Basic writing skills 2021

Unit Two
Writing Effective Paragraphs
Introduction
In the first unit, you learned that it is sometimes possible to communicate clearly with only one or
two words: Stop! Ouch! Come and eat. And, in more complicated messages, you need to use longer
sentences.
 I am doing the letter now because my boss wants it today.
 The cleaners brought your clothes back this afternoon.
 If you give me your address, I can send you the brochures on holidays.
This unit deals with an even larger unit of communication called the paragraph.
A paragraph can be defined as a distinct section of a piece of writing. It consists of several related
sentences, and deals with one controlling idea. This controlling idea is called the topic or the theme
of the paragraph. The main function of a paragraph is to develop, support, exemplify, or explain this
theme. There is no rule for the length of paragraphs. It may be short or long according to the need.
A paragraph consists of a single sentence or of many sentences.
It is essential to develop the ability to write effective paragraphs. As the writing needs to be
purposeful, precise and reader oriented, it is important to compose paragraphs that are clear,
cohesive, concise and result oriented.
Essentials of Paragraph Writing
a. Presentation of single idea.
b. A sequence of well connected sentences.
c. Thematic unit within the paragraph.
d. Conciseness and exactness.
1.1. Structure of a Paragraph
The paragraph can be divided into three sections or structures. These are introduction, body and
conclusion.

The introduction briefly states the content of the paragraph, and enables a reader to establish
his/her expectation of what is to come.
The body is the main part of the paragraph which is developed sequentially. It has many sentences
which explain the main idea of the paragraph in detail.
The conclusion is the part wherein the writer summarizes what he/she has already discussed in
the main part, and finishes his/her presentation of idea.
The following paragraph is an example. Calander
My village is famous for several natural features. First, it is noted for the Bisil River which is wide
and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is about 90 feet wide, there are many trees which
have long branches that can move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall,
and cover the riverbanks like golden snow. Second, on the other side of the village is a hill called

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Tulu Niti, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill is not
dangerous because there are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used from miles away.
The third amazing feature is the big old tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall, and is probably
about three hundred years old. These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my village a
famous place.

The introduction is My village is famous for several natural features. From this, the reader knows
that the writer will discuss the various natural features that make the village famous.
In the body, the writer lists, and explains the natural features of the village; the reader becomes
familiar with what the writer mentions to be the features of the village that are amazing, and make
the village unique.
In the conclusion – the final sentence of the paragraph–the writer repeats the idea he stated in the
introduction clarifying the point of the paragraph.
The two basic parts of a paragraph
Almost every effective paragraph consists of two basic parts:
a) A point is made, and
b) Evidence is provided to support the point. This means a point is advanced, and supported
with specific reasons, details and facts.
Many paragraphs are made up of these two basic parts. The point is usually expressed in one
sentence called main idea or topic sentence. The other sentences in the paragraph contain specific
details that support or develop the main idea/topic sentence.
The Topic Sentence
Topic sentence means a sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. The purpose of the
paragraph or the subject of the paragraph is clearly mentioned by a topic sentence. Topic sentence
should be written in a simple manner. It should concentrate on the theme of the paragraph.
The topic sentence usually corresponds to major subdivisions of the outline, and states the subject
the paragraph will cover. If any paragraph starts with a good topic sentence, a reader can very
rapidly get the gist of a text by reading only the first line of each paragraph. An effective way to
begin writing a technical report is to develop a series of topic sentences from the outline. Later, the
idea of each topic sentence can be developed into a paragraph, and the first draft of the text is done.
Supporting Sentences
Supporting sentences play very important role in paragraph development. Proper balance of topic
and supporting sentences is needed in an ideal paragraph. Major supporting sentences support topic
sentence. By small supporting sentences, the related explanation and information can be written.
Concluding Sentence
Concluding sentence restates the topic sentence creatively, and brings a strong sense of closure to
the paragraph.
Example paragraph
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Although I love movies, going to see them drives me slightly crazy. For one thing, getting to the
theatre means that I have a thirty-minute drive down a congested highway. Then, with a popular
movie, I usually have to wait in a long line at the ticket booth. Another problem is that the theatre
itself is seldom a pleasant place to be. A nasty smell suggests that there has been no fresh air in the
theatre since it was built. Half of the seats seem to be falling apart. And the floor often has a sticky
coating that gets on your shoes. The worst problem of all is some of the other moviegoers. Kids run
up and down the aisle. Teenagers laugh and shout at the screen. People of all ages loudly drop
soda cans and popcorn tubs, cough and burp, and elbow you out of the armrest on either side of
your seat. All in all, I would rather stay at home, and wait for the latest movie hits to appear on TV
in the safety and comfort of my own living room.

Notice what the details have done. They have provided the reader with the basis for understanding
why the writer makes the point that s/he does. Through specific evidence, s/he has explained, and
communicated successfully her/his idea that movie going can be an irritate.

Exercise 1
The paragraph on movie going, like almost any piece of effective writing, has two essential parts:
(1) a point is advanced, and (2) that point is then supported. In addition, there is a kind of
conclusion given at the end. Take minutes and analyze the paragraph to understand these basic parts
clearly.
Write in the space provided the point that has been advanced in the paragraph (the topic
sentence), supportive sentences, and the concluding sentence/s.
1. The topic sentence
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Supporting Sentences
2. A. _______________________________________________________________________
B. _______________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________________
A________________________________________________________________________
B. _______________________________________________________________________
C._______________________________________________________________________

4. ______________________________________________________________________________
A. _______________________________________________________________________
B. _______________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

6. Concluding Sentence
 _______________________________________________________________________________  
_______________________________________________________________________________

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Note on Layout of a Paragraph

The first line of every paragraph is indented. Or, if an essay has more than one
paragraph, there should be space between two paragraphs.

