Hydraulics-II Lecture Notes June 1, 2014

CHAPTER FOUR: HYDRAULIC MACHINES

4. HYDRAULIC MACHINES
4.1. Introduction
The function of a hydraulic machine is to effect an exchange of energy between a mechanical
and a fluid system. In civil engineering the only classes of hydraulic machine with which we are
directly concerned are pumps & turbines.

Pumps are a means of adding energy to water. They convert mechanical energy (imparted by
rotation) into water (hydraulic) energy used in lifting water to higher elevations. The mechanical
energy is provided by an electric motor.

Turbines are a means of taking energy out of water. They convert water (hydraulic) energy in
to mechanical energy (shaft power). The shaft power developed is used in running an electric
generator directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine, thus producing electrical power.

4.2. Pump Types

There are two main categories of pumps:

 Positive displacement pumps

 Roto-dynamic pumps

4.2.1 Positive Displacement Pumps

Positive displacement pumps usually deliver only small discharges irrespective of the head pumped
against. Typical examples of this type of pumps include:

 Reciprocating pump
 Rotary pump

[Link] Reciprocating pump

This type of pump is often used for domestic water supplies in developing countries for lifting
ground water. In its usual form it consists of a ram, piston, and valve arrangement.

The piston moves up & down in a cylinder (see figure 4-1). When the lever is pushed downwards
the piston rises, lifting water above it through the outlet. At the same time it sucks water up
the well through the non-return valve & fills the cylinder. When the lever is raised the non-return
valve close & the piston descends allowing water to flow through another valve into the upper
part of the cylinder. The process is then repeated.

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Figure 4-1. Reciprocating pump

[Link] Rotary Pump

Rotary pump contains two gears or rotors, which mesh together as they rotate in opposite
directions (see figure 4-2). Pressure is generated by the intermeshing gears, which operate with
minimum clearance. Water becomes trapped between the gears and forced into the delivery pipe.

Figure 4-2. Rotary Pump

This form of pump is eminently suited to handling small discharges (<30 l/s) and viscous liquids.

4.2.2 Roto-Dynamic Pumps

Roto-dynamic pumps rely on rotational movement for their pumping action. A rotating element,
known as impeller, imparts velocity to a liquid and generates pressure. An outer fixed casing,
shaft, & diving motor complete the pump unit.

Roto-dynamic pumps are the most widely used types of pumps in Hydraulic Engineering. Its field
of employment ranges from public water supply, drainage, & irrigation to the very special
requirements of suction dredging & the transport of concrete or sludge.

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There are three main categories of roto-dynamic pumps based on the way water flows through
them:

 Centrifugal (radial flow) pumps

 Axial flow pumps
 Mixed them pumps

[Link] Centrifugal Pumps

Centrifugal pumps are the most widely used of all the roto-dynamic pumps. They are named
because of the fact that the pressure head created is largely attributable to centrifugal action.
They may be designed to handle up to a head of 120m.

Water is drawn into the pump from a source of supply through a short length of pipe called
the suction (see figure 4-3). Water enters at the center or eye of the impeller, is picked up by
the vanes, and forced outwards in a radial direction. The water is collected by the pump casing
& guided towards the outlet called the delivery.

Figure 4-3. Centrifugal pump

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In order that energy shall, not be wasted and efficiency there by lowered, it is essential to
convert as much as possible of the considerable velocity head at exit from the impeller in to
useful pressure head. Normally, this is achieved by shaping the outer casing in spiral form so
that the sectional area of flow around the periphery of the impeller is gradually expanded.

[Link] Axial Flow Pumps

This type of pump is well suited to situations where a large discharge is required to be delivered
against a low head. The maximum operating head is between 9 and 12m.

Axial flow pumps consist of a propeller housed inside a tube that acts as a discharge pipe (see
figure 4-4). The power unit turns the propeller by means of a long shaft running down the
middle of the pipe & this lifts the water up the pipe.

Figure 4-4. Axial Flow Pump

Water enters axially and the impeller imparts a rotational component, the actual path followed by
a particle being that of a helix on a cylinder. Head is developed by the propelling action of the
vanes, centrifugal effects playing no part.

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[Link] Mixed Flow pumps

Mixed flow pumps occupy an intermediate position between the centrifugal & axial flow types
and so combines the best features of both pump types. Flow is partly radial & partly axial, the
impeller being shaped accordingly. The path traced by a fluid particle is that of a helix on a
cone. The head range is up to about 25m.

Mixed flow pumps are efficient at pumping larger quantities of water than centrifugal pumps and
are more efficient at pumping to higher pressures than axial flow pumps.

4.3. Turbine Types

The possible combination of head and discharge at hydroelectric sites is extremely varied and is
reflected in a corresponding diversity of turbine design. There are two main categories of turbine:

 Impulse turbines

 Reaction turbines

4.3.1 Impulse Turbines

An impulse turbine is one in which the pressure energy of the water is converted to velocity
energy before it impinges on a rotational element over a limited portion only of the periphery,
there being no subsequent change in pressure. Impulse machines today are of the Pelton wheel
turbines, also called tangential flow turbines, and are suitable for high heads in excess of 300m.

