REPRODUCTION

IN HUMANS
Biology 9: Chapter 17
Week 1 objectives:

a) Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following parts of

the male reproductive system: testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate
gland, urethra and penis

b) Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following parts of

the female reproductive system: ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and
vagina

c) Describe fertilisation as the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete

(sperm) and a female gamete (egg cell)

d) Explain the adaptive features of sperm, limited to: flagellum,

mitochondria and enzymes in the acrosome

e) Explain the adaptive features of egg cells, limited to: energy stores
and the jelly coat that changes at fertilisation
The Male Reproduction System
Male reproductive structures and their function:
The Female Reproduction System
Female reproductive structures and their function:
Week 2 objectives:

a) Compare male and female gametes in terms of: size, structure,

motility and numbers.

b) State that in early development, the zygote forms an embryo which is a

ball of cells that implants into the lining of the uterus

c) Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following in the

development of the foetus: umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic sac and
amniotic fluid

d) Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to

the exchange of dissolved nutrients, gases and excretory products between
the blood of the mother and the blood of the foetus

e) State that some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta and
affect the foetus
Comparing sperm and egg cells
 Growth & Development of the Fetus
•After fertilization in the oviduct, the zygote
travels towards the uterus

•This takes about 3 days, during which time the

zygote will divide several times to form a ball of
cells known as an embryo

•In the uterus, the embryo embeds itself in the

thick lining (implantation) and continues to grow
and develop

•The gestation period for humans is 9 months

•Major development of organs takes place within
the first 12 weeks, during which time the embryo
gets nutrients from the mother by diffusion
through the uterus lining

•After this point the organs are all in place,

the placenta has formed and the embryo is now
called a fetus

•The remaining gestation time is used by the

fetus to grow bigger in size
•The fetus is surrounded by an amniotic
sac which contains amniotic fluid (made from
the mother’s blood plasma)

•This protects the fetus during development

by cushioning it from bumps to the mother’s
abdomen

•The umbilical cord joins the fetus’s blood

supply to the placenta for exchange of nutrients
and removal of waste products
 The Placenta
•During the gestation period the fetus develops and
grows by gaining the glucose, amino acids,
fats, water and oxygen it needs from the mother’s
blood
•The bloods run opposite each other, never mixing, in
the placenta
•The fetus’s blood connects to and from the placenta
by the umbilical cord
•The mother’s blood also absorbs the waste from the
fetus’s blood in the placenta; substances like carbon
dioxide and urea are removed from the fetus’s blood
so that they do not build up to dangerous levels
•Movement of all molecules across the placenta occurs
by diffusion due to difference in concentration
gradients
•The placenta is adapted for this diffusion by having a
large surface area and a thin wall for efficient diffusion
•The placenta acts as a barrier to prevent toxins and
pathogens getting into the fetus’s blood
•Not all toxin molecules or pathogenic organisms (such
as viruses, eg rubella) are stopped from passing through
the placenta (this usually depends on the size of the
molecule)
•This is why pregnant women are advised not to smoke
during pregnancy as molecules like nicotine can pass
across the placenta
•After the baby has been born, the umbilical cord is
cut – this does not hurt as there are no nerves in it, just
two blood vessels
•It is tied off to prevent bleeding and shrivels up and
falls off after a few days leaving the belly button behind
•The placenta detaches from the uterus wall shortly
after birth and is pushed out due to contractions in the
muscular wall of the uterus – known as the afterbirth
 Stages of Birth
•Amniotic sac breaks
•Muscles in the uterus wall
contract
•Cervix dilates (gets wider)
•Baby passes out through the
vagina
•Umbilical cord is tied and cut
•Afterbirth is delivered
Week 3 objectives:

a) Describe the roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the

development and regulation of secondary sexual
characteristics during puberty

b) Describe the menstrual cycle in terms of changes in the

ovaries and in the lining of the uterus

c) Describe the sites of production of oestrogen and

progesterone in the menstrual cycle and in pregnancy

d) Explain the role of hormones in controlling the menstrual

cycle and pregnancy, limited to FSH, LH, progesterone and
oestrogen
Human Sex Hormones
Secondary Sexual Characteristics