Note on Formality
In addition to having a particular kind of structure, academic paragraphs are different from ordinary
writing in that certain kinds of expressions are not allowed.
Too Informal Formal (Acceptable)
don’t do not
doesn’t does not
aren’t are not
can’t can not
won’t will not

Exercise 2
Before you move on to the next concept in learning to write, let's look at another paragraph.
Canoeing is the best way to relax and relieve your stress. Gliding across a still lake on a summer
day, nothing but silence and bird songs will break the quiet and interrupt your thoughts. In
addition, the slow rhythmic strokes of the paddle can help you unwind so that all your troubles
will fade into the background. Canoeing has its most restful effect when you can lie back in the
middle of a deserted lake and stare up at nothing more complicated than a bright cloudless sky.
Canoeing always makes you feel comfortable with your life.
1 What is the topic sentence of this paragraph?
2 What is the central idea?
3 What are the three sentences that support the writer’s opinion?
4 How does the writer link the supporting sentences together?
5 What is the conclusion?
6 Make a list of other words in the paragraph that relate to stress and relaxation.
Exercise 3
For each of the paragraphs below, answer the same questions as you did in the previous
exercise.

A. Be kind to the environment; take a hot dog for lunch. The humble wiener makes a great back
country meal for hikers. First, because they are light weight and compact, a meal for five or six
people weighs under a kilogram and takes up very little space in a backpack. Second, hot dogs
can be prepared over a small fast fire. The small amount of firewood required can be gathered
near the path without trampling large areas of the delicate forest floor. Perhaps the best part is
that hot dogs create very little garbage to pack out, so the temptation to litter is reduced. Take
hot dogs on your next hike, and you’ll be doing yourself and nature a big favour.

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B. Three things about my new computer program are going to drive me crazy. The worst thing is
the annoying chime that sounds so happy every time I make a mistake. Add to that the frustrating
problem of the capital letters that appear even though I haven’t typed them, all because some
arrogant programmer thinks that I am too stupid to know when to capitalize. If that’s not
enough to drive me to distraction, this program has a glitch that automatically shuts the
computer down when some unknown combination of keys are struck. By the end of a day of
wrestling with this new word processor program, I’m ready to grab the nearest blunt instrument
and do some serious bodily harm to this latest advance in technology.
C. My grandfather has always been my favourite person. Since I was very little he has always taken
me fishing with him, and he taught me everything I know about catching salmon. When I was
just ten, he started to show me how to fix cars, and now I know enough to help him in his garage.
Most of all, gramps has always spent lots of time talking to me: he respects what I have to say
and listens to my suggestions. I love to be with my grandfather, a man who has a special place
in my life.
2.2. Characteristics of Good Paragraph
Paragraph can create important document, reports, proposal letter, etc.. The writing should be
precise, correct, purposeful, clear, concise and meaningful. A paragraph develops just ONE idea.
Every sentence in a paragraph says just one thing about the topic of the paragraph. The information
that comprises the paragraph should always have relationships to this controlling idea. In other
words, your paragraphs should remind your reader, at every possible point, that there is a recurrent
relationship between your controlling idea and the information in each paragraph. The
controlling idea functions like a seed through which your paper and your ideas will grow.
Generally, the following four features should be considered in the quality of a paragraph.
a. Unity
This feature indicates oneness of all the sentences in a paragraph. All the sentences in a paragraph
should refer to the main idea of a paragraph. Therefore a unified paragraph has all the sentences in
that are related to the main point. Or in other words, all the sentences in the paragraph explain about
the topic sentence of the paragraph.
Exercise 4
A. Read the following paragraph, and identify three sentences which do not support the topic
sentence.
I live in a flat with my family. We have two bedrooms and a living room. We have a garden and we
have some flowers there. In weekdays I arrive home at five o'clock and I have lunch. Then I do my
homework and go to bed. I had a computer but now it doesn't work. I have a brother and a sister
and I think I am very lucky to live with them. Sometimes our relatives visit us. Our flat becomes
very crowded sometimes but I like it.
Sentence 1 _______________________________________________________________________
Sentence 2_______________________________________________________________________
Sentence 3_______________________________________________________________________

B. Write irrelevant sentences in the following paragraph.

How to Prevent Cheating
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(1) Teachers should take steps to prevent students from cheating on exams. (2) To begin with,
teachers should stop reusing old tests. (3) Even, a test that has been used once is soon known on the
student grapevine. (4) Students will check with their friends to find out, for example, what was on
Dr. Thompson's biology final last term. (5) They may even manage to turn up a copy of the test
itself, "accidentally" not turned in by former students. (6) Teachers should also take some common
sense precautions at test time. (7) They should make students separate themselves--by at least one
seat—during an exam, and they should watch the class closely. (8) The best place for the teacher to
sit is in the rear of the room, so that a student is never sure if the teacher is looking at him or her. (9)
Last of all, teachers must make it clear to students that there will be stiff penalties for cheating. (10)
One of the problems with our school systems is a lack of discipline. (11) Teachers never used to
give in to students' demands or put up with bad behavior, as they so today. (12) Anyone caught
cheating should immediately receive a zero for the exam. (13) A person even suspected of cheating
should be forced to take an alternative exam in the teacher's office. (14) Because cheating is unfair
to honest students, it should not be tolerated.
The numbers of the irrelevant sentences are _____________________________________