A typical Pelton turbine arrangement is shown in figure 4-5. The nozzle discharges into the
atmosphere a high velocity jet which impinges on a series of buckets mounted on the periphery
of a wheel, also called runner. The torque exerted by the impact and deviation of the jet causes
the wheel to rotate. Its energy usefully expended, water leaves the buckets at a relatively low
velocity and is directed towards the discharge channel.

Figure 4-5. Pelton Turbine

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The turbine must be set a sufficient height above the maximum tail water level if free discharge
is to be ensured.

4.3.2 Reaction Turbines

In a reaction turbine, the initial pressure-velocity conversion is only partial, so that water enters
the rotating element throughout the entire periphery and all the flow passages run full. Modern
reaction turbines are of two types: Francis & Propeller (Kaplan), catering for medium and low
heads, respectively.

[Link] Francis Turbines

Francis turbines are like a centrifugal pump in reverse (see figure 5-6). The runner was shaped
like a centrifugal impeller, flow being predominantly radial with the radii at entry and exit the
same for all flow paths.

Water is directed into the runner by means of a spiral casing and a number of aero foil-shaped
blades, called guide blades, spaced evenly around the periphery. These guide blades are
adjustable, the amount of opening being controlled by the turbine governor. The role of the guide
blades is to guide the flow in to the runner with the minimum amount of turbulence, as well as
to regulate the discharge and hence power output.

Figure 4-6. Francis Turbine

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The head range for Francis turbine is from 30 m to about 450 m. As this is the most common
head available, this type of turbine enjoys a great numerical superiority over other types.

The velocity head at discharge from the runner may amount to 20 %, or more, of the available
head and as with centrifugal pumps it is clearly important to convert as much as possible of
this otherwise wasted energy to useful pressure head. This can be accomplished by means of
an expanding passage, called a draft tube, which finally discharges the water at a relatively low
velocity to the tail water.

[Link] Kaplan Turbines

Kaplan turbines are like axial flow pumps in reverse (see figure 5-7). They operate at low heads,
usually less than 60 m, and high discharges.

They have blades on their runners that can be twisted to different angles in order to work at
high efficiency over a wide range of operating conditions.

Figure 4-7. Kaplan Turbine

4.4. Head on Pumps and Turbines

4.4.1 Head on Pumps

The total head on a pump is the excess of the outlet head over the inlet head. Each of these
heads may be regarded as being composed of elevation head, pressure head, and velocity head.

Referring to figure 5-8, the total head on a pump may be expressed by:

𝐻 = 𝐻𝑠 + 𝐻𝑑 + 𝐻𝑙𝑠 + 𝐻𝑙𝑑

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Where, Hs & Hd are the static suction and delivery lifts respectively, and HLs & HLd are the
energy head losses (friction + minor) in suction and delivery branches, respectively. If the pump
is situated below the level of the water surface in the suction well, Hs is negative.

HLd

HLs

Figure 4-8. Head on Pump

4.4.2 Head on Turbines

The net head on a turbine is the head available for doing work, that is to say, the difference
between the total head (elevation + pressure + velocity head) at inlet and outlet.

Referring to figure 4-9, the net head on a reaction turbine situated at some distance from the
intake is given by:

𝐻 = 𝐻𝐺 − 𝐻𝐿

Where, HG is the gross head (intake surface level to tail water level) and HL is the energy
head loss in the supply pipeline.

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HL

Figure 4-9. Head on a reaction Turbine

The same expression is applicable to impulse turbines. However, as these machines operate
under atmospheric pressure, HG is measured to an appropriate jet level.

4.5. Specific Speed

It is useful to have a common basis on which different types of pump or turbine design can
be compared in respective of size. The parameter known as specific speed has been introduced
for this purpose, and the respective definitions could be as follows:

 The specific speed of a pump is the speed in rev/min of a geometrically similar pump of
such a size that it delivers 1 m3/s against 1 m head. It is expressed by:
1
𝑛𝑄 2
𝑛𝑠 = 3
𝐻4

Where, ns is specific speed (rev/min), n is speed of rotation (rev/min), and Q & H are discharge
(m3/s) and head (m) respectively.

 The specific speed of a turbine is the speed in rev/min of a geometrically similar turbine
of such a size that it produces 1 kW under 1 m head. It is expressed by:
1
𝑛𝑃2
𝑛𝑠 = 5
𝐻4

Where, P is the power output in kW.

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The above definitions of the specific speed have recognized the significant performance parameters.
In the case of pumps it is the discharge that is important, while for turbines it is the power
output.

The values of n, Q, H, & P in the expressions for the specific speed are those for normal
operating condition (the design point), which would generally coincide with the optimum efficiency.

