Department of Soil Science

Course: SSC 165 Introductory Soil Science

Class Schedule
Lecture Topic/Study Area

References

Brady, N.C., Weil, R.C., 2012. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 14th ed. Dorling
Kindersley Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Kolay, A. K., 2013.Basic Concept of Soil Science.New Age International Publishers.

Singh, T., Purohit, S. S., Parihar, P., 2012.Soil Microbiology.Agrobios, India.

Singh, T., Purohit, S. S., Biofertilizer Technology. Agrobios, India.

Millar, C. E., 2013.Soil Fertility.Biotech Book, India.

Panda, S. C., 2010.Soil Water Conservation and Dry Farming.Agrobios, India.

Mishra, R. R., 2010. Soil Microbiology. CBS, India.

 Lecture 1
Soil Science
 The science deals with soils is known as soil science

According to oxford dictionary

 The branch of science concerned with the formation, nature, ecology and
classification of soil.

In general

 Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth
including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological,
and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and
management of soils.

Concept of Soil

There are two concepts of soil-

Pedology

Soil is considered as a natural body, a biochemically weathered and synthesized product

of nature.

Edhapology

Soil is considered as a natural habitat for plants and other living organisms

Definition

To an agriculturist,

 Soil is a natural medium for plant growth

To an engineer,

 Soil is a foundation material for buildings and roads

To a geologist,

 Soil is a weathered product of solid rocks

To an Agronomist

 Soil is a material at earth's surface with biological, chemical, and physical properties
that enable it to support plant growth.
According to Buckman and Brady

 Soil may be defined as “ A dynamic natural body on the surface of the earth in which
plants grow, composed of mineral and organic materials and living forms”.

From Pedological view of point

Soil is natural body developed by natural forces acting on natural materials. It is usually
differentiated into horizons of mineral and organic constituents of variable depth which
differ from the parent material below in morphology, physical properties and constituents,
chemical properties and composition and biological characteristics (Joffe and Marbut).

From Edaphological view of point,

Soil is a collection of natural bodies which has been synthesized in profile form from a
variable mixture of broken and weathered minerals and decaying organic matter, which
covers the earth in a very thin layer and which supplies nutrients with proper amounts of
air and water for mechanical support and subsistence of plants.

In General

 Soil is the loose surface of earth

Soil supplies nutrients; water and mechanical support for growing plants and plants
manufacture feed for animals and food, fibre, timber and fuel for man. Man is dependent
on animals for food. Man enjoys and uses the plants grown in soil. The standard of living of
the people of country is often determined by the quality of their soil and the quality of
plants and animals grown in them.

Functions of soil

• Medium for Plant growth

• Habitat for soil organism
• Recycling of Nutrients and organic waste
• Water supply and Purification
• Engineering medium
 Lecture 2
Branches of Soil Science

There are two main branches of soil science-

1. Pedology :comes from the Greek word “pedon”, which means “soil or earth”.Pedology
deals with soil formation, soil genesis, soil classification and description of soil
properties.

2. Edaphology : comes from the Greek word “edaphos”, which means “soil or ground”.
Study of soil in relation to growth, nutrition and yield of crops or plants.

Distinguish between Pedology and Edaphology

Pedology Edaphology
1. Pedology is the word which come from the 1. Edaphology is the word which come from the
Greek word ‘Pedon’ which means soil or earth Greek word ‘Edaphos’ which means soil or
ground
2. Pedology deals with soil formation, soil 2. Edaphology deals with soil in relation to
genesis, soil classification and description of soil growth, nutrition and yield of crops or plants.
properties.
3. Pedology considers the soil as a natural body 3. Edaphology considers the various properties
and places minor emphasis on its immediate of soils as they relate to plant production.
practical utilization.