b. Cohesion
This refers to the link between sentences in a paragraph. Cohesion between sentences in a paragraph
is kept through transition words/cohesive devices, synonyms, pronoun and repeating important
words references.
Using Transition Words (Cohesive Devices)
Transition words allow readers to move from one detail to another. They show how details relate to
one another. You might think of them as words that guide and signal. They guide the reader through
the paragraph, and signal what is to follow. Especially, transitions can show the order in which
actions, steps or thoughts take place, show the relationship that one thought, or action has to
another, and help introduce a number of details or thoughts on the same subjects. Transitions help
move the reader smoothly through a paragraph, and they serve as signpost to guide the reader from
one thought to the next.
Here are some common transitional words and phrases.
Time sequence or step
First, next, last, always, second, till, after, during, eventually, finally, later, meanwhile,
soon, then, suddenly, currently, after, afterward, before, now, until, etc..
Spatial arrangement
Above, below, next to, in front of, beside, inside, outside, to the west, (north, south,
east,) of, beneath, nearby, on the other side of, etc..
Least to most or order of importance
Most, above all, especially, even more, etc..
To add a number of ideas together

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Additionally, also, another, first, finally, in addition, on top of, one, other, second, third,
etc..
To show relationships between thoughts in a paragraph:
As a matter of fact, as you can see, by the way, consequently, despite, for example,
furthermore, however, incidentally, in fact, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on
the other hand, therefore, etc..
Example PAragraph
I have so many things to do when I get home today. First, I have to take my dog, Othello, for a
432 walk. Next, I should do my homework for my sociology class and study the chapter on
franchise for Business. After that, I should do some laundry, since my sock drawer is empty. Then,
my brother is coming over to fix the tailpipe on my car. Afterward, we will probably order a pizza
for speedy dinner.
c. Coherence
The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a logical/sequential manner, and should follow a
definite plan for development. Coherence means sticking together. A paragraph is coherent when
the sentences are woven together or flow into each other.
Chronological order- arranged in time sequence
Spatial order- arranged based on the place of events

Emphatic order- link through expressions which show emphasis such as the following
important to note especially valuable a vital force
most of all most noteworthy above all
a significant factor remember that a central issue
a primary concern the chief out come a distinctive quality
the most substantial issue the principal item especially relevant
a key factor pay particular attention to should be noted
the main value the chief factor
d. Completeness
Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained, and supported through
evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraph’s controlling idea. A well-
developed paragraph has the following qualities.
 It provides enough supporting points for the main point or idea expressed in the topic
sentence to be clearly understood.
 It provides enough specific details and examples to be interesting and informative.
 It does not leave the readers with unanswered questions that could be cleared up with a little
more details or additional examples.
 It concludes with a sentence that clearly “wraps up” the paragraph and relates to the topic
sentence in some manner.

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Example paragraph
There are plenty of things to do tonight besides watching a television. We can invite the neighbors
over, and play chess. We can catch up on some reading we have been putting off. We can build a
fire in the fireplace, roast marshmallows and popcorn. We can get out the old monopoly board and
play a few hours. We can even get out the paintbrushes and repaint the hallway as we have been
threatening to do for months.

The main point of the paragraph- that there are plenty to do tonight- are supported by a number of
specific examples: play chess, read, roast marshmallows, play monopoly board, or paint. Five
alternatives to watching television are presented in support of the topic sentence.

Exercise 5
The following paragraph lacks toopic sentence. Answer the following questions based on the
paragraph.
First, a good friend should not tell lies. I need to trust him so that I can talk to him. Second, a good
friend should be there when I needed him. I should be able to find him near me when I am in a bad
mood or when I have a problem. Finally, when necessary, he should criticize me so that I can
change my undesirable behaviour or see where I am wrong. I think these three qualities are the
basic properties in a good friend.

1. Write the possible topic sentence for the paragraph _________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
2. Write at least three cohesive devises that are used to keep the coherence of the paragraph.
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Write the words that are repeatedly used because they are important for the development of
ideas in the paragraph. _______________________________________________________
4. What are the two sentneces which explain the supporting details?
Sentence 1_________________________________________________________________
Sentence 2_________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE 6
Read the paragraph below, and then answer the questions that follow.
Riding a bike can give you lots of good exercise everyday. I use my bike to get to work every day. I
take my bike to get groceries. When somebody stole my bike, I was heartbroken, but the police found
it two days later. I often ride my bike out to the country on week-ends just for a change of scene.
Without my bike, I wouldn’t get any exercise at all.
1. Does this paragraph have unity? Explain your answer.
2. Does this paragraph have coherence? Explain your answer.
3. What changes would you make to improve this paragraph?
2.3. Basic Types of a Paragraph
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2.3.1. Expository Paragraph

