Two electrodes are inserted in granular matrix fill material, above which
gypsum wafer supported with metallic or plastic screen. The gypsum wafer slowly
neutralizes the salinity of the soil solution hence electrical resistance between the electrodes is
unaffected. Particle size of the granular fill material and its compression determines the pore
size distribution in sensor and their response characteristics. Such sensors require little
maintenance during the growing season and suited for sensing soil water potential and
automatic control of irrigation systems. They have advantages of low unit cost and simple
installation procedures similar to those used for tensiometer. A granular matrix type soil
moisture sensor developed at IIT Kharagpur is shown through Figure 26.4. These electrodes
are connected to controllers. As the soil moisture replaces the air present in the voids of
granular material thus results in reduction of electrical resistance between the electrodes and
194 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
vice versa. The developed sensor is calibrated in terms of impedance versus soil moisture
content. The sensor gives feedback to the central processing unit of the personal computer to
automate micro-irrigation system (Joshi et al., 2007).

e) TDR based soil moisture sensor: Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) is a reliable soil
moisture measurement compared to other methods stated above because of their frequent
calibration. This device has been recommended for automation of irrigation. This device
determines dielectric constant of the soil by measuring the transit time of an electro-magnetic
pulse created along the pair of parallel metallic rods of known length inserted in the soil. The
empirical relationship between dielectric constant (K) and volumetric moisture content given
by Topp et al. (1980) is

Qv = 0.053 + 0.0292K – 5.5 X 10-4 K2 + 4.3 X 10-6 K3 ……… (26.1)

Where

K = Dielectric constant (Ct l-2)

C = Velocity of light in free space (3 X 108)

t = Travel time of voltage pulse measured by TDR

l = Length of probe, m

Such sensors have been evaluated in light soils both in laboratory and field conditions and it
resulted in closer matching with the observed volumetric content.

f) Infrared sensors for leaf air temperature: Plant canopy temperature measured from a
distance with an infrared thermometer can be used to detect plant water stress and signal
irrigation needs before the crop exhibits any visual symptoms of drought. This is because
water-stressed plants have a tough time in obtaining enough water from the soil to meet
atmospheric demand, and this reduces evaporative cooling of their leaves. The Crop Water

195 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Stress Index (CWSI) method uses plant and air temperature and vapor pressure deficit of the
air to determine whether a crop has adequate water (CWSI=0) or under severe water stress
(CWSI= 1).

Infrared thermometers can be hand held or mounted on booms for continuous operation.
Thermal scanners on board satellites or aeroplanes, map crop temperatures across an entire
field or farm. Thermal data are used for irrigation scheduling (Gontia and Tiwari, 2008).

g) High frequency capacitance type soil moisture sensor: The capacitance of electrodes
inserted in to soil operating at oscillation frequency (80-150 MHz) is dependent on the
dielectric properties of the soil. The probes consists of two stainless steel rods of 100 mm long
6 mm diameter placed at 20 mm apart inserted in to the soil. The relative permittivity of such
sensors is related to soil moisture content. Closer agreement between the observed soil water
content and estimated volumetric content by gravimetric method for all types of soil has been
reported for this type of sensor. However, difference in bulk density affects the performance
of sensors.

[Link] Sensors for Climatological Parameters: Sensors for measuring various climatological
parameters such as solar radiation, maximum and minimum temperature, wind speed,
relative humidity, pan evaporation etc. are interfaced with the microprocessor computer to
estimate evapotranspiration of crop and irrigation is commissioned based on
evapotranspiration demand.

196 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 27. Types of Controls and Automation in Micro Irrigation

Automatic micro irrigation/drip irrigation ensures optimum soil moisture at root zone of the
crop and throughout crop growth season for healthiest growth. This involves complete
understanding of irrigation of irrigation scheduling, which is a function of soil plant and
weather parameters. The control systems are designed to accomplish automation using these
parameters. In this lesson basic control theory relevant to micro irrigation and types of
automating micro irrigation are dealt

27.1 Automation Controls

The control theory or system analysis of mathematical techniques used to model how one
component controls the activity of another component is an inter linked system. The control
systems are divided in to two categories:

i) Open loop control (OLC)

ii) Closed loop control (CLC)

27.1.1 Open loop control (OLC)

In an open loop control system, the operation is pre-set and independent of any sensor input
with an operator making the decision. In irrigation scheduling program, two decisions are
used: i) When to irrigate and ii) how much to irrigate. The operation of an open loop control
for operating irrigation system is shown through Fig. 27.1.

197 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
27.1.2 Closed loop control (CLC)

In this system, the input is directly dependent on the output through a feedback mechanism
from the output to the input. By having closed to compare the output with some reference
input signal (pre-set value) so that the precise control can be achieved. The closed loop
control operation installed for controlling irrigation system is given in Fig.27.2. The crop
evaporation (ETc) is measured directly by using lysimeter using a sensor and this
information is used to adjust the irrigation volume or time so that the depth of irrigation
water (di) is proportional to Etc such that

di = Etc/Ea (27.1)

where, Ea = application efficiency of irrigation system

Within OLC and CLC, three control modes used are: i) On- off control; ii) Step- wise control
and iii) continuous control. Brief description of these control modes are presented below:

i) On-off control: The on-off control makes the irrigation system on or off, and the control
condition is independent of the system. Fig. 27.1(a) shows a block diagram of this control
system where the valve is on or off. Most of the irrigation systems are controlled by this
mode. In some cases, the operator is replaced by the timer switch or more sophisticated
electronic devices. However, the control condition remains independent of the system.

ii) Step-wise control: In step-wise control 27.1(b), di may be varied by selecting different
positions on a valve, a flow meter, or a timer to give different irrigation volumes. For
example, early in season where Etc is low, position Lo could be used. As Etc increases, position
Med and HI could be selected to increase di and progressively apply more water with each
irrigation.

198 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The application of step-wise control in irrigation is sometimes implemented by a time clock
with fixed intervals of time control, but operates exactly like the on-off control. The irrigation
time (Ti) can be calculated from the relation

Ti = 100 (Etc×If) / (Ei × la) (27.2)

Where, Ti = irrigation time, h

lf = irrigation frequency, days / irrigation

la = application rate of irrigation system, mm h-1

Etc can be adjusted for both leaching and percolation losses by multiplying Et c with
appropriate correction factor.

iii) Continuous control: In continuous control (Fig. 27.1. c) can be selected from minimum to
maximum values by adjusting time or volume of water in a continuous manner. Any value of
time or volume can be set in the flow meter.

27.2 Volume-Based Automated Irrigation System

In volume-based system, the preset amount of water can be applied in the field segments by
using automatic volume controlled metering valves. Automation using volume-based
systems are of two types. In first type of system, automatic metering valve with pulse output
provides one pulse after completing one dial of the automatic metering valve. The dial
capacity may vary. The volume-based controller accepts the pulse input from the valve and
counts the volume per pulse. The volume of water required for each segment can be
programmed in the controller. Thus by counting the number of pulse received by the
controller, it can count the volume of water passed through. After providing required
volume of water through first valve, the first valve, it closes down controller, then switch on
the next valve in the sequence. In second type of system, no controller is required. Automatic
metering valves are positioned near each field segment. All automatic metering valves are
interconnected in series with the help of control tube. For automatic closing and opening of
the metering valves with the help of water pressure signal, components like T- connector,
shuttle valve and a 3 way relay (called shastomit) are also installed along the circuit. During
sequential operation only one automatic metering valve remains open. The next valve in the
series opens after the first valve closes.

27.3 Time Based Automated Irrigation System

In time based system, time is the basis of irrigation. Time of operation is calculated according
to volume of water required and the average flow rate of water. The first thing to perform
before programming for time-based system is to determine the duration of irrigation
required for each section. The duration of individual valves has to be fed in the controller
along with system start time, also the controller clock is to be set with the current day and
time. As the clock of the controller knocks the start time of programme, it starts sending
signals to the first automatic valve in the programme sequence, the pump also starts up at the
same time. As soon as duration of first valve is over the controller either stops or switches on

199 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
to next valve. When the operation of last valve is over, controller stops sending signals to
valves and pump. The same process is repeated at next run time.

27.4 Real Time Feedback System

Real time feedback is the application of irrigation based on actual dynamics demand of the
plant itself, plant root zone effectively reflecting all environmental factors acting upon the
plant. Operating within controlled parameters, the plant itself determines the degree of
irrigation required. Various sensors, viz. tensiometers, relative humidity sensors, rain
sensors, temperature sensors etc. control the irrigation scheduling. These sensors provide
feedback to the controller to control its operation.

27.5 Sequential and Non Sequential Automated Irrigation System

27.5.1 Sequential System

On the basis of type of control, the automated irrigation systems can be classified in to two
categories: sequential and non- sequential type. In sequential systems the field in divided in
to different sub-units, which is irrigated one after the other in particular sequence. Whereas
in the non-sequential systems the sub-units are irrigated randomly based on the plant water
needs and operated electrically with or without programming with possibility of utilizing
feedback information from the field for remote control.

A sequential system can be operated

i) Hydraulically operated

ii) Electrically operated

iii) Combination of both hydraulically or electrically operated.

i) Sequential hydraulically operated automated irrigation system

The sequential system is particularly suited for low discharge rates irrigation through small
diameter tubing. At each connection to the main line (except at the end last connection) a
water metering valve unit and a hydraulic valve are installed. At the beginning of the
irrigation cycle the metering valves are set for the required volume of water to be supplied to
the field. The amount of water is set based on the type of the crop, soil and climatic
conditions. Such type of automation is suitable for greenhouse nurseries irrigation.

ii) Sequential electrically operated system (Time based)

Sequential electrically operated systems operate the remotely placed solenoid valves in
sequence using electricity. In this system, the water delivered to different plots is regulated
by a timer clock, which is programmed to start and stop at desired time by the user. These
types of controllers are usually designed with calendar programs so that the watering cycle
can be automatically started on the desired day of the week. The controllers have seven or
fourteen days calendar program. This type of system is used for irrigation of irrigation of
domestic gardens.

200 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
27.5.2 Non-Sequential Systems: Hydraulic/Electric valves

Electrically controlled non-sequential systems are fully automatic to a greater extent as

compared to that of sequential systems. Water in each unit can be supplied in different
quantity and valve opens at a different time in response to a predetermined program or to
soil water content. The control panel consists of programmed electrical circuits to operate the
pump or main valve, to add fertilizer according to a pre-set schedule and or to apply
irrigation as per crop need and soil moisture. Such systems are also remote-controlled, and
are designed for feedback of the data received from the field so that automatic regulation can
be done and adjustments for changes in the pressure and discharge rate of the supply line
can be made. This type of system is used for high pressure discharge. Solenoid valves serve
only as control to activate hydraulic valves and the overall operation is hydraulic electric.
Rest of its operation is similar to sequential electrically operated systems.

Non-sequential systems are further classified into three categories:

(i) Feedback control

(ii) Inferential control

(iii) Combination of above two methods with time based control

[Link] Feedback control system (Soil moisture based)

The main components of the feedback control system are sensors for soil moisture, weather
monitoring parameters, electronic control unit (comparators /microprocessor/computer)
and solenoid valves. A farm is divided in to different sub-units. Each sub-unit has one soil
moisture sensor. The sensors are connected through interfacing circuit to the central control
unit, which could be a microprocessor or a computer with a program to schedule irrigation a
or comparator circuit. Based on the soil moisture status (measured by soil moisture sensor) of
a sub-unit the decision to start and stop irrigation is taken by the controller. The electronic
controller actuates and de-actuates solenoid valves to start and stop the irrigation
respectively through proper interfacing circuit and relay switches (Joshi et al., 2002).

Soil moisture based Automated Irrigation Controller developed at IIT Kharagpur (Joshi et al.,
1999) uses a tensiometer connected with a U-tube manometer to activate/deactivate
irrigation pump. In this system irrigation is given to unit area considering homogeneous soil
condition.

Luthra et al. (1996) developed an automatic valve for irrigation operation. The soil water
tension is sensed through modified tensiometer which generates electrical signal. The output
of tensiometer is processed for operation of D.C. operated bidirectional motor at present
values of soil water tension which is coupled to the gate valve. This valve can be fitted with
mains, sub-mains or individual laterals of drip irrigation setup. Through automatic operation
of valve, required amount of irrigation is applied which maximizes the water use efficiency
of the system. After meeting the irrigation requirement of crop a signal is generated through
a preprogrammed timer (designed suitably for this purpose) for closing the valve.

201 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Testezlaf et al. (1997) developed automated irrigation computer control system for
management of greenhouse container plants. The system consisted of soil moisture sensors, a
hardware input/output interface (A/D card), a computer with a software interface, and
actuators. The evaluation results show that the control system is reliable in applying water
responding to the plant demands.

[Link] Inferential control system

The main parts of inferential control system are sensors for measuring various climatological
parameters such as solar radiation, maximum and minimum temperature, wind speed,
relative humidity, pan evaporation etc.