Other branches

 Soil physics
 Soil chemistry
 Soil fertility
 Soil microbiology
 Soil survey
 Soil classification
 Soil conservation
 Soil mineralogy
 Soil pollution
 Soil genesis
Soil Physics

Soil physics is one of the fundamental subject to soil science which deals with the study of
mechanics, heat and optics as they relate to soil. However, many physical and chemical
properties of the soil are also usually included under soil physics such as thermodynamics,
colloidal behavior and liquids.

 Some important physical properties of soil

 Soil texture
 Soil structure
 Soil density
 Particle density
 Bulk density
 Soil porosity
 Soil air
 Soil temperature
 Soil colour
 Soil water
 Soil consistence
 Soil strength

Soil Chemistry

Soil chemistry is one of the fundamental subject to soil science which deals with the study
of several soils chemical properties as they relate to soil.

 Some important chemical properties of soil

 Soil pH
 Soil acidity and soil alkalinity
 Buffering capacity
 Silicate clays
 Ion exchange
 Cation exchange and anion exchange phenomena
 C:N ratio

Soil Biological Properties

Microflora: Microorganisms under plant kingdom. E.g. bacteria, fungi, algae,
actinomycetes.

Microfauna: Microorganisms under animal kingdom. E.g. Nematods, protozoa, rotifers

Major components of soil
Soil consist of four major components-
components

1. Mineral matter…………….. 45%

Solid portion
2. Organic matter…………….. 5%

3. Water………………………. 25% - Liquid portion

4. Air………………………….. 25%
% - Gaseous portion

Mineral matter (45%)

Mineral matter consists of broken and weathered products of primary minerals min (e.g.
quartz, feldspar, pyroxenes etc.)And
etc.) secondary minerals (e.g. e.g. clay minerals such as
kaolinite,
nite, vermiculite, muscovite, biotite etc.). The size of the soil particles is less than 2
mm in diameter. The different soil particles are classified as sand,
sand, silt and clay.
clay

 Mineral matter provides mechanical support and nutrients to plants.

Organic matter (5%)
Organic matter is the decomposed and
an partially decomposed remains of plants and animals in
the soil. Soil organic matter means
means- all living organisms (microorganisms, earthworms,
etc),fresh residues (old plant roots, crop residues, green manures,
manures cowdung, urine
etc.),Well-decomposed
decomposed residues (humus).

 Organic matter is a storehouse of plant nutrients.

 It improves physical, chemical and biological properties of soil.

Water (25%)
Ground water table, rainfall, irrigation are the source of soil water.It is held with in the soil
micro pores with varying degree of forces depending on the ground of water present.Soil
water consist of various salts in solutions such as SO4=, NO3-,
NO3 HCO3-,, of Ca, Mg, K, Na etc.

 Soil water keeps nutrients in solution and acts as a reservoir for supplying
water to plants.
Air (25%)
Air is generally held in the soil macro pores.Soil air comprises O2, CO2, N2, etc.CO2 content
in soil (0.5%) in higher than in atmospheric air (0.03%). Composition of soil air
a is quit
dynamic and various greatly from place to place.Soil air contains higher moisture than
atmosphere.

 Soil airr regulates gaseous exchange between soil air

ai and atmospheric air
which ensures fresh supply of oxygen and thereby prevents CO2 toxicity.
 Lecture 3
Soil Formation

 Soil Formation or Pedogenesis is the combined effect of physical, chemical,

biological and anthropogenic processes working on soil parent material.

 Soil formation is used to mean both the production of unconsolidated material by

weathering processes and soil profile development, which are the changes involved
in the development of horizons.

Four basic processes for soil formation

The four basic processes often referred to as the soil forming or pedogenic processes.
They are responsible for soil formation in all kind of environment.

1. Transformations

2. Translocations

3. Additions

4. Losses

1. Transformations: Transformations include the formation of clay and the arrangement

of the soil components into structural aggregates.

2.Translocations: Translocations involve the movement of clay, organic matter, salts and
nutrients from one layer to another.