Expository paragraph presents information on a specific topic; its purpose is to explain.
Expository writing usually does not include opinions, judgments or arguments. It contains an
introductory sentence with a main idea, supporting sentences and a concluding sentence. You
generate ideas, and organize them.
Depending on your topic, you may need to obtain additional information about your topic through
reading or research. Although you may have general information about your topic, you may need to
locate specifics-facts, statistics or examples to support your main points.
Exercise 7
Outdoor education remains my favorite field trip of all time due to all of the memorable activities
we experienced. For instance, I was able to touch and hold a wide variety of animals that I had
never seen until I visited their science center. One animal was a blue tongue skink that reminded
me of leather because it was dry and smooth. Yet, its fur was also the softest that I had ever felt.
This goes to show that one can find similarities in unusual places. I would have never guessed that
a reptile and a mammal would have anything in common, but their bodies were pleasing to the
touch in different ways. In addition, I also was able to scale to great heights when I visited the high
ropes course deep in the forest. Once I had my safety harness and helmet, I surged upward on
ladders and nets. The nets were not as challenging as the balance beam which turned out to be my
favorite because of the patience and determination that were needed. I realize now that even
something difficult can be fun. I hope to use this thought in other areas of my life because now I
might achieve even more than before. Finally, I loved splashing around Lake Hawassa in the canoe
with my partner. The direction on how to hold the paddle, and how to steer were not that hard, but
actually doing it on the lake was difficult. It became less difficult with the help of my partner
because we had to work together to be successful. This means that two heads are better than one.
Sometimes, we depend on others to reach our goals. I have learned from this trip that there are
many opportunities out there for us to experience and that we should take advantage of them to
create lifelong memories.
Answer the following questions based on the paragraph.
1. What is the topic sentence of the paragraph?
2. List the major supporting evidences to explain the topic sentece.
3. How many minor supporting details to explain the major evidences?
4. What are the important words repeated in the paragraph?
5. Do you think all the sentences are relevant to the topic sentence? How?
2.3.2. Narrative Paragraph
A narrative paragraph usually presents information in chronological order. Narration is the telling of
a story. It normally involves a discussion of events that are "true" or real, events that take place over
a period of time. Narration helps a writer explain things.
Writers who use narration usually rely on descriptive details to advance their stories. Moreover,
there always must be some purpose in the telling, a purpose that goes beyond mere enjoyment of the
story itself. Consequently, narration in a paragraph advances a thesis or main idea. For example, if
you had to write an essay on the happiest event in your life, you might choose to narrate the day
your team won the state championship. You would establish your thesis-your main point-quickly,

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and then go on to tell about the event itself. In short, you would use narration as a means to an end-
to make a significant statement about an important moment in your life.
Normally in a narrative you would start at the beginning and move to the end, or from past to
present, or from old to new. But there are many other ways to relate events in the narrative essay.
For instance, you could begin an essay on the death of someone important to you by detailing the
day of the funeral. For beginners this flashback technique often causes very confused writing but
skilled writers know how to “jump around” in time without confusing the reader, blurring the thesis,
or destroying the progression of the essay.

Narrative requires a careful selection of details. Certain moments within any time order are more
important than others, and these crucial moments will be emphasized and developed fully by a good
writer. Other moments, significant, but less important than the main moments, will take up less
space, while unimportant items will be eliminated entirely. However, the writer must connect each
event in the time span to other events that come before or after. Here transitions of time words
like “afterwards”, ‘‘soon”, “a day later”, and “suddenly”-serve as bridges to connect the various
moments in the narrative pattern.
There are other aspects of narration, too. For example, you must select a point of view for your
story-whether presenting events through your own eyes or from a more objective or detached
position. You must also decide on the value of dialogue (recording of conversations). Finally, you
must be aware that other techniques of prose writing (like description) can reinforce your narrative
pattern. Fortunately, most individuals have basic storytelling ability and know how to develop
stories that make a point. Once you master narration as a writing pattern, you will be able to use it
in a variety of situations.

Exercise 8
My parents divorce was the saddest day of my life. Although it was a trying time, I learned that life
leads us in many different directions, and with each direction, we can discover our own true paths.
I will never forget the day that it happened. It is all the more sad because my parents were married
for about 13 years. I walked into our kitchen, and my mother and sister were crying because my
sister had found out that my dad was having an affair with his secretary. At the time, my dad did
not realize that my sister was home. My father picked up the phone to call his mistress; my sister
picked up the phone to call her friend, and she heard his explicit conversation; she told my mother.
When I walked into the kitchen, from hanging out with my friends, my sister blurted out what she
heard. My mother did not want to mention anything, yet. However, my sister and I, in anger,
blurted out to my father what was revealed. After my sister repeated word for word of what she
heard, my father panicked and admitted it. And thus the word "divorce" took place. As soon as I
heard the word "divorce," I cried and I cried, and my dad tried to hug me, but I pushed him away. I
knew in that one instant that my life changed, it shifted, but of course I was too young to understand
how or why. I could not articulate it, but I knew it was the one moment that I would wake up in the
morning and know that something was lost. It was a moment that I will regret forever, and it was
beyond my control. I truly was happy with my family, but now it is over, and I should have
appreciated more. Like any child would, I blamed myself for not being a better son. Every time my

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dad asked my to do something, a baseball game, fishing, etc, I always said no, I am busy. I did not
mean to be this way, but I was, and I can never go back.

A. Answer the following questions based on the above paragraph.

1. Who are involved in the story?
2. What did happen in the story?
3. When did the story happen?
4. Where did the story happen?
5. What are the consequences of the happening in the story?
6. How did the writer relate the sentences in the paragraph?
7. How many details are there in the paragraph?

B. Directions: Create your own narrative paragraph, reporting on a topic of your choice. You must
also include a rough outline, in point form, which includes all the relevant information needed for
your paragraph. Be sure to include a topic sentence, support sentences, and a concluding
sentence.

2.3.3. Descriptive Paragraph

Since a writer’s main purpose is to explain things clearly, description is an important aid to good
writing. Descriptive details are necessary to create a visual impression of an object or a scene. As a
technique in writing, description matches the sort of details we see in vivid and effective
photographs. Good descriptive writers help the reader to see objects, scenes, and even moods by
means of language.