This system makes use of various evapotranspiration models to estimate evapotranspiration

of crop using different climatological parameters. The estimated evapotranspiration is used
to schedule irrigation. The solenoid valves are operated using interfacing circuit and relay
switches to put on or to put off the irrigation system.

Koe et al. (2000) developed and tested an automated cycled over tree sprinkler irrigation
system in a 0.4 ha (1 acre) dwarf apple orchard to protect apple buds from cold temperatures.
The control system hardware components used in the experiment included sensor for
measuring air temperature, wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity data, a
microcomputer, data acquisition system, control boards and the irrigation system.

[Link] Combination of Both

Noble et al. (2000) developed and tested two automated drip irrigation systems: one based on
soil electrical conductivity and the other based on leaf-air temperature difference of Okra
(Abelmosolus esculentus) crop. Sensors were evaluated for monitoring the soil moisture
content based on electrical resistance variation with moisture content. The sensor with
washed sand as porous medium was found to be the most efficient one among the other
materials. A low cost, commercially available button type thermistor was used as the leaf and
air temperature sensors. Variation of moisture in soil causes variation in electrical resistance
across the electrode of the sensor. The electrical signal obtained by variation in the electrical
resistance is processed by the circuit and operates the relay contacts connected to a 12 volt
DC operated normally closed solenoid valve. When the soil gets dry and its resistivity
increases, the circuit opens the valve and water flows to the plants. As water content in soil
reaches the required level set by a variable resistance, the solenoid valve closes. The
difference of voltage between the two thermistors (one attached to plant leaf and other
exposed to atmosphere) was used for starting irrigation through the solenoid valve for a
fixed duration using IC 555 and 12 volt relay. The amount of water applied per day, leaf-air
temperature and soil moisture content can be monitored. The system maintained the
designed soil moisture content and air-leaf temperature differential of the crop.

202 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Module 7. Greenhouse/Polyhouse Technology

Lesson 28. Overview of Greenhouse and Basic Concept

28.1 Advantages, Importance, World Scenario and Status in India

A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated structure covered with a transparent or translucent

material in which crops could be grown under the conditions of at least partially controlled
environment and which is large enough to permit persons to work within it to carry out
cultural operations. After the advent of green revolution, more emphasis is laid on the
quality of the product along with the quantity of production to meet the ever- growing food
requirements. Both these demands can be met when the environment for the plant growth is
suitably controlled. The need to protect the crops against unfavorable environmental
conditions led to the development of protected agriculture. Greenhouse is the most practical
method of achieving the objectives of protected agriculture, where the natural environment is
modified by using sound engineering principles to achieve optimum plant growth and
yields.

The following are the advantages of using the greenhouse for growing crops under
controlled environment:

1. Throughout the year four to five crops can be grown in a greenhouse due to availability of
required plant environmental conditions.

2. The productivity of the crop is increased considerably.

3. Superior quality produce can be obtained as they are grown under suitably controlled
environment.

4. Gadgets for efficient use of various inputs like water, fertilizers, seeds and plant protection
chemicals can be well maintained in a green house.

5. Effective control of pests and diseases is possible as the growing area is enclosed.

6. Percentage of germination of seeds is high in greenhouses.

7. The acclimatization of plantlets of tissue culture technique can be carried out in a

greenhouse.

8. Agricultural and horticultural crop production schedules can be planned to take advantage
of the market needs.

9. Different types of growing medium like peat mass, vermiculate, rice hulls and compost
that are used in intensive agriculture can be effectively utilized in the greenhouse.

10. Export quality produce of international standards can be produced in a greenhouse.

203 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
11. When the crops are not grown, drying and related operations of the harvested produce
can be taken up utilizing the entrapped heat.

12. Greenhouses are suitable for automation of irrigation, application of other inputs and
environmental controls by using computers and artificial intelligence techniques.

13. Self-employment for educated youth on farm can be increased.

Greenhouses – World Scenario

There are more than 50 countries now in the world where cultivation of crops in the
greenhouse is undertaken on a commercial scale. United States of America has a total area of
about 4000 ha under greenhouses mostly used for floriculture with a turnover of more than
2.8 billion US $ per annum and the area under greenhouses is expected to go up
considerably, if the cost of transportation of vegetables from neighboring countries continues
to rise. The area under greenhouses in Spain has been estimated to be around 25,000 ha and
Italy 18,500 ha used mostly for growing vegetable crops like watermelon, capsicum,
strawberries, beans, cucumbers and tomatoes. In Spain simple tunnel type greenhouses are
generally used without any elaborate environmental control equipments mostly using UV
stabilized polyethylene film as cladding material.

In Canada the greenhouse industry caters both to the flower and off-season vegetable
markets. The main vegetable crops grown in Canadian greenhouses are tomato, cucumbers
and capsicum. Hydroponically grown greenhouse vegetables in Canada find greater
preference with the consumers and could be priced as much as twice the regular greenhouse
produce. The Netherlands is the traditional exporter of greenhouse grown flowers and
vegetables all over the world. With about 89,600 ha under cover, the Dutch greenhouse
industry is probably the most advanced in the world. Dutch greenhouse industry, however,
relies heavily on glass framed greenhouses, in order to cope up with very cloudy conditions
prevalent all the year round. A very strong research and development component has kept
the Dutch industry in the forefront. The development of greenhouses in Gulf countries is
primarily due to the extremity in the prevailing climatic conditions.

Israel is the largest exporter of cut flowers and has wide range of crops under greenhouses
(15,000 ha) and Turkey has an area of 10,000 ha under cover for cultivation of cut flowers and
vegetables. In Saudi Arabia cucumbers and tomatoes are the most important crops
contributing more than 94% of the total production. The most common cooling method
employed in these areas is evaporative cooling.

Egypt has about 1000 ha greenhouses consisting mainly of plastic covered tunnel type
structures. Arrangements for natural ventilation are made for regulation of temperature and
humidity conditions. The main crops grown in these greenhouses are tomatoes, cucumbers,
peppers, melons and nursery plant material.

In Asia, China and Japan are the largest users of greenhouses. The development of
greenhouse technology in China has been faster than in any other country in the world. With
a modest beginning in late seventies, the area under greenhouses in China has increased to
48,000 ha in recent years. Out of this 11,000 ha is under fruits like grapes, cherry, Japanese

204 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
persimon, fig, loquot, lemon and mango. The majority of greenhouses use local materials for
the frame and flexible plastic films for glazing. Most of the greenhouses in China are reported
to be unheated and use straw mats to improve the heat retention characteristics.

Japan has more than 40,000 ha under greenhouse cultivation of which nearly 7500 ha is
devoted to only fruit orchards. Greenhouses in Japan are used to grow wide range of
vegetables and flowers with a considerable share of vegetable demand being met from
greenhouse production. Even a country like South Korea has more than 21,000 ha under
greenhouses for production of flowers and fruits. Thus, greenhouses permit crop production
in areas where winters are severe and extremely cold as in Canada and USSR, and also
permit production even in areas where summers are extremely intolerable as in Israel, UAE,
and Kuwait. Greenhouses in Philippines make it possible to grow crops inspite of excessive
rains and also in moderate climates of several other countries. Thus, in essence greenhouse
cultivation is being practiced and possible in all types of climatic conditions.

Status in India

While greenhouses have existed for more than one and a half centuries in various parts of the
world, in India use of greenhouse technology started only during 1980‟s and it was mainly
used for research activities. This may be because of our emphasis, so far had been on
achieving self-sufficiency in food grain production. However, in recent years in view of the
globalization of international market and tremendous boost and fillip that is being given for
export of agricultural produce, there has been a spurt in the demand for greenhouse
technology. The National Committee on the use of Plastics in Agriculture (NCPA-1982) has
recommended location specific trials of greenhouse technology for adoption in various
regions of the country. Greenhouses are being built in the Ladakh region for extending the
growing season of vegetables from 3 to 8 months. In the North-East, greenhouses are being
constructed essentially as rain shelters to permit off-season vegetable production. In the
Northern plains, seedlings of vegetables and flowers are being raised in the greenhouses
either for capturing the early markets or to improve the quality of the seedlings. Propagation
of difficult-to-root tree species has also been found to be very encouraging. Several
commercial floriculture ventures are coming up in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
states to meet the demands of both domestic and export markets. The commercial utilization
of greenhouses started from 1988 onwards and now with the introduction of Government‟s
liberalization policies and developmental initiatives, several corporate houses have entered
to set up 100% export oriented units. In just four years, since implementation of the new
policies in 1991, 103 projects with foreign investment of more than Rs.80 crores have been
approved to be set up in the country at an estimated cost of more than Rs.1000 crores around
Pune, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Delhi. Thus the area under climatically controlled
greenhouses of these projects is estimated to be around 300 ha. Out of which many have
already commenced exports and have received very encouraging results in terms of the
acceptance of the quality in major markets abroad and the price obtained.

Source: [Link]

[Link]

205 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
28.2 Constituents of Environment in Greenhouse- Natural Light, Artificial Source of Light,
Solar Radiation, Temperature, Humidity, Carbon Dioxide

The productivity of a crop is influenced not only by its heredity but also by the microclimate
around it. The components of crop microclimate are light, temperature, air compositions and
the nature of the root medium. In open fields, only manipulation of nature of the root
medium by tillage, irrigation and fertilizer application is possible. The closed boundaries in
greenhouse permit control of any one or more of the components of the micro climate.

Light

The visible light of the solar radiation is a source of energy for plants. Light energy, carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water all enter in to the process of photosynthesis through which
carbohydrates are formed. The production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water
in the presence of chlorophyll, using light energy is responsible for plant growth and
reproduction. The rate of photosynthesis is governed by available fertilizer elements, water,
carbon dioxide, light and temperature. Considerable energy is required to reduce the carbon
that is combined with oxygen in CO2 gas to the state in which it exists in the carbohydrate.
The light energy thus utilized is trapped in the carbohydrate. If the light intensity is
diminished, photosynthesis slows down and hence the growth. If higher than optimal light
intensities are provided, growth again slows down because of the injury to the chloroplasts.
The light intensity is measured by the international unit known as Lux. It is direct
illumination on the surrounding surface that is one meter from a uniform point source of 1
international candle. Greenhouse crops are subjected to light intensities varying from 129.6
klux on clear summer days to 3.2 klux on cloudy winter days. For most crops, neither
condition is ideal. Many crops become light saturated, in other words, photosynthesis does
not increase at light intensities higher than 32.2 klux. Rose and carnation plants will grow
well under summer light intensities. In general, for most other crops foliage is deeper green if
the greenhouse is shaded to the extent of about 40% from mid spring (May) to mid fall
(August and September). Thus, it is apparent that light intensity requirements of
photosynthesis are vary considerably from crop to crop.

Light is classified according to its wave length in nanometers (nm). Not all light is useful in
photosynthesis process. UV light is available in the shorter wavelength range, i.e. less than
400nm. A large quantity of it is harmful to the plants. Glass screens are opaque to the most
UV light and light below the range of 325nm. Visible and white light has wavelength of 400
to 700nm. Far red light (700 to 750nm) affects plants, besides causing photosynthesis. Infrared
rays of longer wavelengths are not involved in the plant process. It is primarily, the visible
spectrum of light that is used in photosynthesis. In the blue and red bands, the
photosynthesis activity is higher, when the blue light (shorter wavelength) alone is supplied
to plants, the growth is retarded, and the plant becomes hard and dark in colour. When the
plants are grown under red light (longer wavelength), growth is soft and internodes are long,
resulting in tall plants. Visible light of all wavelengths is readily utilized in photosynthesis.
The intensity of sunlight required by different plants is different. If plant requires shade, a
shade net can be used which allows around 30 to 50% of sunlight to pass through it. UV
stabilized polythene sheets have transmittance value of 88% (single layer), 77% for double
layer.

206 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Temperature

Incoming solar radiation has shorter wavelength and hence greater energy. After penetrating
through the polythene sheet this radiation strikes the earth. Earth absorbs some energy thus
converting radiation of shorter wavelength to longer wavelength radiation. Hence the
outgoing radiation has longer wavelength. Longer wavelengths are trapped inside the
Greenhouse that causes increase in the temperature. This is beneficial during winter month.

To reduce temperature during summer months, polyethylene can be removed or shade net is
used to allow only some percentage of sunlight to pass through. Misters and micro sprinklers
are also used to reduce inside temperature. In sub-humid climate temperature maintained
inside a Greenhouse is between 30 and 370 C.

Temperature is a measure of level of the heat present. All crops have temperature range in
which they can grow well. Below this range, the plant life process stop due to ice formation
within the tissue and cells are possibly punctured by ice crystals. At the upper extreme,
enzymes become inactive, and again process essential for life cease. Enzymes are biological
reaction catalyst and are heat sensitive. All biochemical reactions in the plant are controlled
by the enzymes. The rate of reactions controlled by the enzyme often double or triple for each
rise of temperature by 100C, until optimum temperature is reached. Further, increase in
temperature begins to suppress the reaction and finally stop it. As a general rule, greenhouse
crops are grown at a day temperature, which are 3 to 60C higher than the night temperature
on cloudy days and 80C higher on clear days. The night temperature of greenhouse crops is
generally in the range of 7 to 210C.