3. Additions: Input of materials to the developing soil profile fromoutside sources are
considered additions. A very common example is the input of organic matter from fallen
plant leaves and sloughed off roots.

4. Losses:Losses include water due to evaporation or transpiration and nutrients leaching

from the soil or being taken up by plants. Erosion, a major loss agent, often removes the
finer particles (humus, clay and silt), leaving the surface horizon relatively sandier and less
rich in organic matter than before.
 Lecture 4
Soil Forming Factors
Though all soils were formed through the same weatheringprocess, they could still differ
because of other influences.

Five items, called soil-forming factors, are primarily responsible for the development of
soil. At any specific location on the surface of the earth, five major factors are acting
simultaneously to produce soil as shown in Jenny’s equation (Jenny, 1941):

= ( , , , , …)
Where,
S = any soil property
f = function of or dependent upon
cl = climate
b = biosphere
r=relief/Topography
p = parent material
t = time

1. Parent material: unconsolidated material in which soil development occurs.

2. Climate: temperature rainfall or precipitation mostly.

3. Biosphere:living organisms including vegetation, microbes, soil animals and human

and organic residues including old plant roots, crop residues, green manures, cowdung,
urine etc.

4. Topography:slope,aspect and elevation.

5. Time: period that parent materials are subjected to soil formation.

Parent material

The primary material from which the soil is formed. Soil parent material could be bedrock,
organic material, an old soil surface, or a deposit from water, wind, glaciers, volcanoes, or
material moving down a slope.

Climate

Weathering forces such as heat, rain, ice, snow, wind, sunshine, and other environmental
forces, break down parent material and affect how fast or slow soil formation processes go.
The most important elements of climate for soil formation temperature, rainfall or
precipitation etc. For example, the amount of precipitation determines the extent of
leaching through a soil profile and seasonal temperature fluctuations influence the number
and rate of chemical reactions and overall biological activity.
Organisms

Living organisms including plants, microbes, soil animals and humans are collectively
referred to as biota. Soil development is affected by both the type and number of
organisms that live in and on the soil. Plant influences the amount of organic matter
buildup in the soil. For example, soil developed under grassland vegetation has organic
matter incorporated into the rooting zone, while in forest soils organic matter accumulates
on the surface.

Topography/Relief

Topography or relief relates to the configuration of the land surface and is described in
terms of difference in elevation, slope, and so on. It influences soil formation primarily
through its associated water and temperature relations. Also, mineral accumulations, plant
nutrients, type of vegetation, vegetation growth, erosion, and water drainage are
dependent on topographic relief.

Time

All of the above factors assert themselves over time, oftenhundreds or thousands of years.
A younger soil will reflect characteristics of the parent material better than an older soil.
Soil profiles continually change from weakly developed to well develop over time.
 Soil physical properties
Particle density:(ρs = Ms/Vs) Particle density of a soil is the mass per unit volume of soil
particle. In most mineral soil the mean value of particle density is about 2.6 to 2.7 g/cm3its
variation is greatly influenced by the presence or absence of heavy or light minerals and organic
matter. Presence of heavy minerals increase particle density where presence of organic matter
lowers it so top soil particle density may low as 2.4 g/cm3

Bulk density:(ρb = Ms/Vt)Bulk density of a soil is the ratio of mass of oven dry soil to its total
volume (solid and Pores together). Bulk density is always smaller than ρs and if the pores
constitute half the total volume, ρb is half of ρs, i.e. 1.3-1.35g/cm3. In sandy soil bulk density
can be high as 1.6g/cm3. Whereas in aggregated loam and in clay soils, it can be as low as
1.6g/cm3. The bulk density is affected by soil structure, its looseness or degree of compaction,
organic matter and moisture content of the soil.

Soil Porosity: f= Vf/Vt = (Va+Vw)/(Vs+Va+Vw), The porosity is the ratio of the volume of
pore space to the total volume of soil.Coarse textured soil means sandy soil tends to be less
porus than fine textured soil means clay soil.