Descriptive paragraphs reflect the following key qualities, which should be observed in all good
descriptive writing. First description relies on a basic talent that we all have -the ability to see,
touch, taste, hear or smell various elements in the world. Talented descriptive writers refine the
power of their five senses in order to recreate people, places, things, emotions, and ideas. Second,
in descriptive writing, the writer must select details carefully. There might be thousands of details in
any given scene, but clearly a writer cannot present all of them. Instead, the writer must choose only
those details most useful in painting a picture for the reader. Third, writers must organize their
descriptions carefully. With description, the writer must decide on a perspective (for instance, top to
bottom, left to right, front to back, and he/she moves carefully from detail to detail. The descriptive
writer has a “camera eye” that ranges over its subject in a careful, consistent way. Fourth,
descriptive writing creates a “dominant impression” of its subject. This main impression arises
from the writer’s focus on a single subject, and from the feelings that the writer brings to that
subject. Finally, descriptive writing offers a thesis or main idea concerning its subject, as does all
sound writing. In short, description makes a point.
Example Paragraph
Ethiopia is the most wonderful place to visit because of its variety of weather and its beautiful
nature. Visitors to Ethiopia can find any weather they like. They can find cool temperatures in the
summer; also they can find warm weather in the winter. They can find places that are difficult for
humans to live in the summer because they are so hot. Or they can find places closed in the winter
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because of the snow. On the other hand, visitors can find the nature they like. They can find high
mountains and low valleys. They can find a huge forest, a dead desert, and a beautiful coast.
Ethiopia is the most wonderful place to visit because of its weather and nature.
Exercise 9
1. Use descriptive words/phrases, and construct one paragraph using the following
information.

Topic: My Favorite Place

Details: seeing
 trees, fallen leaves, flickers of lightening, etc.
hearing
 singing birdss, murmuring thunder, whispering memories, etc.
touching
 prickly cones, sharp needles, lost dreams, etc.
2. Fill in the missing adjectives: long, old, blue, beautiful and walking.

It was a__________ day.  The sun was shining, and there were no clouds in the sky. 
The__________ man decided that he would go for a walk.  He put on his _________ cap, and
his_________ shoes.  He took his walking stick from the closet, and began his___________ walk.

2.3.4. Argumentative Paragraph

Argumentation in prose is an attempt to convince the reader to have the opinion you have on a
subject; frequently, it also involves an effort to persuade the reader to act in a particular manner. In
a formal argument, you can use, according to your purpose, all the prose strategies and principles of
sound composition practiced until now.
You can see how important it is to state your thesis very clearly in argumentation, and to support
your main point with convincing minor points. You have to make these points according to reason,
and you need to arrange them so they have the greatest effect on your reader. Moreover, in any
paragraph, writers of argument must offer the reader particulars of details, whether sensory, quoted,
statistical, or based upon historical evidence. Finally techniques of comparison, process analysis,
description, narration, cause and effect, and definition, all can help strengthen an argument.
Although argumentation reflects all these earlier prose techniques, it is important for you to
understand the special characteristics of this method. To begin with although argumentation as a
written form is often emotional, it differs sharply from those little battles and those major
disagreements with friends over coffee or in hallways outside class.
In written arguments, writers always should keep clearly in mind the point they wish to make, and
should not lose sight of it. They may try to convince readers that some issue requires action or, they
may try to convince readers that something is true (“wives are taken for granted”). Whatever the
point writers always offer their reasons for their beliefs in a logical way, without losing command

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of their subject and without attacking anyone personally: they may though attack some one’s ideas
or attitudes.
The main point in an argument often termed the major proposition is an idea that is debatable or
can be disputed. Once you state clearly and carefully, your major proposition at the outset of the
writing, you must then proceed to convince readers about the position that you have taken. There
are basic strategies to succeed in this goal, beginning with the ordered presentation of reasons to
defend the major proposition. We term these reasons minor propositions-in other words, assertions
designed to support your main argument. To support each minor proposition, the writer must offer
evidence in the form of facts, statistics, and testimony from authorities, and personal experience. In
addition to presenting your own argument logically and convincingly, you must also recognize and
deal with opposing arguments, a technique called refutation. Obviously, there has to be more than
one side to any debatable issue, and you have to take this fact into account.

Example Paragraph
I am against smoking Marijuana because it can cause two very detrimental conditions: paranoia
and laziness. First, I believe that people should not smoke marijuana because reaching a state of
paranoia can cause a person to act irrationally, which can lead to huge mistakes and regret. For
example, one day my friend smoked some pot. Soon after, he started complaining about his heart
racing, and was sweating excessively. Out of panic, he ran down the street crying and claiming that
people wanted to kill him. The police soon arrested him on suspicion of drug use. Second,
marijuana causes laziness, which prevents people from living up to their full potential. For
instance, I once watched a movie about a guy who smoked Marijuana regularly. He became so lazy
that he failed out of school. Furthermore, he was fired from his job because he always called in sick
when he was really stoned and lethargic (slow and lazy). In summation, marijuana may make some
people feel good, but I completely disagree with smoking it because of its long-term effects that are
devastating for your mental health and energy level.

Exercise 10
Read the paragraph below, and answer questions that follow.
Smokers claim that their personal rights are being denied as more and more public places are
declared “smoke-free.” In addition, bar owners are losing businesses because their smoking
customers are staying home. While both smokers and bar owners have valid arguments, what they
must realize is that sometimes we have to sacrifice as individuals in order to help society as a
whole. Even though it is an individual’s choice to do damage to his or her lungs by smoking
cigarettes, innocent nonsmokers do not have a choice if a smoker is around. They should not have
to expose their lungs to second-hand smoke when they go out for a drink or a meal. In addition,
bar employees have the right to work in a smoke-free environment. Smokers and bar owners can
help keep the air clean and safe for the elderly, asthma sufferers, other customers and employees by
following the law.
1. What is the major proposition of the paragraph?
2. Write any transition words or expressions.