Humidity

As the greenhouse is a closed space, the relative humidity of the greenhouse air will be more
when compared to the ambient air, due to the moisture added by the evapo-transpiration
process. Some of this moisture is taken away by the air leaving from the greenhouse due to
ventilation. Sensible heat inputs also lower the relative humidity of the air to some extent. In
order to maintain the desirable relative humidity levels in the green houses, processes like
humidification or dehumidification are carried out. For most crops, the acceptable range of
relative humidity is between 50 to 80%. However for plant propagation work, relative
humidity up to 90% may be desirable. In summer, due to sensible heat addition in the
daytime, and in winters for increasing the night time temperatures of the greenhouse air,
more sensible heat is added causing a reduction in the relative humidity of the air. For this
purpose, evaporative cooling pads and fogging system of humidification are employed.
When the relative humidity is on the higher side, ventilators, chemical dehumidifiers and
cooling coils are used for de- humidification. Inside a Greenhouse humidity should always
be greater than 50%. To increase the humidity various accessories are used like, sprinklers,
misters, water coolers with fans. Hygrometer is fixed inside the greenhouse to check the
humidity inside.

207 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Air Circulation

A greenhouse is ventilated for either reducing the temperature of the greenhouse air or for
replenishing carbon dioxide supply or for moderating the relative humidity of the air. Air
temperatures above 350C are generally not suited for the crops in green house. It is quite
possible to bring the greenhouse air temperature below this upper limit during spring and
autumn seasons simply by providing adequate ventilation in the green house. The ventilation
in a greenhouse can either be natural or forced. In case of small green houses (less than 6m
wide) natural ventilation can be quite effective during spring and autumn seasons. However,
fan ventilation is essential to have precise control of the air temperature, humidity and
carbon dioxide levels. Air circulation inside a Greenhouse can be controlled either natural
ventilation or by forced ventilation. The temperature difference between inside and outside
air causes natural air movements. The warmer air inside is replaced by outside air through
natural ventilation with the help of vents provided at the top of the roof. In forced ventilation
fans are used for forced air circulation.

Greenhouse ventilation

Ventilation is the process of allowing the fresh air to enter into the enclosed area by driving
out the air with undesirable properties. In the greenhouse context, ventilation is essential for
reducing temperature, replenishing CO2 and controlling relative humidity. Ventilation
requirements for green houses vary greatly, depending on the crop grown and the season of
production. The ventilation system can be either a passive system (natural ventilation) or an
active system (forced ventilation) using fans. Usually greenhouses that are used seasonally
employ natural ventilation only. The plant response to specific environment factor is related
to the physiological processes and hence affects the yield and quality. Hence, controlling of
environment is of great importance to realize the complete benefit of CEA. Manual
maintenance of uniform environmental condition inside the greenhouse is very difficult and
cumbersome. A poor maintenance results in less crop production, low quality and low
income. For effective control of automatic control systems like micro processor and computer
are used to maintain the environment.

Natural ventilation

In the tropics, the sides of greenhouse structures are often left open for natural ventilation.
Tropical greenhouse is primarily a rain shelter, a cover of polyethylene over the crop to
prevent rainfall from entering the growing area. This mitigates the problem of foliage
diseases. Ventilators were located on both roof slopes adjacent to the ridge and also on both
side walls of the greenhouse. The ventilators on the roof as well as those on the side wall
accounts, each about 10% of the total roof area. During winter cooling phase, the south roof
ventilator was opened in stages to meet cooling needs. When greater cooling was required,
the north ventilator was opened in addition to the south ventilator. In summer cooling phase,
the south ventilator was opened first, followed by the north ventilator. As the incoming air
moved across the greenhouse, it was warmed by sunlight and by mixing with the warmer
greenhouse air. With the increase in temperature, the incoming air becomes lighter and rises
up and flows out through the roof ventilators. This sets up a chimney effect, which in turn
draws in more air from the side ventilators creating a continuous cycle. This system did not

208 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
adequately cool the greenhouse. On hot days, the interior walls and floor were frequently
injected with water to help cooling.

Forced Ventilation

In forced or active ventilation, mechanical devices such as fans are used to expel the air. This
type of ventilation can achieve uniform cooling. These include summer fan-and-pad and fog
cooling systems and the winter convection tube and horizontal airflow systems. For
mechanical ventilation, low pressure, medium volume propeller blade fans, both directly
connected and belt driven are used for greenhouse ventilation. They are placed at the end of
the greenhouse opposite to the air intake, which is normally covered by gravity or motorized
louvers. The fans vents, or louvers, should be motorized, with their action controlled by fan
operation. Motorized louvers prevent the wind from opening the louvers, especially when
heat is being supplied to the green house. Wall vents should be placed continuously across
the end of the greenhouse to avoid hot areas in the crop zone. Evaporative cooling in
combination with the fans is called as fan-and-pad cooling system. The fans and pads are
usually arranged on opposite walls of the greenhouse. The common types of cooling pads are
made of excelsior (wood fiber), aluminum fiber, glass fiber, plastic fiber and cross-fluted
cellulose material. Evaporative cooling systems are especially efficient in low humidity
environments. There is growing interest in building greenhouses combining both passive
(natural) and active (forced) systems of ventilation. Passive ventilation is utilized as the first
stage of cooling, and the fan-pad evaporative cooling takes over when the passive system is
not providing the needed cooling. At this stage, the vents for natural ventilation are closed.
When both options for cooling are designed in greenhouse construction, initial costs of
installation will be more. But the operational costs are minimized in the long run, since
natural ventilation will, most often meet the needed ventilation requirements. Fogging
systems is an alternative to evaporative pad cooling. They depend on absolutely clean water,
Free of any soluble salts, in order to prevent plugging of the mist nozzles. Such cooling
systems are not as common as evaporative cooling pads, but when they become more cost
competitive, they will be adopted widely. Fogging systems are the second stage of cooling
when passive systems are inadequate.

Carbon Dioxide

Carbon is an essential plant nutrient and is present in the plant in greater quantity than any
other nutrient. About 40% of the dry matter of the plant is composed of carbon. Under
normal conditions, carbon dioxide (CO2) exits as a gas in the atmosphere slightly above
0.03% or 345ppm. During the day, when photosynthesis occurs under natural light, the
plants in a greenhouse draw down the level of CO2 to below 200ppm. Under these
circumstances, infiltration or ventilation increases carbon dioxide levels, when the outside air
is brought in, to maintain the ambient levels of CO2. If the level of CO2 is less than ambient
levels, CO2 may retard the plant growth. In cold climates, maintaining ambient levels of
CO2 by providing ventilation may be un- economical, due to the necessity of heating the
incoming air in order to maintain proper growing temperatures. In such regions, enrichment
of the greenhouse with CO2 is followed. The exact CO2 level needed for a given crop will
vary, since it must be correlated with other variables in greenhouse production such as light,
temperature, nutrient levels, cultivar and degree of maturity. Most crops will respond
favorably to CO2 at 1000 to 1200 ppm.
209 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

28.3 Working principle

A greenhouse uses a special kind of covering material that acts as a medium which
selectively transmits spectral frequencies. The covering material of the greenhouse traps
energy within the greenhouse and the heat in turn provides for the plants and the ground
inside the greenhouse. It warms the air near the ground, preventing it from rising and
leaving the confines of the structure. The sun shines enters in the greenhouse through the
covering material as short waves. These waves strike objects in the greenhouse and are
reradiated as long waves, the long waves do not readily return through the covering
material. This is known as the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is similar to hot air
trapped in a car on a sunny day with the windows closed. The inside air becomes warmer
than the outside air. Objects in the greenhouse such as absorb heat during the day and return
it to the ambient at night.

210 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 29. Classification of Greenhouse

Greenhouses are frames of inflated structure covered with a transparent material in which
crops are grown under controlled environment conditions. Greenhouse cultivation as well as
other modes of controlled environment cultivation has been evolved to create favorable
micro-climates, which favours the crop production could be possible all through the year or
part of the year as required. Greenhouses and other technologies for controlled environment
plant production are associated with the off-season production of ornamentals and foods of
high value in cold climate areas where outdoor production is not possible. The primary
environmental parameter traditionally controlled is temperature, usually providing heat to
overcome extreme cold conditions. However, environmental control can also include cooling
to mitigate excessive temperatures, light control either shading or adding supplemental light,
carbon dioxide levels, relative humidity, water, plant nutrients and pest control.

29.1 Types of Greenhouse

Greenhouses are a technology based investment. The higher the level of technology used the
greater potential for achieving tightly controlled growing conditions. This capacity to tightly
control the conditions in which the crop is grown is strongly related to the health and
productivity of the crop. The following three categories of greenhouse have been defined to
assist people in selecting the most appropriate investment for their needs and budget.

Low technology greenhouses

These greenhouses are less than 3 m in total height. Tunnel houses, are the most common
type. They do not have vertical walls. They have poor ventilation. This type of structure is
relatively inexpensive and easy to erect. Little or no automation is used. While this sort of
structure provides basic advantages over field production, crop potential is still limited by
the growing environment and crop management is relatively difficult. Low level greenhouses
generally result in a suboptimal growing environment which restricts yields and does little to
reduce the incidence of pests and diseases. Pest and disease control, as a result, is normally
structured around a chemical spray program.

211 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

(Source: [Link]
_image002_0000.jpg)

Low technology greenhouses have significant production and environmental limitations, but
they offer a cost effective entry to the industry.

Medium technology greenhouses

Medium level greenhouses are typically characterized by vertical walls more than 2m but
less than 4 m tall and a total height usually less than 5.5 m. They may have roof or side wall
ventilation or both. Medium level greenhouses are usually clad with either single or double
skin plastic film or glass and use varying degrees of automation.

Medium level greenhouses offer a compromise between cost and productivity and represent
a reasonable economic and environmental basis for the industry. Production in medium level
greenhouses can be more efficient than field production. Hydroponic systems increase the
efficiency of water use. There is greater opportunity to use non-chemical pest and disease
management strategies but overall the full potential of greenhouse horticulture is difficult to
attain.

High technology greenhouses

High level greenhouses have a wall height of at least 4 m with the roof peak being up to 8 m
above ground level. These structures offer superior crop and environmental performance.
High technology structures will have roof ventilation and may also have side wall vents.
Cladding may be plastic film (single or double), polycarbonate sheeting or glass.
Environmental controls are almost always automated. These structures offer enormous
opportunities for economic and environmental sustainability. Use of pesticides can be
significantly reduced. High technology structures provide a generally impressive sight and,
internationally, are increasingly being involved in agribusiness opportunities. Although
these greenhouses are capital intensive, they offer a highly productive, environmentally
sustainable opportunity for an advanced fresh produce industry. Investment decisions
should, wherever possible, look to install high technology greenhouses.

212 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Greenhouses vary in style, size and materials that are used to build it in order to fulfill any
requirements and to suit any type of crop. The materials used to build the main structure of a
greenhouse are timber, aluminum or steel. Timber frames are the traditional choice for
garden greenhouses and hardwoods require low maintenance. Aluminum alloy frames are
more lightly, need only minimum maintenance but are extremely sturdy. Steel frames are
very strong but must be treated regularly to prevent them from rust, but they are also
cheaper than timber or aluminum frames. For glazing you can use glass or plastic panels.
Size may also vary according to your necessities.

Many styles of greenhouses are available on the market, every one of them with specific
qualities: some provide optimum ventilation, or best use of space, or conserve heat well or
allow better light penetration but all of them are made in order to fulfill your personal
preferences.

Greenhouses types can be split into two main categories: conventional greenhouses and
specialist greenhouses. Conventional greenhouses include: traditional span, Dutch light,
three-quarter span, lean-to and mansard or curvilinear greenhouses. Specialist greenhouses
include: Dome-shaped, polygonal, alpine house, conservation, mini and poly-tunnel
greenhouses.

In the next lines we will try to describe every of those types and see what are their main
qualities to help you choose the most suitable greenhouse for your garden.

Traditional span

This type of greenhouse is practical in terms of growing space and headroom by its vertical
sides and even span roof. It provides the best use of space for the least cost for raising
seedlings and growing border crops. Its lower part stop the heat lost over the winter.

Dutch light

This type of greenhouse is designed in order to allow in maximum light through the sloping
sides. It is suitable to grow border crops, preferably low-growing ones. The panes of glass on
the roof overlap slightly to keep out rain but also to increase the rigidity of the structure.

Three-quarter span

This type of greenhouse is positioned with one of its sides against a wall, preferably beside a
sunny wall because the light is a little more restricted than in a free-standing greenhouse, but
this also mean that it will need some extra shading in the summer. If you will choose a house
wall to position your greenhouse you will also benefit from extra warmth and insulation
from this.

Lean-to Lean

One can use this type of greenhouse in a garden with insufficient space for a free-standing
structure. Like the three-quarter span, this type of greenhouse will benefit from the warmth
and insulation of the house wall. Many of those greenhouses are similar in appearance to
conservatories and may be used as garden rooms. In this type of greenhouse installation of
213 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
electricity, gas or water supply easier and cheaper than that of a greenhouse located at some
distance from the house.