Soil wetness (ω): ω = Mw/Ms; the soil wetness is the ratio of mass of water to mass of solid.

Volume wetness (ϴ): ϴ = Vw/Vt; the volume wetness is the volume of water per unit volume of
soil.

Example

A sample of moist soil having a wet mass of 1000g and a volume of 640cm3 was dried in an
oven and found to have a dry mass of 800g. Assuming the typical value of ρs 2.65 g/cm3 for a
mineral soil, calculate the ρb, f, ω, ϴ

1 Bulk densityρb: Ms/Vt = 800/640 = 1.25 g/cm3

2 Porosity f: 1 – (ρb/ρs)*** = 1 – (1.25/2.65) = 1- 0.472 = 0.528 = 52.8%

Alternatively f = Vf/Vt = (Vt – Vs)/Vt; Vs = Ms/ρs = 800/ 2.65 = 301.9 cm3;

Now f = (640-301.9) cm3/640 cm3 = 0.528 = 52.8%

3 Mass wetness ω = Mw/ Ms = (1000-800)/800 = 0.25= 25%

4 Volume wetness ϴ = Vw/vt = 200cm3/640cm3 = 0.3125 = 31.25%

 Lecture 5
Soil Texture
Soil is a mixture of particles (Sand, silt and clay). These particles are present in soil in
different proportions. The relative proportion or percentage of sand, silt and clay in a soil
is known as soil texture. It also indicates the lightness or heaviness of a soil.

Factors affecting of soil texture

• Drainage

• Water holding capacity

• Aeration

• Susceptibility to erosion

• Organic matter content

• Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

• pH, buffering capacity

• Soil tilth

Drainage

Soil texture determines the rate at which water drains through a saturated soil; water
moves more freely through sandy soils than it does through clayey soils.

Water holding capacity

Once field capacity is reached, soil texture also influences how much water is available to
the plant; clay soils have a greater water holding capacity than sandy soils.

Aeration

In addition, well drained soils typically have good soil aeration meaning that the soil
contains air that is similar to atmospheric air, which is conducive to healthy root growth,
and thus a healthy crop.

Susceptibility to erosion

A soil with a high percentage of silt and clay particles has a greater erodibility than a sandy
soil under the same conditions.

Organic matter content

Organic matter breaks down faster in sandy soils than in fine-textured soils
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

The cation exchange capacity of the soil increases with percent clay and organic matter.

Basic cation: Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, NH4+

Acidic cation: Al2+,Fe2+, H+

pH and buffering capacity

pH and buffering capacity of a soil (its ability to resist pH change upon lime addition), is
also largely based on clay and organic matter content.

Soil tilth

Soil tilth is influenced by texture, soil moisture, aeration, and organic matter.

Textural classes
Soils have been grouped into 12 textural classes depending on some limits of variations.
The textural classes inorder of increasing fineness are:

Common name Texture Textural class

Sandy soils Coarse 1. Sands

3. Loamy sands

Loamy soils Medium 3.Sandy loam

4. Loam

5. Silt loam

6. Silt

7. Sandy clay loam

8. Clay loam

9. Silty clay Loam

Clayey soils Fine 10.Sandy clay

11. Silty clay

12. clay
Importance of Texture
1. The texture of soil is one of the fundamental considerations in soil classification.

2. The rate and extent of many important reactions in soils like aeration, water
movement, root penetration, nutrient holding capacity and water holding capacity
are greatly influenced by soil texture. For example,

a) Aeration and water movement: More in sandy soils, less in clay soils.

b) Root penetration: Easy in sandy soils, hard in clay soils

c) Water and nutrient holding capacity: Less in sandy soils, more in clay soils

3. Soil texture indicates the weathering stage of rocks to some extent

4. Suitability of crops depends on soil texture. For example, sandy soil is suitable for
watermelon, muskmelon, groundnut etc.

5. The nature of tillage operations also depends on soil texture.