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3. How do these transitions help the flow of the paragraph? Discuss your answers with your
group.
4. Do you think the writer persuades the reader through the paragrap? Explain your
argument?
Exercise 11
Choose one topic from the list below. List the main arguments on one side, and write one
argumentative paragraph.
1. Students learn more/learn less by using computers in the classrooms.
2. Couples should/should not live together before they get married.
3. Parents are responsible/not responsible for their children’s bad behavior.

2.4. Techniques (Patterns) of Paragraph Development

2.4.1. Definition
One of the most important ways to explain an idea fully is to define it. A definition limits the
thought by classifying it generally and specifically, by telling what it is not or by determining its
precise meaning by fixing its denotation and connotation
Definition is a method of explaining a words meaning. When you use definition to explain, be sure
 Identify the term you are defining
 Place the term in the general group and offer a distinguishing characteristic.
 Use one or more examples classify the term, explain what the term is not, trace the
term’s meaning over time, or use descriptive language to develop your definition.
 Use transitional words and phrases to connect your ideas.

Example paragraph
The word ethnic has come to have many different meanings during the years of the ethnic revival. It
is not that the word means nothing, but it means whatever the user wants it to mean. Sometimes it
stands for “minority” and refers primarily to black, and brown, Native American and Asian
American, as in “ethnic studies” programs at universities. Other times it is a code word for
Catholics, as in “the white ethnic backlash” or white ethnic opposition to the candidate because of
his/her Baptist religion.” When the national news magazines or journals of opinion speak of ethnic,
they mean Catholics, as when the nation announced scholars as “ethnic” when we use the word,
we normally refer simply to the variety of American subcultures, whether that variety be based on
race, religion, nationality, language or even region.
2.4.2. Exemplification
Another technique of paragraph or essay development is illustration or exemplification. The method
of illustration tries to make a general idea clear by providing specific examples and statistical data
that substantiate it. The writer illustrates the topic sentence with detail examples. Examples are
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specific details that explain a general idea or statement. To develop a paragraph or essay using
examples, be sure that
 Your examples are relevant and sufficient
 Each example is as specific as possible
 It is clear how each example illustrates your main point
 You use transitional words and phrases to connect your idea.
Example paragraph
The ability to write well-organized concise paragraphs is essential to a student’s success in almost
all university courses. For instance, in preparing presentation, a student presents his/her findings
in a logical order and clear language in order to receive a favorable evaluation of his/her work.
Likewise, to write successful answers to essay questions on history or sociology examinations, a
student must arrange the relevant facts and opinions according to some accepted pattern of
paragraph structure. And certainly, when a student writes a book report for English or critique for
political studies or a term paper for sociology, paragraph structure and organization are often as
important as content to inform and persuade his/her readers. Clearly, skill in paragraph writing is
crucial to success in most university subjects.
2.4.3. Classification
Classification is the arrangement of information into groups or categories in order to make the
relationships among members of the group. Or in other words, it is a method of explaining or
examining a topic by organizing its parts into categories. Classification, definition and
illustration are the three most important methods of paragraph development in scientific
descriptions. For instance, a good way to discuss reptiles is to arrange them in to categories:
crocodiles, alligators, snakes, turtles, tortoises, and lizards. Breaking down your subject into
categories helps to organize your paragraph For example, you might explain discrimination by
classifying some types: racial, gender, and age.

Example paragraph
Newspapers in India are classified into two categories according to the amount and completeness
of information in them. Newspapers in the first category have more information and truth. Those in
the second category do not have much information and sometimes they hide the truth. Newspapers
in the first category have news collected from different parts of the country and also from different
countries. They also have a lot of sports and business news and classified ads. The information they
give is clear and complete and it is supported by showing pictures. The best known example of this
category is the Indian Express. Important news goes on the first page with big headlines,
photographs from different angles, and complete information. Unlike newspaper in the first
category, newspapers in the second category do not give as much information. They do not have
international news, sports, or business news and they do not have classified ads. Also, the news
they give is not complete. Therefore, newspapers in the first group are more popular than those in
the second group.
2.4.4. Cause and Effect