Mansard or curvilinear

This greenhouse has slanting sides and roof panels designed to allow in maximum light
available so a best place for this type of greenhouse is an open site with no shade from the
surrounding trees or buildings. This greenhouse is suitable for plants that need maximum
light over the winter.

Dome-shaped

This type of greenhouse is offering an elegant design that is mostly useful in exposed
positions. It is stable and offers less wind resistance than traditional greenhouses. It allows
maximum light transmission because of its multi-angled glass panels. It might offer limited
headroom around the edge.

Polygonal

For a focal point in the garden or for gardens where appearance is important those
greenhouses are the most used. Any octagonal or polygonal greenhouse is a good choice, but
they may be more expensive than traditional greenhouses of similar sizes.

Alpine house

Traditionally those greenhouses have timber-frame with louvre vents all along the sides. This
help for most effective ventilation. Usually, these types of greenhouses are not heated and
they are not closed unless the winter is too cold, so the insulation is not needed. They are
used mostly for plants that just need some protection from dampness and rain and require a
bright and well-ventilated place.

Conservation

This type of greenhouse is designed to save as much energy as possible using special
features. The roof panels are angled to permit optimum light penetration. Mirrored surfaces
are also used to reflect light within the greenhouse itself. With all those special features, this
type of greenhouse is usually more expensive than others of the same size.

Mini

For a limited space in your garden, or if you only have a small number of plants to grow, this
useful, low-cost greenhouse is available in different sizes and also as free-standing or
wheeled versions. Made from aluminum frame and covered with plastic or glass, this
greenhouse is best to be placed face SE or SW in order to get the maximum light penetration.
Access may be a problem as all the work has to be done from the outside. Venting and
shading in the summer are essential.

214 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Poly-tunnel

For a low-cost protection, for the vegetable plot for example, a plastic poly-tunnel greenhouse
is the choice. It covers a large area, is covered with heavy-duty transparent plastic sheets and
offers protection from cold and wind, is easy to move where needed, so is the perfect choice
for your crops, either you choose to plant them directly into the soil, in pots or in growing
bags. Ventilation may be a problem and the sheets may need to be replaced every few years
as they gradually become opaque.

Source: [Link]

29.2 Basis for Classification of Greenhouse

Greenhouse structures of various types are used for crop production. Although there are
advantages in each type for a particular application, in general there is no single type
greenhouse, which can be said as the best. Different types of greenhouses are designed to
meet the specific needs. The different types of greenhouses are classified based on shape,
utility, material and construction are given below:

1. Greenhouse type based on shape:

The types of greenhouses based on shape are:

a) Lean to type greenhouse

b) Even span type greenhouse

c) Uneven span type greenhouse

d) Ridge and furrow type

e) Saw tooth type

f) Quonset greenhouse

g) Interlocking ridges and furrow type Quonset greenhouse

h) Ground to ground greenhouse.

2. Greenhouse type based on utility

Greenhouse classification can be made depending on the functions or utilities. Among the
different utilities, artificial cooling and heating are more expensive and elaborate. Hence
based on this, they are classified into two types.

a) Greenhouses for active heating

b) Greenhouses for active cooling

3. Greenhouse type based on construction

215 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The type of construction predominantly is influenced by structural material, though the
covering material also influences the type. Higher the span, stronger should be the material
and more structural members are used to make sturdy tissues. For smaller spans, simple
designs like hoops can be followed. So based on construction, greenhouses can be classified
as

a) Wooden framed structure

b) Pipe framed structure

c) Truss framed structure

4. Greenhouse type based on covering material

Covering materials are the important component of the greenhouse structure. They have
direct influence on greenhouse effect, inside the structure and they alter the air temperature
inside. The types of frames and method of fixing also varies with covering material. Hence
based on the type of covering material they may be classified as

a) Glass glazing

b) Fibre glass reinforced plastic (FRP) glazing

i) Plain sheet

ii) Corrugated sheet.

c) Plastic film

i) UV stabilized LDPE film.

ii) Silpaulin type sheet.

iii) Net house.

d) Based on the cost of construction involved

i) High cost greenhouse

ii) Medium cost greenhouse

iii) Low cost greenhouse

216 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 30. General Criteria for Construction

30.1 Site Selection

A greenhouse is designed to withstand local wind, snow and crop loads for a specific
cropping activity. In this way, the structure becomes location and crop specific. The building
site should be as level as possible to reduce the cost of grading, and the site should be well
aerated and should receive good solar radiation. Provision of a drainage system is always
possible. It is also advisable to select a site with a natural windbreak. In regions, where snow
is expected, trees should be 30.5 m away in order to keep drifts back from the greenhouses.
To prevent shadows on the crop, trees located on the east, south, or west sides should be at a
distance of 2.5 times their height.

A good site can make a difference in the functional and environmental operations of
greenhouses.

1) Ground slope for drainage is an important factor. Adequate provision should be made
to divert surface water away from the greenhouse.

2) A greenhouse needs a dependable source of energy in the form of electricity and /or other
fuel for environmental control. An electric power distribution line adjacent to the site will
reduce the investment on cable laying.

3) A short access to all weather public roads will facilitate material handling to and from
greenhouse. Nearness to market is another added advantage.

4) A dependable supply of good quality of water is needed for a greenhouse.

5) Greenhouse should be located away from other buildings and trees to avoid obstruction of
sunlight.

6) Orientation of the greenhouse is another important factor. An East-West oriented free

standing greenhouse maintains better winter light as compare to a North-South oriented
greenhouse. Therefore in north India a free standing greenhouse should be oriented in East-
West direction. Gutter connected greenhouse be oriented North-South to avoid continuous
shading of certain portions of the greenhouse due to structural members.

7) The greenhouse frame is the most important component of the greenhouse system. It
provides support for glazing material and a place for fitting of environmental control
equipment. Commonly used structural shapes are gable, quonset and gothic arch with minor
changes to suit local conditions.

217 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
30.2 Standards for Construction

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has formulated the following standards with respect to
greenhouse technology:

1) IS 14462: 1997- Recommendations for layout, design and construction of greenhouse

structures.

2) IS 14485: 1998- Recommendations for heating, ventilating and cooling of greenhouse.

3) IS 15827: 2009- Plastic films for greenhouses – specifications.

30.3 Methods of Construction

For locating the greenhouse, a piece of land larger than the grower‟s immediate need should
be acquired. The ultimate size of the greenhouse range should be estimated. Area should
then be added to this estimated figure to accommodate service buildings, storage, access
drives and a parking lot. The floor area of service buildings required for small farms is about
13% of the greenhouse floor area, and it decreases with the increase in size of the farm. On an
average, service buildings occupy 10% of the growing area. The service building is centrally
located in a nearly square design of the farm, which minimizes distance of movement of
plants and materials. Doors between the service buildings and the greenhouse should be
wide enough to facilitate full use of the corridor width. Doors at least 3.1 m wide and 2.7 m
high are common. It is good to have the greenhouse gutter at least 3.7 m above the floor to
accommodate automation and thermal blanket and still leave the room for future
innovations.

Construction of Glass Greenhouses

Glass greenhouses have an advantage of greater interior light intensity over plastic panel and
film plastic covered greenhouses. Glass greenhouses tend to have a higher air infiltration
rate, which leads to lower interior humidity, which is advantageous for disease prevention.
On the other hand, glass greenhouses have a higher initial cost than double-layer film plastic
greenhouses. While comparing the price of a glass greenhouse to a film plastic greenhouse,
one needs to take into account the initial purchase price of each as well as the cost of re-
covering the film plastic greenhouse every three to four years.

Several types of glass greenhouses are designed to meet specific needs. A lean-to-type design
is used when a greenhouse is placed against the side of an existing building. This design
makes the best use of sunlight and minimizes the requirements for roof supports. It is found
mostly in the retail industry. An even-span greenhouse is one in which the two roof slopes
are of equal pitch and width. By comparison, a un-even-span greenhouse has roofs of
unequal width, which makes the structure adaptable to the side of a hill. This style is seldom
used today because such greenhouses are not adaptable to automation. The sidewall is
eliminated between greenhouses, which results in a structure with a single large interior.
Basically, three frame types are used in glass greenhouses, which are wood frames (6.1 m in
width), pipe frames (12.2 m in width) and truss frames (15.2 m in width). Latest glass
greenhouses are primarily of the truss frame type. Truss frame greenhouses are best suited
for prefabrication. All-metal greenhouses proved cheaper to maintain since they required no
218 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
painting. At present, virtually all glass greenhouse construction is of the metal type. The
structural members of the glass greenhouse cast shadows that reduce plant growth during
the dark months of the year. Aluminum sash bars are stronger than wooden ones; hence
wider panels of glass can be used with aluminum bars. The reduction in materials and the
reflectance of aluminum have given these metal greenhouses a great advantage over wooden
greenhouses in terms of higher interior light intensity. Glass greenhouse construction of
today can be categorized as high profile or low profile. The low profile greenhouse is most
popular in the Netherlands and is known as the Venlo greenhouse. The low profile
greenhouses uses single panels of glass extend from eave to ridge. The low profile
greenhouse slightly reduces exposed surface area, thereby reducing the heating cost, but
more expensive to cool. The high profile greenhouses require more than single panel to cover
the eave to ridge. A problem with this design is the unsealed junction between pieces of glass
in the inner layer. Moisture and dust may enter between the layers and reduce light
transmission.

Construction of pipe framed greenhouses

Image source:[Link]

The choice of construction of pipe framed greenhouses often favours low initial investment
and relatively long life. Galvanized mild steel pipe as a structural member in association with
wide width UV- stabilized low density polyethylene (LDPE) film is a common option of
greenhouse designers.

Material requirement

The structural members of greenhouse are

(a) Hoops

(b) Foundation

(c) Lateral supports

(d) Poly-grip assembly

(e) End frame

219 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The materials requirement of (20m x 4.0m x 4.0m) floor area greenhouse is given:

i) GI pipe class „A‟ (25 mm diameter, 85 cm long, 30 m total length)

ii) GI pipe class „B‟ (15 mm diameter, 6.0 m long, 21 Nos.)

iii) GI sheet (20 gauges, size 90 x 24 cm, 4 sheets)

iv) MS flat (25x3 mm size, 4 m length)

v) Lateral support to end frames (10 mm diameter rod, 10 m length)

vi) Cement concrete (1: 3: 6 mix, 1.0 m3)

vii) UV- stabilized LDPE film (single layer 800 gauge, 5.4 m2/kg, 154 m2)

viii) Poly-grip ( channel 2000 x 3.5 x 4 cm, 2 Nos.; Angle 2000 x 2 x 2 cm, 2 Nos.; both made
from the procured 20 gauge GI sheet, key 6 mm diameter, 56 mm length)

ix) Wooden end frames (5x5 cm wood, 0.15 m3)

x) Nuts and bolts 96 mm diameter, 35 mm long, 70 sets)

xi) Miscellaneous items like nails, hinges and latches as per requirement

Materials for Construction of Greenhouses

The following materials are commonly used to build frames of greenhouse

i) Wood

ii) Bamboo

iii) Steel

iv) Galvanized iron pipe

v) Aluminum and

vi) Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC).

The selection of above materials was based on their specific physical properties, requirements
of design strength, life expectancy and cost of construction materials.

220 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Wood

Image Source:[Link]

Wood and bamboo are generally used for low cost poly-houses. In low cost poly-houses, the
wood is used for making frames consisting of side posts and columns, over which the
polythene sheet is fixed. The commonly used woods are pine and casuarinas, which are
strong and less expensive. In pipe-framed poly-houses, wooden battens can be used as end
frames for fixing the covering material. In tropical areas, bamboo is often used to form the
gable roof of a greenhouse structure. Wood must be painted with white colour paint to
improve light conditions within the greenhouse. Care should be taken to select a paint that
will prevent the growth of mold. Wood must be treated for protection against decay.
Chromated copper arsenate and ammonical copper arsenate are water based preservatives
that are applied to the wood that may come into contact with the soil. Red wood or cypress
(natural decay resistance woods) can be used in desert or tropical regions, but they are
expensive.