•Primary sexual characteristics are present during

development in the uterus and are the differences in
reproductive organs etc between males and females

•Secondary sexual characteristics are the changes that occur

during puberty as children become adolescents

•They are controlled by the release of hormones –

oestrogen in girls and testosterone in boys
 Human secondary sexual characteristics

Female secondary sexual characteristics:

Male secondary sexual characteristics:
•Some changes occur to both boys and girls, including growth of
sexual organs and growth of body hair

•Emotional changes also occur due to the increased levels of

hormones in the body

•These include more interest in opposite sex and increased mood

swings
The Menstrual Cycle

•Starts in early adolescence in girls (around age 12) and is controlled

by hormones

•The average menstrual cycle is 28 days long

•Ovulation (the release of an egg) occurs about halfway through the cycle
(day 14) and the egg then travels down the oviduct to the uterus

•Failure to fertilize the egg causes menstruation (commonly called a period)

to occur – this is caused by the breakdown of the thickened lining of the
uterus

•Menstruation lasts around 5 – 7 days and signals the beginning of the next
cycle

•After menstruation finishes, the lining of the uterus starts to thicken again
in preparation for possible implantation in the next cycle
Changes in the lining of the uterus during the menstrual cycle
 Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle

•The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones released from the ovary and
the pituitary gland in the brain

•Oestrogen levels rise from day 1 to peak just before day 14

•This causes the uterine wall to start thickening and the egg to mature

•The peak in oestrogen occurs just before the egg is released

•Progesterone stays low from day 1 – 14 and starts to rise once ovulation has
occurred

•The increasing levels cause the uterine lining to thicken further; a fall in
progesterone levels causes the uterine lining to break down (menstruation /
‘period’)
The roles of FSH and LH
Changes in the levels of the pituitary hormones FSH and LH in
the blood during the menstrual cycle

•FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) is released by the pituitary

gland and causes an egg to start maturing in the ovary

•It also stimulates the ovaries to start releasing oestroge

•The pituitary gland is stimulated to

release luteinising hormone (LH) when oestrogenlevels have
reached their peak

•LH causes ovulation to occur and also stimulates the ovary to

produce progesterone
The roles of oestrogen and progesterone
Changes in the levels of oestrogen and progesterone in the blood during the
menstrual cycle

•Oestrogen levels rise from day 1 to peak just before day 14

•This causes the uterine wall to start thickening and the egg to mature

•The peak in oestrogen occurs just before the egg is released

•Progesterone stays low from day 1 – 14 and starts to rise once ovulation has
occurred

•The increasing levels cause the uterine lining to thicken further; a fall in
progesterone levels causes the uterine lining to break down (menstruation /
‘period’)
Interaction between all four of the menstrual cycle hormones
•The pituitary gland produces FSH which stimulates the development of a follicle in the
ovary
•An egg develops inside the follicle and the follicle produces the hormone oestrogen
•Oestrogen causes growth and repair of the lining of the uterus wall and inhibits
production of FSH
•When oestrogen rises to a high enough level it stimulates the release of LH from the
pituitary gland which causes ovulation (usually around day 14 of the cycle)
•The follicle becomes the corpus luteum and starts producing progesterone
•Progesterone maintains the uterus lining (the thickness of the uterus wall)
•If the ovum is not fertilised, the corpus luteum breaks down and progesterone levels
drop
•This causes menstruation, where the uterus lining breaks down and is removed
through the vagina – commonly known as having a period
•If pregnancy does occur the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone,
preventing the uterus lining from breaking down and aborting the pregnancy
•It does this until the placenta has developed, at which point it starts secreting
progesterone and continues to do so throughout the pregnancy
Diagram showing where hormones involved in the menstrual cycle are made and act
Week 4 objectives:

a) Describe a sexually transmitted infection (STI) as an infection that is

transmitted through sexual contact

b) State that human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a pathogen that

causes an STI

c) State that HIV infection may lead to AIDS

d) Describe the methods of transmission of HIV

e) Explain how the spread of STIs is controlled