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The writer may develop his ideas in a paragraph in another way: by going from cause to effect or
from effect to cause. This method helps to develop a statement by giving an account of the causes
and effects of an event or situation. Cause and effect paragraphs and essays are concerned with
why events and actions occur and what happens as a result.
To write an effective paragraph, one should:
 clarify the cause-and-effect relationship between the contents of the central idea.
 decide whether to emphasize causes or effects.
 determine if the events are related or independent.
Example paragraph
There are three main reasons for my decision to attend Jimma University. The first and the most
important to me is that I want to get a high-paying, interesting job that I will enjoy. Right now, I am
paid minimum wage because I am working in a restaurant. This kind of job does not make me
proud of myself, and I get bored with routine tasks. Second, my parents have always wanted me to
have a better job than they do, and I know my father will not respect me until I do. A university
degree would make them proud of me. A third reason for attending school is to make new friends. It
is hard to meet people, and everyone in my neighborhood seems stuck in a rut. I want to meet other
people who are interested in improving themselves like I am.
2.4.5. Comparison and Contrast
Comparison is the process of examining two or more items according to their similarities and
differences or both. Comparison and contrast is a method of analyzing likeness and differences
between two or more subjects. An object or an idea is better understood only when its features stand
next to those of another idea or object. For instance, we appreciate soccer when we compare it with
football; we understand communism when we see it in the light of capitalism.
After you identified the similarities and the differences and drafted your topic sentence, you are
ready to organize your paragraph. There are two ways of organizing comparison and contrast
paragraph:
1. Subject-by-subject organization
2. Point-by- point organization
a) Subject-by-subject organization
In the subject-by-subject method, you write first about one of your subject, covering it completely
and then you write about the other, covering it completely. Ideally, you cover the same points of
comparison and contrast for both and in the same order. Let’s look at the following comparison
between two professors Jira and Hirut: With subject-by-subject organization you first discuss
Professor Jira –his class organization, exams and grading system.
You can visualize this arrangement as follows:
Subjects' points of comparison and contrast
1. Professor Jira a) class organization
2. Professor Hirut b) Examination
c) Grading system
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Example paragraph
Two excellent teachers, Professor Jira and Hirut, present a study in contrasting teaching styles.
Professor Jira is extremely organized. He conducts each class the same way. He reviews the
assignment, lectures about the new chapter, and explains the next assignment. He gives essay
exams, and they are always based on important lecture topics. Because the topics are predictable,
you know you are not wasting your time when you study. Professor Jira’s grading depends half on
class participation and half on the essay exams. Professor Hirut, on the other hand, has an easy-
going style. Each class is different and seems to reflect whatever she thinks will help us understand
what she is teaching. Her classes are fun because you never know what to expect. Professor Hirut
gives both multiple-choice and essay exams. These are difficult to study for because they are
unpredictable. Our final grade is based entirely on the exams, so each requires a lot of studying
beforehand. Although each professor teaches very differently, I am figuring out how to learn from
each particular style.
b) Point-by-point organization
In the point-by-point organization, you discuss both of your subjects together for each point of
comparison and contrast. For the paragraph on professors Jira and Hirut, you would talk about how
each organizes his or her class, then what kinds of exams each gives, and then the grading system,
and so on. You can visualize this organization as follows:
Points of comparison/contrast Subjects
a) Class organization 1. Professor Jira
2. Professor Hirut
b) Exams 1. Professor Jira
2. Professor Hirut
c) Grading system 1. Professor Jira
2. Professor Hirut
If your paragraph focuses only on similarities or only on differences, then arrange your points in a
least-to-most or most-to-least pattern.
Example paragraph
Professor Jira and Professor Hirut demonstrate very different teaching styles in how they operate
their classes, how they give exams, and how they grade us. Professor Jira’s classes are highly
organized; we work through the lesson every day in the same order. Professor Hirut uses an
opposite approach. She creates a lesson to fit the material, which enables us to learn most. Their
exams differ too. Professor Jira gives standard, predictable essay exams that are based on his
lectures. Professor Hirut gives both multiple-choice and essay exams, so we never know what to
expect. In addition, each professor grades differently. Professor Jira counts class participation as
half of our grade, so if you talk in class and do reasonably well on the exams, you will probably
pass the course. Professor Hirut, on the other hand, counts the exams 100 percent, so you have to
do well on them to pass the course. Each professor has a unique, enjoyable teaching style, and I am
learning a great deal from each.

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Each method of organization uses different transitions in different places. If you choose a subject-
by-subject organization, you will need the strongest transition in the middle of the paragraph, when
you switch from one subject to another. You will also need a transition each time you move from
one point to another while still on the same subject. In the following paragraph, notice the
underlined transitional sentence.
2.4.6. Process
A process paragraph or essay describes how something is done or how something works.
A “how -to” paragraph, for example, may explain how to change a flat tire, aid a choking victim,
or locate reference books in the library? A “how-it-works” paragraph may explain the operation
of pump, how the human body regulates temperature, or how children acquire speech. When you
are describing a process, write about one that you are familiar with, preferably something you have
done often or have a complete understanding of. Both “how-to” and “how-it- works” paragraphs
describe steps that occur only in a specified order.
Example of “How-to-do” paragraph
In trying to make wise and correct decisions about the ice-cream cone in your hand, you should
always keep the objectives in mind. The main objective, of course, is to get the cone under control.
Secondarily, one will want to eat the cone calmly and with pleasure. Real pleasure lies not simply
in eating the cone but in eating it right. Let’s assume that you have darted to your open space and
made your necessary emergency repairs. The cone is still dangerous-still, so to speak, “live.” But
you can proceed with it in an orderly fashion. First, revolve the cone through the full three hundred
and sixty degrees, snapping at the loose gobs of ice cream; turn the cone by moving the thumb
away from you and the forefinger toward you, so the cone moves counterclockwise. Then, with the
cone still “wound,” which will require the wrist to be bent at the full right angle toward you, apply
pressure with the mouth and tongue to accomplish overall realignment, straightening and settling
the whole mess. Then, unwinding the cone back through the full three hundred sixty degrees,
moving any trickles of ice cream. From here on, some supplementary repairs may be necessary, but
the cone is now defused.
Example of “How-it-works” model paragraph
Hibernation is a biological process that occurs most frequently in small animals. The process
enables animals to adjust to a diminishing food supply. When the outdoor temperature drops, the
animal’s internal thermostat senses the change. Then the bodily changes begin to occur. First, the
animal’s heartbeat slows, and slowed breathing reduces oxygen intake. Metabolism is the n
reduced. Food requirements become minimal. Finally, the animal falls into sleep-like state during
which it relies on stored body fat to support life functions.
2.4.7. Narration
The events in a narrative paragraph should usually be arranged in chronological order- the order in
which they happened. Sometimes you may want to rearrange events to emphasize a point. If you
do, make sure the sequence of events is clear enough for the reader to follow. A clear well-written