Galvanized iron (GI), aluminum, steel and reinforced cement concrete

GI pipes, tubular steel and angle iron are generally used for side posts, columns and purlins
in greenhouse structure, as wood is becoming scarce and more expensive. In galvanizing
operation, the surface of iron or steel is coated with a thin layer of zinc to protect it against
corrosion. The commonly followed processes to protect against corrosion are: (i) Hot dip
galvanizing (hot process) process: The cleaned member is dipped in molten zinc, which
produces a skin of zinc alloy to the steel. (ii) Electro-galvanizing (cold process) process: The
cleaned member is zinc plated similar to other forms of electro-plating. The galvanizing
process makes the iron rust proof, to eliminate the problem of rusting of structural members.
Aluminum and hot dipped GI are comparatively maintenance free. In tropical areas, double
dipping of steel is required, as single dip galvanizing process does not give a complete cover
of even thickness to the steel. Aluminum and steel must be protected by painting with
bitumen tar, to protect these materials from corrosion, while these materials contact with the
ground. Now-a-days, the greenhouse construction is of metal type, which is more permanent.
RCC is generally limited to foundations and low walls. In permanent bigger greenhouses,
floors and benches for growing the crops are made of concrete.
221 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Glass

Glass has been traditional glazing material all over the world. Widely used glasses for
greenhouse are: (i) Single drawn or float glass and (ii) Hammered and tempered glass. Single
drawn or float glass has the uniform thickness of 3 to 4 mm. Hammered and tempered glass
has a thickness of 4 mm. Single drawn glass is made in the traditional way by simply pulling
the molten glass either by hand or by mechanical equipment. Float glass is made in modern
way by allowing the molten glass to float on the molten tin. Coating with metal oxide with a
low emissivity is used for saving energy with adequate light transmittance. Hammered glass
is a cast glass with one face (exterior) smooth and the other one (interior) rough. It is
designed to enhance light diffusion. This glass is not transparent, but translucent. Tempered
glass is the glass, which is quickly cooled after manufacture, adopting a procedure similar to
that used for steel. This kind of processing gives higher impact resistance to the glass, which
is generally caused by hail. Glass used as a covering material of greenhouses, is expected to
be subjected to rather severe wind loading, snow and hail loading conditions. The strength
mainly depends on the length/width ratio of the panel and on the thickness of the panel, but
the most widely used thickness is 4 mm.

Polyethylene film

Polyethylene is principally used today for two reasons - (i) Plastic film greenhouses with
permanent metal frames cost less than glass greenhouses and (ii) plastic film greenhouses are
popular because the cost of heating them is approximately 40% lower compared to single-
layer glass or fiberglass-reinforced plastic greenhouses. The disadvantages are: these
covering materials are short lived compared to glass and plastic panels. UV light from the
sun causes the plastic to darken, thereby lowering transmission of light, also making it brittle,
which leads to its breakage due to wind. A thermal screen is installed inside a glass
greenhouse that will lower the heat requirement to approximately that of a double-layer
plastic film greenhouse, but this increases the cost of the glass greenhouse. Polyethylene film
was developed in the late 1930s in England and spread around the middle of this century.
Commonly used plastic for greenhouse coverings are thermoplastics. Basic characteristics of
thermoplastics are: (i) thermoplastics consists of long chain molecules, soften with heating
and harden with cooling and this process is reversible and (ii) thermoplastics constitute a
group of material that are attractive to the designer for two main reasons: (a) Thermoplastics
have the following specific physical properties- stiffness, robustness and resilience to resist
loads and deformations imposed during normal use and (b) It can readily be processed using
efficient mass production techniques, result in low labor charge. The main reason to use
polyethylene year round for greenhouse covering is due to presence of UV-inhibitor in it.
Otherwise it lasts for only one heating season. UV-inhibited plastic cover may last for a
period of 4 to 5 years. UV-grade polyethylene is available in widths up to 15.2 m in flat sheets
and up to 7.6 m in tubes. Standard lengths include 30.5, 33.5, 45.7, 61 and 67 m. Some
companies provide custom lengths up to a max. of 91.5 m. Condensation on polythene film is
a big problem. Condensation causes disease development, development of water logged
condition and oxygen deficient inside the greenhouse. Condensation reduces light intensity
within the greenhouse. To avoid this problem, anti-fog surfactant, which discourages
condensation, is built into the film or panel. Warm objects, such as plants, the greenhouse
frame and soil radiate IR energy to colder bodies at night, which results in loss of heat in

222 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
greenhouse. Since polyethylene is a poor barrier to radiant heat, it is formulated with IR-
blocking chemicals into it during manufacture, will stop about half of the radiant heat loss.
On cold and clear nights, as much as 25% of the total heat loss of a greenhouse can be
prevented in this way and on cloudy nights only 15% is prevented. UV-stabilized
polyethylene, on an average, transmits about 87% of photo-synthetically active radiation
(PAR) into the greenhouse. IR absorbing polyethylene, reduces radiant heat loss, transmits
about 82% of photo-synthetically active radiation (PAR) into the greenhouse. The amount of
light passing through two layers of a greenhouse covering is approximately the square of the
decimal fraction of the amount passing through one layer ( e.g. when 87% passes through
one layer of UV-inhibited polyethylene, only 76% (0.87 x 0.87) passes through two
layers. Similarly, when 82% passes through one layer of IR-absorbing polyethylene, only 67%
(0.82 x 0.82) passes through two layers.

Polyvinyl chloride film (PVC films)

PVC films are UV light resistant vinyl films of 0.2 to 0.3 mm and are guaranteed for 4 to 5
years respectively. The cost of 0.3 mm vinyl film is three times that of 0.15 mm polyethylene.
Vinyl film is produced in rolls upto 1.27 m wide. Vinyl films tend to hold a static electrical
charge, which attracts and holds dust. This in turn reduces light transmittance unless the
dust is washed off. Vinyl films are seldom used in the United States. In Japan, 95% of
greenhouses are covered with plastic film, out of which 90% are covered with vinyl film.

Tefzel T2 film

The most recent addition of greenhouse film plastic covering is Tefzel T2 film (ethylene tetra-
fluoro ethylene). Earlier, this film was used as covering on solar collectors. Anticipated life
expectancy is 20 years. The light transmission is 95% and is greater than that of any other
greenhouse covering material. A double layer has a light transmission of 90% (0.95 x 0.95).
Tefzel T2 film is more transparent to IR radiation than other film plastics. Hence, less heat is
trapped inside the greenhouse during hot weather. As a result, less cooling energy is
required. Disadvantage is that, the film is available only in 1.27 m wide rolls. This requires
clamping rails on the greenhouse for every 1.2 m. If reasonable width strips become
available, the price is not a problem, because a double layer covering will still cost less than a
polycarbonate panel covering with its aluminum extrusions, and will last longer, and will
have much higher light intensity inside the greenhouse.

Polyvinyl chloride rigid-panel

Initially, PVC rigid panels showed much promise as an inexpensive covering material
(almost 40% of cost of long lasting fiberglass reinforced plastics), has the life of 5 years. After
commercial application, these panels indicated that the life expectancy was much shorter,
less than 2 years. This is undesirable factor, because the cost of PVC panels was 4 to 5 times
that of polyethylene film and they required much more time to install. Now-a-days, PVC
rigid panels are not in use.

223 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) rigid panel

FRP was more popular as a greenhouse covering material in the recent past. Advantage of
FRP is that it is more resistant to breakage by factors, such as hail or vandals. Sunlight
passing through FRP is scattered by the fibers in the panels, as a result the light intensity is
rather uniform throughout the greenhouse in comparison with a glass covering.
Disadvantages with these are the panels subjected to etching and pitting by dust abrasion
and chemical pollution. Based on the grade, the usable life period of FRP panel varies. Some
grades give 5 to 10 years, while better grades can last up to 20 years. FRP panels are flexible
enough to conform to the shape of quonset greenhouses, which make FRP a very versatile
covering material. FRP can be applied to the inexpensive frames of plastic film greenhouses
or to the more elaborate frames of glass type greenhouses. The price of FRP greenhouse lies
between that of a plastic film greenhouse and that of a glass greenhouse. But the cost is
compensated by the elimination of the need for replacement of film plastic in every year or
alternate years. Corrugated panels were used because of their greater strength. Flat panels
are used occasionally for the end and side walls, where the load is not great. It is available in
1.3 m width, length up to 7.3 m and in a variety of colours. The total quantity of light
transmitted through clear FRP is approximately equivalent to that transmitted through glass,
but diminishes in relation its colour. For greenhouse crops in general, only clear FRP permits
a satisfactory level of light transmission (88 to 90%). Coloured FRP has found a limited use in
greenhouses intended for growing houseplants that require low light intensity and in display
greenhouses for holding plants during the sales period. FRP has advantage over glass is that,
it cools easily. FRP greenhouses require fewer structural members since sash bars are not
needed.

Acrylic and polycarbonate rigid-panel

These panels have been available for about 15 years for greenhouse use. The panels have
been used for glazing the side and end walls of plastic film greenhouses and retrofitting old
glass greenhouse. Acrylic panels are highly inflammable, where as polycarbonate panels are
non-flammable. Acrylic panels are popular due to their higher light transmission and longer
life. Acrylic panels are available in thickness of 16 and 18 mm, and have 83% of PAR light
transmission. Acrylic panels cannot be bent, but the thinner panels can be bent to fit curved-
proof greenhouses. These panels are also available with a coating to prevent condensation
drip. Polycarbonate panels are preferred for commercial greenhouses due to lower price,
flame resistance and greater resistance to hail damage. Polycarbonate panels are available in
thickness of 4, 6, 8, 10 and 16 mm. These panels are also available with a coating to prevent
condensation drip and also with an acrylic coating for extra protection from UV light.

Procedure of erection

(1) A 4m by 20m rectangular area is marked on the site, preferably orienting the longer
dimension in east-west direction. This rectangle will act as the floor plan of the greenhouse.

(2) Mark four points on the four corners of the rectangle.

224 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
(3) Start from one corner point and move along the length of marked rectangle, marking a
point every 1.25 m distance until reaching the other corner (16 bays; 17 points). The same
procedure is repeated on the other side of the rectangle.

(4) Dig 10 cm diameter holes upto 70 cm depth on all marked points with the help of bucket
auger (or) a crowbar. This way a total of 34 holes on both the parallel sides of the greenhouse
floor are obtained.

(5) Poly-grip sections formed according to the drawing into two 20m length.

(6) Fix the prefabricated poly-grip channels to the foundation pipes on 1.25 m spacing with
the help of 6 mm diameter bolts.

(7) Set these assemblies on temporary supports between the holes with the foundation pipes
hanging vertically in the holes.

(8) Pour cement concrete mix of 1: 3 : 6 around foundation pipes in such a way that the lower
15 cm to 20 cm ends are covered in concrete. The concrete is compacted around the
foundation pipes with the help of the crowbar and is allowed to cure for 2-3 days.

(9) After curing, fill the soil around the foundation pipes to the ground level and compact it
well.

(10) Position end frames on the two ends. Mark the position of legs and dug holes for fixing
of legs. Now install both the end frames.

(11) Put the ringside of lateral support members on adjacent foundation pipe to the corner,
and other side is hooked to the end frame.

(12) Put all the hoops in the foundation pipes in such a way that straight portion of hoop is
inserted into the foundation and rests on the bolt used for fixing of poly-grip channel.

(13) Take a 20 m long ridge line by spacing 15 mm diameter pipes together. Put the 20m long
pipe at the ridge line of the hoops.

(14) Use cross connectors on the ridge line pipe, in such a way that one half of it remains on
the one side of the hoop and the other half on the other side.

(15) Put two bolts of 6 mm diameter in the holes provided in the ends of cross-connector. Tie
a few of them with the help of nuts.

(16) Repeat the same procedure for joining all the hoops with ridge line pipe.

(17)While forming cross-connectors, the distance between the cross-connectors or hoops

should be maintained 1.25 m center to center. This poly grip mechanism will provide a firm
grip of the ridge line pipe and hoops at right angles without allowing for slippage.

(18) Spread polyethylene film over the structure from one end to the other end without
wrinkles and keeping the edges together.

225 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
(19) Place polyethylene film between the poly-grip channel and right angle strip and secure
them under pressure with the help of iron rods. The film is stretched gently and fixed on the
other parallel side by poly-grip. This way the polyethylene is secured on both the longer
sides.

(20) On the other two remaining ends, polyethylene is nailed to the end frames using wooden
battens and nails.

(21) The remaining portion of the end frames is covered with polyethylene film, which is
secured with wooden battens and nails.

(22) Mechanical ventilation, heating and cooling equipment is installed on the frames as per
the crop requirement.

226 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 31. Facilities and Instruments Required in Greenhouse

31.1 Lamps, exhaust fans, CO2 cylinders, Micro irrigation system, fertigation equipment,

31.1.1 Lamps

Plants respond to the relative lengths to light and dark periods as well as to the intensity and
quality of light. Artificial light has been used extensively to control plant growth processes
under various conditions. Plants differ in the need for light; some thrive on sunshine, others
grow best in the shade. Most plants will grow in either natural or artificial light. Artificial
light can be used in the following ways:

 To provide high intensity light when increased plant growth is desired.

 To extend the hours of natural daylight or to provide a night interruption to maintain

the plants on long-day conditions.

Keep growing throughout the year with outdoor fixtures and greenhouse lights that offer
outstanding uniformity and superior light levels. Growers Supply has energy-efficient
lighting fixtures, replacement light bulbs, high pressure sodium fixtures and outdoor lighting
for your nursery or greenhouse. We offer LED bulbs, energy-saving fluorescent lights, tube
lamps, metal halide lamps, heat lamps, high bay fixtures, low bay fixtures and more. Switch
to light bulbs that give you the power to save money and energy in your greenhouse, cold
frame, high tunnel or home.