It can be noted that the specific speed is independent of the dimensions and therefore relates
to shape rather than size. Thus, all pumps or turbines of the same shape have the same
specific speed.

The valve of specific speed is mainly used for selection of a suitable type of pump or turbine
for a particular site. The following table gives guidelines on this purpose.

.Table 4-1. Specific speeds for different types of pumps and turbines

Machine type ns (rpm) Comments

Centrifugal 10 – 80 High head – small discharge

Pumps

Mixed flow 70 – 180 Medium head - medium discharge

Axial flow 150 – 320 Low head – large discharge

Pelton 10 – 40 High head – small discharge

Turbines

Francis 35 – 400 Medium head - medium discharge

Kaplan 300 – 1000 Low head – large discharge

4.6. Performance

4.6.1 Losses & Efficiencies

The overall efficiency η of a pump or turbine is the ratio of the useful power output to the
power input or available. Thus,

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 For pumps

𝛾𝑄𝐻
𝜂=
𝑃𝑖

 For turbines;

𝑃
𝜂=
𝛾𝑄𝐻

Where, Pi is the power input to a pump and P the corresponding output from a turbine. Pump
efficiencies are usually of the order of 80 %, whereas turbine efficiencies are rarely less than
90 %, the difference being largely accounted for by the generally greater size of turbines and
the more efficient flow passages.

The energy losses that occur within a pump or turbine are attributable to volumetric, mechanical,
and hydraulic losses.

 The volumetric loss arises from the slight leakage QL (from the high pressure side to the
low pressure side) in the small clearances that must be provided between the rotating
element and the casing. Thus, the impeller passages of a pump are handling more water
than is actually delivered, while the runner passages of a turbine are handling less than
is available. The volumetric efficiency ηv is given by:

 For pumps;

𝑄
𝜂𝑣 =
𝑄 + 𝑄𝐿

 For reaction turbines;

𝑄 − 𝑄𝐿
𝜂𝑣 =
𝑄

 The mechanical loss is a result of power loss due to mechanical friction at bearings and
fluid shear in the clearances. Thus, the mechanical efficiency ηm is given by:

 For pumps;

𝛾(𝑄 + 𝑄𝐿 )𝐻0
𝜂𝑚 =
𝑃𝑖

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 For turbines;

𝑃
𝜂𝑚 =
𝛾(𝑄 − 𝑄𝐿 )𝐻𝑜

 The hydraulic loss arises from head loss in the flow passages due to friction and eddies.
Thus, the hydraulic efficiency may be given by:

 For pumps;

𝐻 𝐻
𝜂ℎ = =
𝐻 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝑜

 For turbines;

𝐻 − 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝑜
𝜂ℎ = =
𝐻 𝐻

 The overall efficiency is the result of the product of the volumetric, mechanical, & hydraulic
efficiencies. That is,
𝜂 = 𝜂𝑣 𝑥 𝜂𝑚 𝑥 𝜂ℎ

4.6.2 Characteristics

[Link] Pump characteristics

As the discharge is nearly the primary factor, it is customary for the performance curves to
consist of the three curves of head, power input, and efficiency, drawn to common baseline of
discharge.

Each design of pump has its own characteristic behavior. Figure 4-10 shows the performance
curves for the centrifugal and axial flow pumps. The curves are drawn for a particular operating
speed.

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Figure 4-10. Pump Characteristics

4.6.3 Turbine characteristics

As turbine output must be varied to suit the electrical demand it is customary to design the
machine so that optimum efficiency occurs at about three-quarters of full load. Efficiency and
power output are usually plotted against speed for a constant head.

Figure 4-11 shows typical performance curves for a Pelton turbine, while figure 4-12 shows the
corresponding curves for Francis turbine.

Figure 4-11. Performance Curves for a Pelton Turbine

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Figure 4-12. Performance curve for Francis Turbine

4.7. Cavitation
Cavitation occurs in both pumps and turbines. The primary cause of cavitation is a low pressure
and this usually be brought about by a high local velocity. Cavitation is a harmful phenomenon
and influences the design of the machines. It also imposes severe limitations on the machine
setting, that is to say the permissible suction lift in the case of pumps and the height above
the tail water in the case of turbines.

With pumps, the most vulnerable points for attack are the impeller vane tips at discharge. It is
a result of high water velocities (low pressure) created near entry into an impeller. Here, vapour
bubbles or cavities tend to form (see figure 4-13) which are then carried forward by the flow to
a region of higher pressure near the exit where they collapse violently, causing pitting and severe
damage to the impeller blades.

Figure 4-13. Cavitation in a pump impeller

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Cavitation also occurs in turbine runners in a similar manner. High velocities at the turbine inlet
produce cavities which then collapse close to the runner blades near the exit.

Apart from the physical damage caused by cavitation, the reduction of the effective volume of
the flow passages due to the presence of water vapour results in a smaller discharge and a
sharp drop in efficiency. Additional evidence is the noise and vibration produced by the collapse
of the vapour bubbles.

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