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narrative should provide sufficient detail to allow your readers to understand fully the situation you
are writing about. Try to answer for your reader most of the following questions:
1. When did it happen? 4. Where did it happen?
2. Who was involved? 5. What events occurred?
3. Why did they happen? 6. How did they happen?
Chronological order
This is the usual way of organizing ideas in narration. The ideas are organized in the sequence
according to what happened first, then, second, then third, etc. until the final outcome.
Example paragraph
There was a robber who roamed the countryside. He pillaged and killed passers- by. The king, have
heard this, sent out his soldiers. They caught him and brought him in chains to the king who
sentenced him to death. As they took him to the place were to be beheaded, the old father of this
robber was following him in tears. When the robber caught sight of his father, he asked to say a few
words to him before his death. Once he got close to his father, he tried to hit him, but he failed to
do so because his hands were tied together. So, he began to inflict upon him a terrible bite with his
teeth. All the people around him shouted: “Really this bandit deserve death since he even wanted to
kill his father.” But, he told them: “it is not I who deserves death but my father.” When in my
childhood I began stealing corn and grain, he praised me instead of punishing me and accustomed
me to robbery. For this reason, I became a bandit and thus reached this hour of my death. Had my
father punished me at the appropriate time, I would not have come to this end. Having said this, he
was beheaded, but all those who had children understood the seriousness of the matter.
2.4.8. Description
Description helps the reader visualize the topic. Descriptive writing creates impression. Descriptive
paragraphs or essay create an impression and enable your reader to visualize your topic sentence.
To write effective descriptions
 Establish a dominant impression- an attitude or feelings about your topic. Express this
impression in your topic sentence or thesis statement.
 Select relevant and sufficient details to support your dominant impression
 Use descriptive languages: exact, colorful and vivid words that appeal to the senses. It
enables the readers to envision what the writer has seen.
 Organize your details logically
 Use transitional words and phrases to link your details.
All the details in a descriptive paragraph must be relevant to and helpful in creating your dominant
impression.
Example paragraph
The rent cottage was charming because it was old– fashioned and modern at the same time. The
bedrooms had colorful patchwork quilts on the beds and antique pictures on the walls, but the
mattresses were brand new and extremely comfortable. The reading lights were of the same,

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efficient, up-to-date style I have at home. On entering the living room, one’s immediate desire was
to fling oneself on the huge sofa. An old-fashioned radio, hooked rugs, and a handmade
checkerboard combined with the wood-burning fireplace to create a rustic atmosphere. From the
modern redwood deck I had a peaceful view of the quite, secluded lake. The cottage took me back
in ti me in the best ways.
Exercise 12

Identify the Methods (techniques) used to organize the following paragraphs or paragraph
parts.

1. Nowadays, prostitution is being exploited widely. The exploitation of the prostitution of women is
prosecuted as a criminal offence of pandering. It is understood to mean any action by which
another person is hired, forced or seduced to engage in prostitution, as well as any action
consisting in the exploitation (gaining material or other benefit) of the prostitution of another
person.

Technique(s): ____________________________________________________________________

2. Ms. Helen is 25 years old. When she was born, her mother was malnourished, and overworked,
so Ms. Helen had a very low birth weight. She grew slowly. During childhood, she had little
nourishing food, even less than her brothers. She could not go to school as her brothers did, but
remained home with her mother to help with the housework and child-rearing. By adolescence, she
had not grown as she should have; her bones had not developed properly and she was very short.
As was the tradition of her culture, she was married and had her first baby at the age of 14, even
before she had fully developed. It was a difficult birth, but she survived it and many subsequent
births.

Technique(s): ____________________________________________________________________

3. "Park" is difficult to define in Kenya because there are so many kinds of parks. Basically, a park
is a place to go for outdoor recreation-to swim, picnic, hike, camp, walk the dog, play tennis,
paddle your canoe, and, in some places take rides in miniature trains or swish down a waterslide.
Kenya has a rich variety of parks, ranging from acres ringed around recreation halls to
impenetrable mangrove wilderness. To make things more complicated, not all of them are called
"parks," and even the ones called "parks" come in several varieties.

Technique(s): __________ __________________________________________________________

4. Nech Sar and Awash National Parks have their own isolated features which make them unique.
Forest and river dominate Nech Sar National Park. By contrast, Awash Nationa Park, near
Metahara, is dominated by the oily bodies of sun-worshippers who crowd into it every summer

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weekend. Where Nech Sar gives you so much quiet you can hear the leaves whispering, Awash is a
place of boisterous activity. You can walk a few yards in Nech Sar, and pass beyond every sign of
human civilization. When you walk at Awash, you have to be careful to step over the picnic baskets,
umbrellas, jam boxes, and browning bodies. At night, Nech Sar wraps itself with the silence of
crickets and owls. Awash is busy with fishermen till well past midnight. If you want to fish near
town, or dive into the busy bustle of an urban beach, Awash is the place to go. But, if you want to
stand at the edge of civilization, and look across time into an older natural world, Nech Sar is the
park to visit.

Technique(s): ____________________________________________________________________

5. Around 2 a.m. something woke Yonas up. He lay in the dark listening. Something felt wrong.
Outside, crickets sang, tree-frogs chirruped. Across the distant forest floated two muffled hoots
from a barred owl. It was too quiet. At home in the town, the nights are filled with the busy,
comforting sounds of traffic. Here, even starlight failed to penetrate the 80-foot canopy of trees the
camper was parked beneath. It was the darkest dark he had ever seen. He felt for the flashlight
beside his bunk. It was gone. He found where his pants were hanging, and as he felt the pockets for
a box of matches, something rustled in the leaves right outside the window, inches from his face. He
heard his wife, Galgale, hold her breath; she was awake, too. Then, whatever was outside in the
darkness breathed, and the huge silence of the night seemed to come inside the camper, stifling
them. Yonas suddenly decided to pack up, and go to a motel.

Technique(s): ____________________________________________________________________

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