Proper lighting not only extends the gardening day by enabling the gardener to work in the
greenhouse during the dark evenings of winter and early spring, but it aids plant growth.
Three basic types of lamps used in greenhouse lighting are:

Fluorescent lamps - Fluorescent bulbs are the most commonly used light source for the home
gardener. Fluorescent bulbs produce a linear light that gives off more efficient and uniform
lighting than incandescent types. Fluorescent bulbs are available in 28–225 watt
configurations and can be stacked in banks to enhance coverage areas. In late winter/early
spring, most gardeners who start plants from seed utilize some type of inexpensive
fluorescent shop light system as their light source. These have the advantage of higher light
efficiency with low heat. This type of lamp is the most widely used for supplemental light. It
is available in a variety of colors but cool-white lamps are the most common. High intensity
(1500 ma) fluorescent tubes that require higher wattage are also commonly used to reach
2000 foot candles. - These have the advantage of higher light efficiency with low heat. This
type of lamp is the most widely used for supplemental light. It is available in a variety of
colors but cool-white lamps are the most common. High intensity (1500 ma) fluorescent tubes
that require higher wattage are also commonly used to reach 2000 foot candles. The 28–40
watt bulbs work great for germinating seeds and growing seedlings, which do not require
the more expensive, higher intensity, full spectrum “grow lights.” The key in the use of these
low-output lights is that you must orient them to within an inch of the top of the plants to
227 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
capture all the light intensity (lumens) they have to offer. If they are not placed close to the
plants, inter-nodal elongation will occur, producing weak, spindly plants that will generally
not perform well. While houseplants, seedlings and low-light flowering plants can flourish
under fluorescent lights, they fall far short of the light requirements needed to produce most
mature flowering and fruiting plants. White reflectors or reflectors made from aluminum foil
may aid in maximizing what little light is available from these low-intensity bulbs.

Fluorescent lighting is rarely used in commercial greenhouses for producing mature

flowering or fruiting plants because of their low-intensity output and the sunlight-shading
effects that their fixtures and reflectors create. Their primary use in commercial operations is
in providing light for germination benches. Under these conditions the lamps are hung very
close to the seedlings. Because seedlings require much lower light levels than mature plants,
several fluorescent lamps alone are capable of meeting their light requirements. As the
seedlings enter their vegetative growth stage, their light requirements rapidly outpace the
fluorescent lamps‟ capability of providing enough light intensity and quality to meet their
demands. To sustain this rapid growth past the seedling stage, plants need to be moved into
a greenhouse where direct sunlight or high-output artificial lighting is available.

Incandescent lamps - The incandescent “light bulb” type of light source may be useful in
controlling day length, but it offers little help as a grow light. Since the major portion of
energy going into incandescent bulbs is released as heat rather than as light, conventional
light bulbs are primarily used to manipulate photoperiod rather than as supplemental
lighting to enhance growth. These vary in size from 60 watts to 500 watts. They are used to
extend day- length in greenhouses. The grower can vary foot- candle levels by adjusting the
spacing and mounting height above the plants.

High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps - High-intensity discharge bulbs are the most costly
to purchase and operate but offer the highest quality light output of all grow-light bulbs.
Where plant appearance is critical and natural sunlight limited, metal halide bulbs should be
used. Due to their energy efficiency and the general quality of the light spectrum emitted
(yellowish light), high-pressure sodium (HP sodium) lights are the most commonly used
types found in commercial greenhouses. These have a long life (5000 hours or more). With
improvements made possible by the addition of sodium and metal-halides, the lamp has a
high emission of light in the regions utilized by plants. These have a long life (5000 hours or
more). With improvements made possible by the addition of sodium and metal-halides, the
lamp has a high emission of light in the regions utilized by plants. Depending on the crop
needs, natural light availability and greenhouse design, there are several wattages of HID
lamps available. These range from 150–1000 watts. While the crop light requirements are
normally documented and the natural lighting duration measurable, how the greenhouse
design impacts the choice of lamp wattage is not readily apparent. An efficient greenhouse
operation will maximize its lighting by assuring a uniform level of light across all of its
growing benches. If there are sections that receive less light, the plants in these areas will
become etiolated (“leggy”) and the crop will not develop the uniform height that the market
desires. In a greenhouse with a low roof it may be challenging to achieve uniform light with
1000-watt fixtures since the distance that they can be moved above the crop is limited.
Although it is more costly to purchase several smaller lights than one large one, multiple
lights allow additional flexibility in achieving uniform light dispersal.

228 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Quartz-Halogen (Spotlights)-The quartz-halogen “spotlight” type bulbs produce a whiter
light and are more electricity-efficient than the incandescent bulb, but because they, too,
deliver a point-source type of illumination they are far less efficient than other available
bulbs.

31.1.2 Exhaust fans

Greenhouse ventilation involves removing air from inside the greenhouse and replacing it
with outside air. The ventilation may be (1) natural-caused by wind and temperature forces
and (2) mechanical--accomplished by using fans. The purposes of ventilation are to control
high temperatures during the summer caused by the influx of solar radiation, to maintain
relative humidity at acceptable levels during winter, to provide uniform air flow throughout
the entire greenhouse, and to maintain acceptable levels of gas concentration in the
greenhouse. Ventilation systems for greenhouses must be considered for three climatic
conditions that occur during the year--winter, summer, and spring-fall. Winter Ventilation

A heating system with adequate capacity is needed in the winter to maintain environmental
conditions inside the greenhouse conducive for plant growth and development. Even during
the coldest part of the winter, when the heating system is running at full capacity, some
ventilation is still required in the greenhouse. Fresh, outside air must be ventilated into the
greenhouse to remove the warm, moisture-laden air from within the greenhouse. If moist air
within the greenhouse is not removed, high humidity and excessive condensation will occur.
Studies have shown that humidity over 90% foster rapid development of leaf mold and fruit
and stem rot. Problems with infection of tomatoes with leaf mold start occurring when
humidity exceed 80%, but below 70%, problems with infection are slight. Economic problems
associated with condensation in greenhouses are fungus diseases, difficulty in maintaining a
clean greenhouse, more rapid deterioration of structural components, and damp,
uncomfortable environmental conditions for the workers. Exhausting moist air and replacing
it with heated outside air is effective in eliminating condensation and other problems
resulting from high humidity. Whenever ventilation rates are increased in the winter, the
heating requirements also increase. Consequently, it is necessary to determine a ventilation
rate that will maintain humidity below the damaging level and, at the same time, keep the
heating requirements as low as possible. Ventilation requirements of greenhouses in winter
are generally on the order of two to three air exchanges per hour. The higher the inside
temperature in the greenhouse, the lower the air exchange rate is required to maintain
humidity below the damaging level. However, in no circumstances should a ventilation rate
of less than two air changes per hour be used. Besides controlling humidity, this minimum
ventilation rate is required to remove any gases of combustion that may be present as a result
of leakages around the heater and ducting when a direct-fired heating system is used.

Summer Ventilation

The main purpose of a ventilation system in a greenhouse during the summer is to prevent
the air temperature inside the greenhouse from rising too high above the outside air
temperature. The reason for the higher air temperature inside the greenhouse is because of
the large influx of solar radiation through the greenhouse glazing material. The ventilation
system must effectively move air directly through the crop and over the soil to prevent
excessive temperature buildups around the plants. A generally accepted minimum
229 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
ventilation rate for temperature control in the summer is one air change per minute. The
ventilation rates range from one air change every three minutes to three air changes per
minute. As ventilation rates increase, the temperature difference between inside and outside
air decreases. But the disadvantage of increased ventilation rate is the increased cost for fans
and accessories, as well as increased operating costs. Regardless of how high the ventilation
rate in a greenhouse is in the summer, the inside air temperature during the day will never be
as low as the outside air temperature. If one is interested in maintaining an inside air
temperature below outside air temperature, then evaporative cooling or some other means of
conditioning the air must be used.

Spring-Fall Ventilation

The recommended ventilation rates for the spring-fall seasonal periods will be somewhere
between rates required for summer temperature control and those required for winter-
humidity control. The spring-fall periods are characterized by some times that is relatively
cool and cloudy and other times that are warm and sunny. No special provisions are
necessary for maintaining ventilation rates during this period except for the temperature and
humidity controls that will determine the amount of ventilation necessary.

31.1.3 Carbon di-oxide

The benefits of carbon dioxide supplementation on plant growth and production within the
greenhouse environment have been well understood for many years. Carbon dioxide can be
obtained by burning carbon-based fuels such as natural gas, propane, and kerosene, or
directly from tanks of pure CO2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an essential component of
photosynthesis (also called carbon assimilation). Photosynthesis is a chemical process that
uses light energy to convert CO2 and water into sugars in green plants. These sugars are then
used for growth within the plant, through respiration. The difference between the rate of
photosynthesis and the rate of respiration is the basis for dry-matter accumulation (growth)
in the plant. In greenhouse production the aim of all growers is to increase dry-matter
content and economically optimize crop yield. CO2 increases productivity through improved
plant growth and vigour. Some ways in which productivity is increased by CO 2 include
earlier flowering, higher fruit yields, reduced bud abortion in roses, improved stem strength
and flower size. Growers should regard CO2 as a nutrient.

For the majority of greenhouse crops, net photosynthesis increases as CO 2 levels increase
from 340–1,000 ppm (parts per million). Most crops show that for any given level of photo
synthetically active radiation (PAR), increasing the CO2 level to 1,000 ppm will increase the
photosynthesis by about 50% over ambient CO2 levels. For some crops the economics may
not warrant supplementing to 1,000 ppm CO2 at low light levels. For others such as tulips,
and Easter lilies, no response has been observed.

Carbon dioxide enters into the plant through the stomata openings by the process of
diffusion. Stomata are specialized cells located mainly on the underside of the leaves in the
epidermal layer. The cells open and close allowing gas exchange to occur. The concentration
of CO2 outside the leaf strongly influences the rate of CO2 uptake by the plant. The higher the
CO2 concentration outside the leaf, the greater the uptake of CO2 by the plant. Light levels,
leaf and ambient air temperatures, relative humidity, water stress and the CO2 and oxygen
230 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
(O2) concentration in the air and the leaf, are many of the key factors that determine the
opening and closing of the stomata.

Ambient CO2 level in outside air is about 340 ppm by volume. All plants grow well at this
level but as CO2 levels are raised by 1,000 ppm photosynthesis increases proportionately
resulting in more sugars and carbohydrates available for plant growth. Any actively growing
crop in a tightly clad greenhouse with little or no ventilation can readily reduce the CO2 level
during the day to as low as 200 ppm. The decrease in photosynthesis when CO 2 level drops
from 340 ppm to 200 ppm is similar to the increase when the CO2 levels are raised from 340
to about 1,300 ppm. During particular times of the year in new greenhouses, and especially in
double-glazed structures that have reduced air exchange rates, the carbon dioxide levels can
easily drop below 340 ppm which has a significant negative effect on the crop. Ventilation
during the day can raise the CO2 levels closer to ambient but never back to ambient levels of
340 ppm. Supplementation of CO2 is seen as the only method to overcome this deficiency and
increasing the level above 340 ppm is beneficial for most crops. The level to which the
CO2 concentration should be raised depends on the crop, light intensity, temperature,
ventilation, stage of the crop growth and the economics of the crop. For most crops the
saturation point will be reached at about 1,000–1,300 ppm under ideal circumstances. A
lower level (800–1,000 ppm) is recommended for raising seedlings (tomatoes, cucumbers and
peppers) as well as for lettuce production. Even lower levels (500–800 ppm) are
recommended for African violets and some Gerbera varieties. Increased CO 2 levels will
shorten the growing period (5%–10%), improve crop quality and yield, as well as, increase
leaf size and leaf thickness. The increase in yield of tomato, cucumber and pepper crops is a
result of increased numbers and faster flowering per plant.

31.1.4 Micro irrigation system

Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation or micro irrigation or localized irrigation, is
an irrigation method that saves water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the
roots of plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root zone, through a network
of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. It is done through narrow tubes that deliver water
directly to the base of the plant. It delivers required and measured quantity of water in
relatively small amounts slowly to the individual or groups of plants. Water is applied as
continuous drops, tiny streams, or fine spray through emitters placed along a low-pressure
delivery system. Such system provides water precisely to plant root zones and maintains
ideal moisture conditions for plant growths.

231 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

(Source: [Link]

Components of Drip Irrigation System:

1. Control Head: This includes pump or over head tank, fertilizers or chemical application
device and filters.

a) Water Source: Well, reservoir or streams

b) Pump: A centrifugal or other suitable pump to achieve required head in the pipe line.

c) By-Pass Line: A line is provided so that pumped water can be used for other activities
when irrigation is not going on.

d) Fertilizer Applicator: To add fertilizer to the water directly in the

pipeline.

e) Pressure Gauge: To measure head in the pipe line.

f) Sand Filter: To remove coarse impurity of water coming from water source or clogs from
fertilizer.

g) Gate Valve: To regulate the flow of water in the main pipe line.

h) Screen Filter: A line filter is placed at the end of control head to avoid clogging in
drippers.

2. Distribution Network: This part is responsible for distributing the water to the crop
received by control head.

232 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
a) Main Line: It is made of HDPE or PVC having diameter in the range of 50-75mm and is
able to withstand a pressure head of atleast 4-6kg/cm2.

b) Sub main: It is made of HDPE/PVD having diameter in the range of 37-63mm and can
withstand 2-5 kg/ cm2 pressure.

c) Ball Valve: To engage or disengage a specific sub-main.

d) Flush Valve: These are provided at the end of sub mains and are used to flush the extra
water if required.

e) Laterals: These are made of LDPE/ LLDPE and having diameter in the range of 12-16mm.
It has an ability to withstand 2 kg/ cm2 pressure.

f) Drippers: These are small emission devices having small flow rates and are made of poly
propylene. These are provided at individual plant and have specific distance between each
dripper.

31.1.5 Fertigation

Fertigation is method of applying fertilizers, soil amendments and other water soluble
products required by the plants during its growth stages through drip/sprinkler irrigation
system. Crops are grown intensively in the greenhouse. Hence the nutrient status maintained
in the root environment is usually higher than the open field because of the greater up-take
by greenhouse crops. As the mineral uptake is proportional to the total yield, the high
physical production level involves high fertilizer inputs. In this respect the amount and
combination of the fertilizers is critical for both, yield production and crop protection.
Soluble fertilizers or liquid fertilizers are used in fertigation, they should not precipitate as
insoluble salts by reacting with other fertilizers or ions present in the irrigation water. Apart
from the high crop demand, the high fertilizer inputs are also believed to be necessary to
maintain high osmotic pressure level in the root environment, in order to prevent lush
growth and to enhance product quality. The fertigation allows us to apply the nutrients
exactly and uniformly only to the wetted root volume, where the active roots are
concentrated. This remarkably increases the efficiency in the application of the fertilizer,
which allows reducing the amount of applied fertilizer. This not only reduces the production
costs but also lessens the potential of groundwater pollution caused by the fertilizer leaching.
Fertigation allows to adapt the amount and concentration of the applied nutrients in order to
meet the actual nutritional requirement of the crop throughout the growing season. In order
to make a correct planning of the nutrients supply to the crop according to its physiological
stage, we must know the optimal daily nutrient consumption rate during the growing cycle
that results in maximum yield and production quality. These functions are specific for each
crop and climate, and were determined in different experiments for the main crops.

Other advantages of the fertigation are: (1) the saving of energy and labor, (2) the flexibility
of the moment of the application (nutrients can be applied to the soil when crop or soil
conditions would otherwise prohibit entry into the field with conventional equipment), (3)
convenient use of compound and ready-mix nutrient solutions containing also small
concentrations of micronutrients which are otherwise very difficult to apply accurately to the

233 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
soil, and (4) the supply of nutrients can be more carefully regulated and monitored. When
fertigation is applied through the drip irrigation system, crop foliage can be kept dry thus
avoiding leaf burn and delaying the development of plant pathogens.

Equipments used for fertigation

1) Venturi injector:

This is very simple and low cost device. A partial vacuum is created in the system which
allows suction of the fertilizers in to the irrigation system.

Image Source: [Link]

The vacuum is created by diverting a percentage of water flow from the main and passes it
through a constriction which increases the velocity of flow thus creating a drop in the
pressure. When the pressure drops the fertilizer solution is sucked in to the venturi through a
suction pipe from the tank and from there enters in to irrigation stream. The suction rate of
the venturi is 30 to 120 l/hr.

1) Fertilizer tank:

In this system part of the irrigation water diverted from the main of the flow through a tank
containing fertilizer in fluid or soluble solid form, before returning to the main line, the
pressure in the tank and main line is the same but a slight drop in the pressure is created
between the off take and return pipes from the tank by means of a pressure reducing valve.
This causes water from main line to flow through the tank causing dilution and flow of the
diluted fertilizer in to the irrigation stream. With this system the concentration of the
fertilizer entering the irrigation water charges continuously with the time, starting at high
concentration. As a result uniformity of the fertilizer distribution can be a problem. Fertilizer
tanks are available in 90, 120, 160 liters capacity.

234 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Image Source: [Link]

2) Fertilizer injector pump:

These are piston or diaphragm pumps which are driven by the water pressure of the
irrigation system and such as the injection rate is proportional to the flow of water in the
system. A high degree of control over the fertilizer injection rate is possible, no serious head
losses are incurred and operating costs are low. Another advantage is that, if the flow of
water stops, fertilizer injection also automatically stops. This is perfect equipment for
accurate fertigation. Suction rates of pumps vary from 40 lit to 160 lit/hr.

Image Source: [Link]

31.2 Instruments for Greenhouse Heating

Having a greenhouse is a must when you want to grow plants that are frost tender or you
want to start early seedlings. Maintaining a correct temperature in your greenhouse for the
plants that you have chosen to grow is an important thing. There are some options from
which you can choose in order to heat your greenhouse: electric heaters, gas heaters, paraffin
heaters, solid fuel hot water systems. If the heater does not have a thermostat is better to use
a min/max thermometer and a frost alarm. Always choose a heater which is powerful
enough to maintain the required temperature efficiently and is also convenient as cost of
installation and running costs.

235 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Electric heaters - are most reliable, efficient and convenient to use in your greenhouse. Most
of them are thermostatically controlled, so there will be no waist of energy. They don't need
regular refueling or special maintenance, do not produce fumes or water vapors. There are
some types of electric heaters that can be used to heat your greenhouse: fan heaters, water-
proof tubular heaters or convector heaters. Fan heaters are the most effective because they
can be moved, promote good air circulation and also can be used in warm weather to cool the
greenhouse. Tubular heaters need to be fitted to the sides of the greenhouse, just above floor
level.

Gas heaters - connected to the mains supplies or from bottled gas. Their thermostats are not
so efficient as to the electric heaters and if used with bottled gas they need to be regularly
replaced. Propane gas releases fumes and water vapors as it burns, so proper ventilation is
required in this case. Always have two bottles connected by an automatic switch-over valve
in case one bottle runs out. Keep the gas cylinders in a safe place and have them checked
regularly.

Paraffin heaters: These types of heaters are not as efficient as electric or gas heaters in their
use of fuel because they are not thermostatically controlled. They may be expensive to run
because some of energy is wasted if you need to maintain a high temperature in your
greenhouse but they are inexpensive to buy and no installation cost is required. Proper
ventilation is necessary in this case also because it produce plant-toxic fumes and water
vapors. Another disadvantage is that you need to transport and store the fuel and check its
level every day to make sure that it is burning cleanly.

Solid fuel hot water systems: it is being rarely used now. Oil- and gas-fired circulated hot
water systems are still sometimes used but only on a small scale. They need regular stoking
and cleaning out of the fire.

Thermometers and frost alarms: it is must if your heater is not thermostatically controlled.
Use a min/max thermometer to check that the right temperatures are maintained overnight.
In regions with extremely low temperatures you should use a frost alarm also. It will allow
you time to protect plants if temperatures drop unexpectedly because of a power failure or
heater breakdown. An alarm bell will sound remotely to announce you that temperature has
drop to near freezing.

31.3 Instruments for Greenhouse Cooling

Overheating of the greenhouse during the summer months is a common but unnecessary
problem. Your greenhouse can and should be a comfortable and refreshing place for you and
your plants to enjoy on those hot summer days. Keeping the greenhouse cool is
accomplished by obtaining a proper balance of shading, ventilation and humidity. Following
are some guidelines.

Greenhouse Ventilation

Traditional ventilation systems of ridge or end vents work well if large enough and oriented
to take advantage of prevailing winds. The upper vents should be equal in size to 20% of the
floor area. In addition, there should be vents in the lower walls equal to 10% of the

236 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
greenhouse floor area. A typical 8' x 12' greenhouse would have 15 sq feet of roof vents and
10 sq feet of lower vents. The roof vent should open 45° above horizontal. These vents can be
operated by hand, or by non-electric solar powered pistons. Thermostatically controlled
exhaust fan systems are a popular alternative to traditional roof vents. The fan uses very little
electricity, and the thermostat makes the system automatic and easily adjustable to various
operating temperatures. The thermostat is usually set at 75° to 80° F. The proper size fan will
change the air in the greenhouse in about 1½ to 2 minutes. Determine the volume of your
greenhouse (Length x Width x Average Height) and multiply by 0.75 to obtain the ventilation
rate in Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM). (For Average Height, measure halfway up a roof rafter
and then measure straight down to the floor. This vertical measurement is the Average
Height). To enable the exhaust fan to operate effectively, fresh air intake shutters must be
provided in the opposite end of the greenhouse. The shutters are opened by the flow of air
drawn into a greenhouse by the fan, or they can be opened and closed by a shutter motor.
Determine shutter size by dividing the fan CFM by 250. This gives you shutter size in square
feet. If more than one shutter is to be used, divide this figure by the number of shutters to
obtain the area of each shutter. (Two shutters are recommended for greenhouses over 100 sq.
ft. or wider than 8 feet).

In a greenhouse good ventilation is essential, even over the winter, to avoid a built-up of
stuffy or damp, stale air and to control temperature levels. The area covered by ventilations
should be equal to at least one sixth of the floor area. There are few types of ventilation
methods that you could use in your greenhouse, depending on the type of greenhouse that
you have.

Few models of greenhouse are supplied with enough ventilation as standard, so you might
need to order some additional air vents, hinged and louver windows or extractor fans when
buying a new greenhouse.

Wind ventilation system: The position of ventilators is important in the air exchange in the
greenhouse. If ventilators are placed on the sides and roof of the greenhouse and are also
staggered, this will ensure that air circulates throughout the entire area of the greenhouse. If
vents are placed directly opposite one another, air will simply blow straight through the
greenhouse. To increase ventilation over the summer you may also keep the doors open.

Chimney ventilation system: This system depends on warm, humid air rising out of roof
vents and being replaced by fresh air that is drawn in as a result through lower ventilations,
which are usually positioned along the sides of the greenhouse either above or below the
staging.

Fan ventilation system: This is a mechanically driven system that works by extracting air
from the greenhouse at head height or slightly higher and drawing in fresh air through vents
lower down and usually at the opposite end of the greenhouse.

Hinged ventilators: This system will allow maximum airflow while at the same time will
prevent direct gusts of wind from entering the greenhouse. These may be fitted to the sides
or roof of the greenhouse and should open wide to an angle of about 45 degrees.

237 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Automatic vent openers: This system simplifies the temperature control in the greenhouse as
they open automatically. They should be fitted to at least some of the hinged or louvre
ventilators. There are many models of auto vent openers available.

Extractor fans: Primarily designed to be used in the kitchen, this system is also ideally suited
for use in the greenhouse. Choose a fan that is powerful enough for the particular size of
your greenhouse. A louvre window positioned at the opposite end of the greenhouse to the
extractor fan and set lower down is essential to provide a flow of fresh air to replace the stale
air that is drawn out by the fan.

Greenhouse Misting

Shading and ventilation will prevent the greenhouse from seriously overheating, but it is
evaporation of moisture inside the greenhouse that will actually cool the greenhouse.
Evaporating water soaks up heat like a sponge because heat is used when water changes
from a liquid to a gas. Good air circulation from fans increases evaporation. The amount of
moisture necessary to cool the greenhouse will vary considerably depending on the amount
of ventilation and shading provided, the local climate, and daily weather changes. Generally,
1 to 2 gallons per hour for each 10 square feet of floor area will provide enough moisture. A
good misting system will disperse the water evenly around the greenhouse in a fine mist
without soaking the plants. There are several ways to provide moisture in the greenhouse.
Most common is to soak the floor with a sprinkler hose. Water can be stored for slow release
in 3" - 4" of pea gravel on the greenhouse floor. More accurate and reliable is an automatic
system of misting nozzles. A humidistat set at 60% to 70% relative humidity will keep most
plants comfortable and provide plenty of moisture for evaporation through the mist
nozzles. The location of the nozzles can vary. They can be mounted under the benches,
especially in front of the fresh air intake vents.

Apply mist only during daylight hours to avoid excessive humidity at night, which
encourages disease. Remember, when the greenhouse cools at night, the relative humidity
will rise even with the misting system off. Use a 24-hour timer to shut off the misting system
2 hours before sundown.

Greenhouse Shading

Shading the greenhouse will help to control the temperature levels if the ventilation system is
insufficient. It also helps to protect vulnerable plants from too much direct sunlight. This will
reduce the risk of leaf scorch and will prevent flower colors from fading in strong sunlight.
Shadings applied primarily to control the temperature levels should be placed on the outside
of the greenhouse as internal shadings are unlikely to reduce the temperatures significantly.
Install shading to shield the greenhouse or sunroom from excess sun between 9 a.m. and 5
p.m. Shading should cover the roof and at least the upper half of the south wall. The amount
of shading needed (expressed as a percentage of light blocked) will vary depending on your
local climate, greenhouse design, and light requirements of your particular plants. Use the
least amount of shading necessary, because excessive shading can slow plant growth of cause
plants to "reach" for more light.

238 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
The amount of shade that is required in a greenhouse is not always the same; it depends on
the season and the plants that are grown in the greenhouse. In the months of strongest
sunlight, shading that reduces the light by 40-50 per cent is suitable for a typical mixed
greenhouse. There are some types of shadings that you can use for your greenhouse: shading
washes, blinds, meshes and fabrics or rigid sheets. In the next lines there will be a short
description for each of them and how to use them efficiently.

Shading washes

This type of shading is often considered to be the most effective and cheapest method of
reducing heat from the sun while still allowing enough light to penetrate for good plant
growth. Paint or spray the wash onto the outside of the glass at the beginning of the sunny
season and remove it in late summer by rubbing or washing it off using a cleaning solution.

Shading washes are inexpensive but they may be messy to apply and to remove. Also their
appearance is sometimes unattractive in a small garden where the greenhouse represents the
major feature. Some washes become more transparent when wet, so that on rainy days or
when the weather is dull they allow more light penetration.

Blinds
Blinds are mainly used on the outside of the greenhouse and they control temperature
effectively but they should be hard wearing since they will be in place for long periods.
Blinds are more versatile than shading washes since they may be rolled up or down
depending on the intensity of light regained. They may be used where only a section of the
greenhouse needs to be shaded. Manually operated blinds need constant attention, while
automatic blinds, which come into operation as soon as the temperature rises to a
predetermined level, are more convenient to use, but they are expensive.

Meshes and fabrics

Flexible mesh shading materials are suitable for either interior or exterior use. They are less
adaptable than blinds because they are generally fixed in position for the entire season and
are less satisfactory than shading washes in helping to control plant growth. Woven and
knitted fabrics are also suitable for both interior and exterior greenhouse use, but the amount
of light reduction varies considerably depending on the type of fabric fitted. The quality of
light allowed through to the plants is usually perfectly adequate for good growth, but the
temperature in not significantly reduced.

Rigid sheets

Rigid polycarbonate sheets are sometimes used for shading in greenhouse. The sheet may be
fixed either inside or outside depending by the greenhouse manufacturer recommendations.
They cut down the light effectively but unless they are white in color the quality of light
transmitted to the plants may not be mf patent for good growth.

239 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Evaporative Coolers

An evaporative cooler is a device that cools air through the evaporation of water.
Evaporative cooling differs from typical air conditioning systems which use vapor-
compression or absorption refrigeration cycles. Evaporative cooling works by employing
water's large enthalpy of vaporization. The temperature of dry air can be dropped
significantly through the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor (evaporation), which
can cool air using much less energy than refrigeration. In extremely dry climates, evaporative
cooling of air has the added benefit of conditioning the air with more moisture for the
comfort of building occupants. Unlike closed-cycle refrigeration, evaporative cooling requires
a water source, and must continually consume water to operate. Evaporative cooling is a
physical phenomenon in which evaporation of a liquid, typically into surrounding air, cools
an object or a liquid in contact with it. Latent heat, the amount of heat that is needed to
evaporate the liquid, is drawn from the air. When considering water evaporating into air, the
wet-bulb temperature which takes both temperature and humidity into account, as compared
to the actual air temperature (dry-bulb temperature), is a measure of the potential for
evaporative cooling. The greater the difference between the two temperatures, the greater the
evaporative cooling effect. When the temperatures are the same, no net evaporation of water
in air occurs, thus there is no cooling effect. The wet-bulb temperature is essentially the
lowest temperature which can be attained by evaporative cooling at a given temperature and
humidity. A supplement to the misting system is an evaporative cooler. It works well in dry
climates where the humidity is below 50%. Air is cooled 10° to 20° F by water evaporation as
it is drawn through the cooler and into the greenhouse.

Advantages

Less expensive to install

Estimated cost for installation is about half that of central refrigerated air conditioning.

Less expensive to operate

Estimated cost of operation is 1/4 that of refrigerated air.

Power consumption is limited to the fan and water pump. Because the water vapor is not
recycled, there is no compressor that consumes most of the power in closed-cycle
refrigeration.

The refrigerant is water. No special refrigerants, such as ammonia, sulfur dioxide or CFCs,
are used that could be toxic, expensive to replace, contribute to ozone depletion and/or be
subject to stringent licensing and environmental regulations.

Ease of maintenance

The only two mechanical parts in most basic evaporative coolers are the fan motor and the
water pump, both of which can be repaired at low cost and often by a mechanically inclined
homeowner.

240 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Ventilation air

Evaporative cooling increases humidity. In dry climates, this may improve comfort and
decrease static electricity problems.

Disadvantages

Performance

High dew point (humidity) conditions decrease the cooling capability of the evaporative
cooler.

No dehumidification. Traditional air conditioners remove moisture from the air, except in
very dry locations where recirculation can lead to a buildup of humidity. Evaporative cooling
adds moisture, but in dry climates, dryness may improve thermal comfort at higher
temperatures.

Comfort

The air supplied by the evaporative cooler is typically 80–90% relative humidity; very humid
air reduces the evaporation rate of moisture from the skin, nose, lungs, and eyes.

High humidity in air accelerates corrosion, particularly in the presence of dust. This can
considerably shorten the life of electronic and other equipment.

High humidity in air may cause condensation of water. This can be a problem for some
situations (e.g., electrical equipment, computers, paper, books, old wood).

Water

Evaporative coolers require a constant supply of water to wet the pads.

Water high in mineral content will leave mineral deposits on the pads and interior of the
cooler. Depending on the type and concentration of minerals, possible safety hazards during
the replacement and waste removal of the pads could be present. Bleed-off and refill (purge
pump) systems may reduce this problem.

31.4 Measuring Instruments: Temperature, Radiation, Relative humidity, Air flow,

Photosynthesis, Soil temperature

Temperature

Thermometer: A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature

gradient using a variety of different principles. A thermometer has two important elements:
the temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb on a mercury-in-glass thermometer) in which some
physical change occurs with temperature, plus some means of converting this physical
change into a numerical value (e.g. the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass
thermometer).

241 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Radiation

Lux meter: The lux (symbol: lx) is the SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance,
measuring luminous flux per unit area. It is equal to one lumen/m2. In photometry, this is
used as a measure of the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes
through a surface. It is analogous to the radiometric unit watts per square meter, but with the
power at each wavelength weighted according to the luminosity function, a standardized
model of human visual brightness perception. In English, "lux" is used in both singular and
plural.

Relative humidity

Hygrometer: A hygrometer is an instrument used for measuring the moisture content in the
environment. Humidity measurement instruments usually rely on measurements of some
other quantity such as temperature, pressure, mass or a mechanical or electrical change in a
substance as moisture is absorbed. By calibration and calculation, these measured quantities
can lead to a measurement of humidity.

Air flow

Anemometer: An anemometer is a device for measuring wind speed, and is a common

weather station instrument. The term is derived from the Greek word anemos, meaning
wind, and is used to describe any air-speed measurement instrument used in meteorology or
aerodynamics.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis meter: This device is used for measuring the photosynthesis.

Soil temperature

Soil thermometer: A soil thermometer is a thermometer specifically designed to

measure soil temperature.

242 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design

Lesson 32. Crop Production Management in Greenhouse

32.1 Soil treatment

Soil solarization is a method of heating soil by covering it with transparent polythene

sheeting during hot periods to control soil borne diseases. The technique has been
commercially exploited for growing high-value crops in diseased soils in environments with
a hot summer (maximum daily air temperatures regularly exceeding 35°C). Examples include
control of verticillium and fusarium diseases in vegetable crops in Israel, control of
verticillium dahlias in pistachio orchards and control of chickpea and pigeon pea wilt in
India. Although the major benefit of solarization is reduction of soil borne pathogens by soil
heating effects, there are many other possible additional beneficial effects that can result in an
increased growth response (IGR) of plants. Such additional effects include control of weeds
and insect pests and release of plant nutrients.

Soil mixes used for greenhouse production of potted plants and cut flowers are highly
modified mixtures of soil, organic and inorganic materials. When top soil is included as a
portion of the mixture, it is generally combined with other materials to improve the water
holding capacity and aeration of the potting soil. Many greenhouses do not use topsoil as an
additive to the soil mixes, but rather use a combination of these organic and inorganic
components as an artificial soil mix. When managed properly as to watering and fertilization
practices, these artificial mixes grow crops that are equal to those grown in top soil.

Media preparation for greenhouse production

The media used in greenhouse generally have physical and chemical properties which are
distinct from field soils.

 A desirable medium should be a good balance between physical properties like water
holding capacity and porosity.

 The medium should be well drained.

 Medium which is too compact creates problems of drainage and aeration which will
lead to poor root growth and may harbour disease causing organisms.

 Highly porous medium will have low water and nutrient holding capacity, affects the
plant growth and development.

 The media reaction (pH of 5.0 to 7.0 and the soluble salt (EC) level of 0.4 to 1.4 dS/m is
optimum for most of the greenhouse crops).

 A low media pH (<5.0) leads to toxicity of micronutrients such as iron, zinc,

manganese and copper and deficiency of major and secondary nutrients while a high
pH (>7.5) causes deficiency of micronutrients including boron.

243 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
 A low pH of the growth media can be raised to a desired level by using amendments
like lime (calcium carbonate) and dolomite (Ca-Mg carbonate) and basic, fertilizers
like calcium nitrate, calcium cyanamide, sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate.

 A high pH of the media can be reduced by amendments like sulphur, gypsum and
Epsom salts, acidic fertilizers like urea, ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate,
mono ammonium phosphate and aqua ammonia and acids like phosphoric and
sulphuric acids.

 It is essential to maintain a temperature of the plug mix between 70 to 75ºF. Irrigation

through mist is a must in plug growing. Misting for 12 seconds every 12 minutes on
cloudy days and 12 seconds every 6 minutes on sunny days is desirable.

 The pH of water and mix should be monitored regularly.

Gravel Culture

Gravel culture is a general term which applies to the growing of plants without soil in an
inert medium into which nutrient solutions are usually pumped automatically at regular
intervals. Haydite (shale and clay fused at high temperatures), soft- or hard-coal cinders,
limestone chips, calcareous gravel, silica gravel, crushed granite and other inert and slowly
decomposing materials are included in the term “gravel”. The more important greenhouse
flowering crops include roses, carnations, chrysanthemums, gardenias, snapdragons, lilies,
asters, pansies, annual chrysanthemums, dahlias, bachelor buttons and others.

32.2 Crop sequence

Crops for growing in greenhouses should be selected carefully keeping in view the quality
aspects and market price.

Vegetables

Off-seasonality should be the main criteria to fetch higher profits. Sweet pepper, tomato and
cucumber

Flowers

Blooms as per market demand.

Depending on climate, rose, gerbera, anthurium, carnation, lillium, orchids, chrysanthemum

244 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Table 1 Crop sequence under the greenhouse

Month Crop

Sept - Dec Cucurbits

Summer squash/
Cucumber
Dec-Jan Vegetable nursery/
Cucurbits
Jan-April Summer squash/
Cucumber

32.3 Crop growth Parameters Monitoring

Plant height, number of leaves, leaf area index (LAI), stalk length, flower diameter and yield
per meter square area are the main growth parameters that describes the crop performance.
Plant height, stalk length and flower diameter is measured by means of a meter scale with an
accuracy of ±1mm. Leaf area of the plants in each treatment is measured by a planimeter by
non-destructive sampling method. Leaf area Index (LAI) is derived from the total leaf area of
the plant sample divided by the floor area occupied by the sample.

32.4 Economic Analysis

Economic analysis of greenhouse covered with UV stabilized film is carried out considering
associated costs such as initial investment, cost of shade net, cost of cultivation including
fertilizers, pesticides, drip and economic return through the yield during entire year. The
service life of greenhouse is considered as 20 years and shade net, insect-proof nets of 3 years.
The annual cost of the structure is computed using capital recovery factor (CRF) considering
interest rate of 12%. The life of structure, cladding materials including shade net, Insect-proof
nets and drip irrigation system is considered as 20 years, 3 years and 7 years, respectively.
Using these data, net benefit, benefit-cost ratio andpay-back period is computed. The capital
recovery factor is computed from the formula

Where,

i = rate of interest,

n = expected life of the component.

245 [Link]
Micro Irrigation Systems Design
Benefit cost ratio

Where,

Ct = Cost in each year,

Bt = Benefit in each year,

t = 1, 2, 3...n,

i = discount rate

246 [Link]
 ****** ☺******
This Book Download From e-course of ICAR
Visit for Other Agriculture books, News,
Recruitment, Information, and Events at
[Link]
Give FeedBack & Suggestion at info@[Link]

Send a Massage for daily Update of Agriculture on WhatsApp

+91-7900 900 676
Disclaimer:

The information on this website does not warrant or assume any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the
courseware contents.

The contents are provided free for noncommercial purpose such as teaching,
training, research, extension and self learning.

******☺******
Connect With Us: