India- Size and Location

 India is a vast country. Lying entirely in the Northern hemisphere, the mainland extends
between latitudes 8°4'N and37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E.
 The Tropic of Cancer (23° 30'N) divides the country into almost two equal parts. To the
southeast and southwest of the mainland, lie the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the
Lakshadweep islands in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea respectively.
 The land mass of India has an area of 3.28 million square km. India’s total area accounts for
about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical area of the world. India is the seventh largest
country of the world. India has a land boundary of about 15,200 km and the total length of the
coastline of the mainland, including Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep, is 7,516.6 km.
 From Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh, there is a time lag of two hours. Hence, time along the
Standard Meridian of India (82°30'E) passing through Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh) is taken as
the standard time for the whole country. The latitudinal extent influences the duration of day
and night, as one move from south to north.
 The Indian landmass has a central location between the East and the West Asia. India is a
southward extension of the Asian continent. The Trans Indian Ocean routes, which connect
the countries of Europe in the West and the countries of East Asia, provide a strategic central
location to India. Since the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, India’s distance from Europe
has been reduced by 7,000 km.
 The Deccan Peninsula protrudes into the Indian Ocean, thus helping India to establish close
contact with West Asia, Africa and Europe from the western coast and with Southeast and
East Asia from the eastern coast. No other country has a long coastline on the Indian Ocean as
India has and indeed, it is India’s eminent position in the Indian Ocean, which justifies the
naming of an Ocean after it.
 India occupies an important strategic position in South Asia. India has 28 states and nine
Union Territories. Sri Lanka and Maldives. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow
channel of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar, while Maldives Islands are
situated to the south of the Lakshadweep Islands.
 Puducherry is a union territory located in the Bay of Bengal, which consists of 4 unconnected
district zones. These districts are- Puducherry, Karaikal, Yanam, Mahe. Yanam is located near
East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh. Karaikal and Puducherry are located near Tamil
Nadu. Mahe is located in the Arabian Sea (Kerala).
 The states of India who touch the international border and the maritime boundary are Gujarat
and West Bengal.

Physical Features of India

 The land of India displays great physical variation. Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau
constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on the earth’s surface. It was supposed to be one of
the most stable land blocks. The Himalayas and the Northern Plains are the most recent
 landforms. From the view point of geology, Himalayan Mountains form an unstable zone. The
whole mountain system of Himalaya represents a very youthful topography with high peaks,
deep valleys and fast flowing rivers. The northern plains are formed of alluvial deposits. The
peninsular plateau is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently rising hills and
wide valleys.
 The Himalayan Mountains
o The Himalayas, geologically young and structurally fold mountains stretch over the
northern borders of India. These mountain ranges run in a west-east direction from
the Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas represent the loftiest and one of the
most rugged mountain barriers of the world.
o They form an arc, which covers a distance of about 2,400 Km. Their width varies from
400 Km in Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh. The altitudinal variations are
greater in the eastern half than those in the western half.
o The Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent. A number of
valleys lie between these ranges. The northern-most range is known as the Great or
Inner Himalayas or the Himadri. It is the most continuous range consisting of the
loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres. It contains all prominent
Himalayan peaks. The folds of the Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature. The
core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite. It is perennially snow bound,
and a number of glaciers descend from this range.
o The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the most rugged mountain system
and is known as Himachal or lesser Himalaya. The ranges are mainly composed of
highly compressed and altered rocks. The altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500
metres and the average width is of 50 Km. While the Pir Panjal range forms the
longest and the most important range, the Dhaula Dhar and the Mahabharat ranges
are also prominent ones. This range consists of the famous valley of Kashmir, the
Kangra and Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh. This region is well-known for its hill
stations.
o The outer-most range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks. They extend over a
width of 10-50 Km and have an altitude varying between 900 and 1100 metres. These
ranges are composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers from the
main Himalayan ranges located farther north. These valleys are covered with thick
gravel and alluvium. The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and the
Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the
well-known Duns.
o Besides the longitudinal divisions, the Himalayas have been divided on the basis of
regions from west to east. These divisions have been demarcated by river valleys. For
example, the part of Himalayas lying between Indus and Satluj has been traditionally
known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal
Himalaya from west to east respectively. The part of the Himalayas lying between
Satluj and Kali rivers is known as Kumaon Himalayas. The Kali and Teesta rivers
 demarcate the Nepal Himalayas and the part lying between Teesta and Dihang rivers
is known as Assam Himalayas. There are regional names also in these broad
categories.
o The Brahmaputra marks the eastern-most boundary of the Himalayas. Beyond the
Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south and spread along the eastern
boundary of India. They are known as the Purvachal or the Eastern hills and
mountains. These hills running through the north-eastern states are mostly composed
of strong sandstones, which are sedimentary rocks. Covered with dense forests, they
mostly run as parallel ranges and valleys. The Purvachal comprises the Patkai hills, the
Naga hills, the Manipur hillsand the Mizo hills.
 The Northern Plain
o The northern plain has been formed by the interplay of the three major river systems,
namely — the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries. This
plain is formed of alluvial soil. The deposition of alluvium in a vast basin lying at the
foothills of the Himalaya over millions of years, formed this fertile plain. It spreads
over an area of 7 lakh sq. km. The plain being about 2400 km long and 240 to 320 km
broad, is a densely populated physiographic division. With a rich soil cover combined
with adequate water supply and favourable climate it is agriculturally a productive
part of India.
o The rivers coming from northern mountains are involved in depositional work. In the
lower course, due to gentle slope, the velocity of the river decreases, which results in
the formation of riverine islands. Majuli, in the Brahmaputra river, is the largest
inhabited riverine island in the world.
o The rivers in their lower course split into numerous channels due to the deposition of
silt. These channels are known as distributaries.
o The Northern Plain is broadly divided into three sections. The Western part of the
Northern Plain is referred to as the Punjab Plains. Formed by the Indus and its
tributaries, the larger part of this plain lies in Pakistan. The Indus and its tributaries —
the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj originate in the Himalaya.
This section of the plain is dominated by the doabs. ‘Doab’ is made up of two words—
‘do’ meaning two and ‘ab’ meaning water. Similarly ‘Punjab’, is also made up two
words — ‘Punj’ meaning five and ‘ab’ meaning water.
o The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is spread over the
states of North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly Jharkhand and West Bengal to
its East, particularly in Assam lays the Brahmaputra plain.
o According to the variations in relief features, the Northern plains can be divided into
four regions. The rivers, after descending from the mountains deposit pebbles in a
narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km in width lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks. It
is known as bhabar. All the streams disappear in this bhabar belt.
o South of this belt, the streams and rivers re-emerge and create a wet, swampy and
marshy region known as terai. This was a thickly forested region full of wildlife. The
 forests have been cleared to create agricultural land and to settle migrants from
Pakistan after partition. Locate Dudhwa National Park in this region.
o The largest part of the northern plain is formed of older alluvium. It lies above the
floodplains of the rivers and presents a terrace-like feature. This part is known as
bhangar. The soil in this region contains calcareous deposits, locally known as kankar.
o The newer, younger deposits of the floodplains are called khadar. They are renewed
almost every year and so are fertile, thus, ideal for intensive agriculture.
 The Peninsular Plateau
o The Peninsular plateau is a tableland composed of the old crystalline, igneous and
metamorphic rocks. It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana
land and thus, making it a part of the oldest landmass. The plateau has broad and
shallow valleys and rounded hills.
o This plateau consists of two broad divisions, namely, the Central Highlands and the
Deccan Plateau. The part of the peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada
River, covering a major area of the Malwa plateau, is known as the Central Highlands.
The Vindhyan range is bounded by the Satpura range on the south and the Aravalis on
the northwest. The further westward extension gradually merges with the sandy and
rocky desert of Rajasthan.
o The flow of the rivers draining this region, namely the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa
and the Kenis from southwest to northeast, thus indicating the slope. The Central
Highlands are wider in the west but narrower in the east. The eastward extensions of
this plateau are locally known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.
o The Chotanagpur plateau marks the further eastward extension, drained by the
Damodar River. The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of
the river Narmada. The Satpura range flanks its broad base in the north, while the
Mahadev, the Kaimur hills and the Maikal range form its eastern extensions. The
Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently eastwards.
o An extension of the Plateau is also visible in the northeast, locally known as the
Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills. It is separated by a fault
from the Chotanagpur Plateau. Three prominent hill ranges from the west to the east
are the Garo, the Khasi and the Jaintia Hills.
o One of the distinct features of the peninsular plateau is the black soil area known as
Decean Trap. This is of volcanic origin; hence, the rocks are igneous. Actually, these
rocks have denuded over time and are responsible for the formation of black soil. The
Aravali Hills lie on the western and northwestern margins of the peninsular plateau.
These are highly eroded hills and are found as broken hills. They extend from Gujarat
to Delhi in a southwest-northeast direction.
 Ghats
o The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark the western and the eastern edges of
the Deccan Plateau respectively. Western Ghats lie parallel to the western coast. They
are continuous and can be crossed through passes only.
 o The Western Ghats are higher than the Eastern Ghats. Their average elevation is 900–
1600 metres as against 600 metres of the Eastern Ghats. The Eastern Ghats stretch
from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nigiris in the south. The Eastern Ghats are
discontinuous and irregular and dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal.
The Western Ghats cause orographic rain by facing the rain bearing moist winds to rise
along the western slopes of the Ghats. The Western Ghats are known by different
local names. The height of the Western Ghats progressively increases from north to
south. The highest peaks include the Anai Mudi (2,695 metres) and the Doda Betta
(2,637 metres). Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) is the highest peak in the Eastern Ghats.
Shevroy Hills and the Javadi Hills are located to the southeast of the Eastern Ghats.
 The Islands
o The Lakshadweep Islands group lies close to the Malabar coast of Kerala. This group of
islands is composed of small coral islands. Earlier they were known as Laccadive,
Minicoy and Amindive. In 1973, these were named as Lakshadweep. It covers small
area of 32 sq km. Kavaratti Island is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep.
This island group has great diversity of flora and fauna. The Pitti Island, which is
uninhabited, has a bird sanctuary.
o The elongated chain of islands located in the Bay of Bengal extending from north to
south. These are Andaman and Nicobar islands. They are bigger in size and are more
numerous and scattered. The entire group of islands is divided into two broad
categories – The Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south. It is believed that
these islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains. These island groups
are of great strategic importance for the country. There is great diversity of flora and
fauna in this group of islands too. These islands lie close to equator and experience
equatorial climate and have thick forest cover.
 The Indian Desert
o The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills. It is an
undulating sandy plain covered with sand dunes. This region receives very low rainfall
below 150 mm per year. It has arid climate with low vegetation cover. Streams appear
during the rainy season. Soon after they disappear into the sand as they do not have
enough water to reach the sea. Luni is the only large river in this region. Barchans
(crescent-shaped dunes) cover larger areas but longitudinal dunes become more
prominent near the Indo-Pakistan boundary.
 The Coastal Plains
o The Peninsular plateau is flanked by stretch of narrow coastal strips, running along the
Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east. The western coast,
sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, is a narrow plain. It
consists of three sections. The northern part of the coast is called the Konkan
(Mumbai – Goa), the central stretch is called the Kannada Plain, while the southern
stretch is referred to as the Malabar coast.
 o The plains along the Bay of Bengal are wide and level. In the northern part, it is
referred to as the Northern Circar, while the southern part is known as the
Coromandel Coast. Large rivers, such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and
the Kaveri have formed extensive delta on this coast. Lake Chilika is an important
feature along the eastern coast. The Chilika Lake is the largest salt water lake in India.
It lies in the state of Odisha, to the south of the Mahanadi delta.

Drainage
 The term drainage describes the river system of an area. Small streams flowing from different
directions come together to form the main river, which ultimately drains into a large water
body such as a lake or a sea or an ocean. The area drained by a single river system is called a
drainage basin. Any elevated area, such as a mountain or upland, separates two drainage
basins. Such an upland is known as a water divide. The world’s largest drainage basin is of the
Amazon river
 The drainage systems of India are mainly controlled by the broad relief features of the
subcontinent. Accordingly, the Indian rivers are divided into two major groups: - the
Himalayan rivers; and the Peninsular rivers.
 Most of the Himalayan Rivers are perennial. It means that they have water throughout the
year. These rivers receive water from rain as well as from melted snow from the lofty
mountains.
 The two major Himalayan Rivers, the Indus and the Brahmaputra originate from the north of
the mountain ranges. They have cut through the mountains making gorges. The Himalayan
Rivers have long courses from their source to the sea. They perform intensive erosional
activity in their upper courses and carry huge loads of silt and sand. In the middle and the
lowercourses, these rivers form meanders, oxbow lakes, and many other depositional
features in their floodplains. They also have well-developed deltas.
 A large number of the Peninsular Rivers are seasonal, as their flow is dependent on rainfall.
During the dry season, even the large rivers have reduced flow of water in their channels. The
Peninsular Rivers have shorter and shallower courses as compared to their Himalayan
counterparts. Most of the rivers of peninsular India originate in the Western Ghats and flow
towards the Bay of Bengal. However, Narmada and Tapi originate in the central highlands and
flow towards the west.
 The Indus River System
o The river Indus rises in Tibet, near Lake Mansarowar. Flowing west, it enters India in
the Ladakh. It forms a picturesque gorge in this part. Several tributaries, the Zaskar,
the Nubra, the Shyok and the Hunza, join it in the Kashmir region.
o The Indus flows through Baltistan and Gilgit and emerges from the mountains at
Attock. The Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum join together to
enter the Indus near Mithankot in Pakistan.
 o Beyond this, the Indus flows southwards eventually reaching the Arabian Sea, east of
Karachi.
o The Indus plain has a very gentle slope. With a total length of 2900 km, the Indus is
one of the longest rivers of the world. A little over a third of the Indus basin is located
in India Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab and the rest is in
Pakistan.
o According to the regulations of the Indus Water Treaty (1960), India can use only 20
per cent of the total water carried by the Indus river system. This water is used for
irrigation in Punjab, Haryana and the southern and the western parts of Rajasthan
 The Ganga River System
o The headwaters of the Ganga, called the ‘Bhagirathi’ is fed by the Gangotri Glacier and
joined by the Alaknanda at Devaprayag in Uttarakhand. At Haridwar, the Ganga
emerges from the mountains on to the plains.
o The Ganga is joined by many tributaries from the Himalayas, a few of them being
major rivers, such as the Yamuna, the Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi. The river
Yamuna rises from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas. It flows parallel to the
Ganga and as a right bank tributary meets the Ganga at Allahabad. The Ghaghara, the
Gandak and the Kosi rise in the Nepal Himalaya. They are the rivers, which flood parts
of the northern plains every year, causing widespread damage to life and property,
whereas, they enrich the soil for agricultural use.
o The main tributaries, which come from the peninsular uplands, are the Chambal, the
Betwa and the Son. These rise from semi-arid areas, have shorter courses and do not
carry much water in them.
o Enlarged with the waters from its right and left bank tributaries, the Ganga flows
eastwards till Farakka in West Bengal. This is the northernmost point of the Ganga
delta. The river bifurcates here; the Bhagirathi-Hooghly (a distributary) flows
southwards through the deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal.
o The mainstream flows southwards into Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra.
Further downstream, it is known as the Meghna. This mighty river, with waters from
the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, flows into the Bay of Bengal. The delta formed by
these rivers is known as the Sundarban Delta.
o The length of the Ganga is over 2500 km. Ambala is located on the water divide
between the Indus and the Ganga river systems. The plains from Ambala to the
Sunderban stretch over nearly 1800 km, but the fall in its slope is hardly 300 metres. In
other words, there is a fall of just one metre for every 6 km. Therefore, the river
develops large meanders.
o The Sundarban Delta derived its name from the Sundari tree, which grows well in
marshland. It is the world’s largest and fastest growing delta. It is also the home of
Royal Bengal tiger.
o The Namami Gange Programme is an Integrated Conservation Mission approved as a
‘flagship programme’ by the Union Government in June 2014 to accomplish the twin
 objectives of effective abatement of pollution, conservation and rejuvenation of the
national river, Ganga.

 The Brahmputra River System

o The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet east of Mansarowar lake very close to the sources of
the Indus and the Satluj. It is slightly longer than the Indus, and most of its course lies
outside India.
o It flows eastwards parallel to the Himalayas. On reaching the Namcha Barwa (7757 m),
it takes a ‘U’ turn and enters India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge. Here, it is
called the Dihang and it is joined by the Dibang, the Lohit, and many other tributaries
to form the Brahmaputra in Assam.
o Brahmaputra is known as the Tsang Po in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh. In Tibet,
the river carries a smaller volume of water and less silt as it is a cold and a dry area. In
India, it passes through a region of high rainfall. Here the river carries a large volume
of water and considerable amount of silt. The Brahmaputra has a braided channel in
its entire length in Assam and forms many riverine islands.
o Every year during the rainy season, the river overflows its banks, causing widespread
devastation due to floods in Assam and Bangladesh. Unlike other north Indian rivers,
the Brahmaputra is marked by huge deposits of silt on its bed causing the riverbed to
rise. The river also shifts its channel frequently.
 The main water divide in Peninsular India is formed by the Western Ghats, which runs from
north to south close to the western coast. Most of the major rivers of the Peninsula, such as
the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri flow eastwards and drain into the Bay
of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at their mouths. There are numerous small streams
flowing west of the Western Ghats. The Narmada and the Tapi are the only long rivers, which
flow west and make estuaries. The drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are comparatively
smaller in size.
 The Narmada Basin
o The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh. It flows towards the
west in a rift valley formed due to faulting. On its way to the sea, the Narmada creates
many picturesque locations. The ‘Marble rocks’, near Jabalpur, where the Narmada
flows through a deep gorge, and the ‘Dhuadhar’ falls, where the river plunges over
steep rocks, are some of the notable ones.
o All tributaries of the Narmada are very short and most of these join the main stream
at right angles. The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
o The Narmada river conservation mission has been undertaken by the government of
Madhya Pradesh by a scheme named Namami Devi Narmade.
 The Tapi Basin
 o The Tapi rises in the Satpura ranges, in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. It also
flows in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada but it is much shorter in length. Its basin
covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
 The coastal plains between Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea are very narrow. Hence, the
coastal rivers are short. The main west flowing rivers are Sabarmati, Mahi (Both in Gujarat),
Bharathpuzha and Periyar(Both in Kerala).
 The Godavari Basin
o The Godavari is the largest Peninsular River. It rises from the slopes of the Western
Ghats in the Nasik district of Maharashtra. Its length is about 1500 km. It drains into
the Bay of Bengal. Its drainage basin is also the largest among the peninsular rivers.
o The basin covers parts of Maharashtra (about 50 per cent of the basin area lies in
Maharashtra), Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
o The Godavari is joined by a number of tributaries, such as the Purna, the Wardha, the
Pranhita, the Manjra, the Wainganga and the Penganga. The last three tributaries are
very large. Because of its length and the area it covers, it is also known as the Dakshin
Ganga.
 The Mahanadi Basin
o The Mahanadi rises in the highlands of Chhattisgarh. It flows through Odisha to reach
the Bay of Bengal. The length of the river is about 860 km. Its drainage basin is shared
by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha.
 The Krishna Basin
o Rising from a spring near Mahabaleshwar, the Krishna flows for about 1400 km and
reaches the Bay of Bengal. The Tungabhadra, the Koyana, the Ghatprabha, the Musi
and the Bhima are some of its tributaries. Its drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
 The Kaveri Basin
o The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagri range of the Western Ghats and it reaches the Bay of
Bengal in south of Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu. The total length of the river is about 760
km. Its main tributaries are Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati and Kabini. Its basin drains
parts of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
o The river Kaveri makes the second biggest waterfall in India, known as
Shivasamudram Falls. The hydroelectric power generated from the falls is supplied to
Mysuru, Bengaluru and the Kolar Gold Field.
 Besides these major rivers, there are some smaller rivers flowing towards the east. The
Damoder, the Brahmani, the Baitarni and the Subarnrekha are some notable examples.
 Lakes of large extent are called seas, like the Caspian, the Dead and the Aral seas.
 India has many lakes. These differ from each other in size and other characteristics. Most lakes
are permanent; some contain water only during the rainy season, like the lakes in the basins
of inland drainage of semi-arid regions. There are some lakes which are the result of the
action of glaciers and ice sheets, while others have been formed by wind, river action and
human activities.
 A meandering river across a floodplain forms cut-offs that later develops into ox-bow lakes.
Spits and bars form lagoons in the coastal areas, e.g. the Chilika Lake, the Pulicat lake and the
Kolleru lake. Lakes in the region of inland drainage are sometimes seasonal; for example, the
Sambhar lake in Rajasthan, which is a salt water lake. Its water is used for producing salt.
 Most of the freshwater lakes are in the Himalayan region. They are of glacial origin. In other
words, they formed when glaciers dug out a basin, which was later filled with snowmelt. The
Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir, in contrast, is the result of tectonic activity. It is the largest
freshwater lake in India. The Dal lake, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak and Barapani are some other
important freshwater lakes.
 A lake helps to regulate the flow of a river. During heavy rains, it prevents flooding and during
the dry season, it helps to maintain an even flow of water. Lakes can also be used for
developing hydel power. They moderate the climate of the surroundings; maintain the aquatic
ecosystem, enhance natural beauty, help develop tourism and provide recreation.
 The river cleaning programme in the country was initiated with the launching of the Ganga
Action Plan (GAP) in 1985. The Ganga Action Plan was expanded to cover other rivers
under the National River Conservation Plan(NRCP) in the year 1995. The objective of the
NRCP is to improve the water quality of the rivers, which are major water sources in
the country, through the implementation of pollution abatement work.

Climate
 Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a
long period of time (more than thirty years).
 Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time. The elements
of weather and climate are the same, i.e. temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity
and precipitation.
 The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. In Asia, this type of climate is found
mainly in the south and the southeast. Despite an overall unity in the general pattern, there
are perceptible regional variations in climatic conditions within the country. The word
monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ which literally means season. ‘Monsoon’
refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction during a year.
 There are variations not only in the form and types of precipitation but also in its amount and
the seasonal distribution. While precipitation is mostly in the form of snowfall in the upper
parts of Himalayas, it rains over the rest of the country. The annual precipitation varies from
over 400 cm in Meghalaya to less than 10 cm in Ladakh and western Rajasthan.
 Most parts of the country receive rainfall from June to September. But some parts like the
Tamil Nadu coast gets a large portion of its rain during October and November.
 In general, coastal areas experience less contrasts in temperature conditions. Seasonal
contrasts are more in the interior of the country. There is decrease in rainfall generally from
east to west in the Northern Plains. These variations have given rise to variety in lives of
people – in terms of the food they eat, the clothes they wear and also the kind of houses they
live in.
 There are six major controls of the climate of any place. They are: latitude, altitude, pressure
and wind system, distance from the sea (continentality), ocean currents and relief features.
o Due to the curvature of the earth, the amount of solar energy received varies
according to latitude. As a result, air temperature generally decreases from the
equator towards the poles.
o As one goes from the surface of the earth to higher altitudes, the atmosphere
becomes less dense and temperature decreases. The hills are therefore cooler during
summers.
o The pressure and wind system of any area depend on the latitude and altitude of the
place. Thus it influences the temperature and rainfall pattern.
o As the distance from the sea increases, its moderating influence decreases and the
people experience extreme weather conditions. This condition is known as
continentality (i.e. very hot during summers and very cold during winters).
o Ocean currents along with onshore winds affect the climate of the coastal areas, For
example, any coastal area with warm or cold currents flowing past it, will be warmed
or cooled if the winds are onshore.
o Finally, relief too plays a major role in determining the climate of a place. High
mountains act as barriers for cold or hot winds; they may also cause precipitation if
they are high enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds. The leeward side of
mountains remains relatively dry.
 FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA’S CLIMATE : LATITUDE
o The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country from the Rann of
Kuchchh in the west to Mizoram in the east. Almost half of the country, lying south of
the Tropic of Cancer, belongs to the tropical area. All the remaining area, north of the
Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics. Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics of tropical
as well as subtropical climates.
 FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA’S CLIMATE : ALTITUDE
o India has mountains to the north, which have an average height of about 6,000
metres. India also has a vast coastal area where the maximum elevation is about 30
metres. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the
subcontinent. It is because of these mountains that this subcontinent experiences
comparatively milder winters as compared to central Asia.
 The climate and associated weather conditions in India are governed by the following
atmospheric conditions:
o Pressure and surface winds;
o Upper air circulation; and
o Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones.
 India lies in the region of north easterly winds. These winds originate from the subtropical
high-pressure belt of the northern hemisphere. They blow southwards, get deflected to the
right due to the Coriolis force, and move towards the equatorial low-pressure area. Generally,
 these winds carry little moisture as they originate and blow over land. Therefore, they bring
little or no rain.
 Coriolis force: An apparent force caused by the earth’s rotation. The Coriolis force is
responsible for deflecting winds towards the right in the northern hemisphere and towards
the left in the southern hemisphere. This is also known as ‘Ferrel’s Law’.
 The pressure and wind conditions over India are unique. During winter, there is a high-
pressure area north of the Himalayas. Cold dry winds blow from this region to the low-
pressure areas over the oceans to the south.
 In summer, a low-pressure area develops over interior Asia, as well as, over northwestern
India. This causes a complete reversal of the direction of winds during summer. Air moves
from the high-pressure area over the southern Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly direction,
crosses the equator, and turns right towards the low-pressure areas over the Indian
subcontinent. These are known as the Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds blow over the
warm oceans, gather moisture and bring widespread rainfall over the mainland of India.
 The upper air circulation in this region is dominated by a westerly flow. An important
component of this flow is the jet stream. These jet streams are located approximately over
27°-30° north latitude, therefore, they are known as subtropical westerly jet streams. Over
India, these jet streams blow south of the Himalayas, all through the year except in summer.
 The western cyclonic disturbances experienced in the north and north-western parts of the
country are brought in by this westerly flow. In summer, the subtropical westerly jet stream
moves north of the Himalayas with the apparent movement of the sun.
 An easterly jet stream, called the sub-tropical easterly jet stream blows over peninsular India,
approximately over 14°N during the summer months.
 Jet stream: These are a narrow belt of high altitude (above 12,000 m) westerly winds in the
troposphere. Their speed varies from about 110 km/h in summer to about 184 km/h in winter.
A number of separate jet streams have been identified. The most constant are the mid-
latitude and the sub-tropical jet stream.
 The western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena of the winter months brought in
by the westerly flow from the Mediterranean region. They usually influence the weather of
the north and north-western regions of India.
 Tropical cyclones occur during the monsoon, as well as, in October – November, and are part
of the easterly flow. These disturbances affect the coastal regions of the country.
 Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent in the Month of January

Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent in the Month of June

 The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20°S. To
understand the mechanism of the monsoons, the following facts are important.
o The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on the
landmass of India while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure.
o The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over the
Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the
equator. It is also known as the monsoon-trough during the monsoon season).
o The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at20°S
over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affects the
Indian Monsoon.
 o The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong
vertical air currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km
above sea level.
o The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the
presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.
 The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is abroad trough of low pressure in equatorial
latitudes. This is where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge. This
convergence zone lies more or less parallel to the equator but moves north or south with the
apparent movement of the sun.
 Normally when the tropical eastern South Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure, the
tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. But in certain years, there is a
reversal in the pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has lower pressure in comparison
to the eastern Indian Ocean. This periodic change in pressure conditions is known as the
Southern Oscillation or SO. The difference in pressure over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean, 18°S/149°W)
and Darwin in northern Australia (Indian Ocean, 12°30’S/131°E) is computed to predict the
intensity of the monsoons.
 If the pressure differences were negative, it would mean below average and late monsoons. A
feature connected with the SO is the El Nino phenomenon in which a warm ocean current that
flows past the Peruvian Coast, in place of the cold Peruvian current, every 2 to 5 years. The
changes in pressure conditions are connected to the El Nino. Hence, the phenomenon is
referred to as ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillations).
 The Monsoon, unlike the trades, are not steady winds but are pulsating in nature, affected by
different atmospheric conditions encountered by it, on its way over the warm tropical seas.
The duration of the monsoon is between 100-120 days from early June to mid-September.
Around the time of its arrival, the normal rainfall increases suddenly and continues constantly
for several days. This is known as the ‘burst’ of the monsoon, and can be distinguished from
the pre-monsoon showers.
 The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula generally by the first week of
June. Subsequently, it proceeds into two – the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal
branch. The Arabian Sea branch reaches Mumbai about ten days later on approximately the
10th of June. This is a fairly rapid advance. The Bay of Bengal branch also advances rapidly and
arrives in Assam in the first week of June. The lofty mountains cause the monsoon winds to
deflect towards the west over the Ganga plains.
 By mid-June the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the
central part of the country. The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal branches of the monsoon
merge overthe northwestern part of the Ganga plains. Delhi generally receives the monsoon
showers from the Bay of Bengal branch by the end of June (tentative date is 29th of June). By
the first week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and eastern Rajasthan
experience the monsoon. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches Himachal Pradesh and the rest of
the country.
 Withdrawal or the retreat of the monsoon is a more gradual process. The withdrawal of the
monsoon begins in north western states of India by early September. By mid-October, it
withdraws completely from the northern half of the peninsula. The withdrawal from the
southern half of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By early December, the monsoon has withdrawn
from the rest of the country.
 The islands receive the very first monsoon showers, progressively from south to north, from
the last week of April to the first week of May. The withdrawal, takes place progressively from
north to south from the first week of December to the first week of January. By this time the
rest of the country is already under the influence of the winter monsoon.
 Four main seasons can be identified in India – the cold weather season, the hot weather
season, the advancing monsoon and the retreating monsoon with some regional variations.
 The Cold Weather Season (Winter)
o The cold weather season begins from mid-November in northern India and stays till
February. December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of India.
The temperature decreases from south to the north. The average temperature of
Chennai, on the eastern coast, is between 24° – 25° Celsius, while in the northern
plains, it ranges between10°C and 15° Celsius. Days are warm and nights are cold.
Frost is common in the north and the higher slopes of the Himalayas experience
snowfall.
o During this season, the northeast trade winds prevail over the country. They blow
from land to sea and hence, for most part of the country, it is a dry season. Some
amount of rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast from these winds as, here they
blow from sea to land.
o In the northern part of the country, a feeble high-pressure region develops, with light
winds moving outwards from this area. Influenced by the relief, these winds blow
through the Ganga valley from the west and the northwest. The weather is normally
marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and feeble, variable winds.
o A characteristic feature of the cold weather season over the northern plains is the
inflow of cyclonic disturbances from the west and the northwest. These low-pressure
systems originate over the Mediterranean Sea and western Asia and move into India,
along with the westerly flow. They cause the much-needed winter rains over the
plains and snowfall in the mountains. Although the total amount of winter rainfall
locally known as ‘mahawat’ is small, they are of immense importance for the
cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops.
o The peninsular region does not have a well-defined cold season. There is hardly any
noticeable seasonal change in temperature pattern during winters due to the
moderating influence of the sea.
 The Hot Weather Season (Summer)
o Due to the apparent northward movement of the sun, the global heat belt shifts
northwards. As such, from March to May, it is hot weather season CLIMATE33in India.
The influence of the shifting of the heat belt can be seen clearly from temperature
 recordings taken during March-May at different latitudes. In March, the highest
temperature is about 38° Celsius, recorded on the Deccan plateau. In April,
temperatures in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh are around 42° Celsius. In May,
temperature of 45° Celsius is common in the northwestern parts of the country. In
peninsular India, temperatures remain lower due to the moderating influence of the
oceans.
o The summer months experience rising temperature and falling air pressure in the
northern part of the country. Towards the end of May, an elongated low-pressure
area develops in the region extending from the Thar Desert in the northwest to Patna
and Chotanagpur plateau in the east and southeast. Circulation of air begins to set in
around this trough.
o A striking feature of the hot weather season is the ‘loo’. These are strong, gusty, hot,
dry winds blowing during the day over the north and northwestern India. Sometimes
they even continue until late in the evening. Direct exposure to these winds may even
prove to be fatal. Dust storms are very common during the month of May in northern
India. These storms bring temporary relief as they lower the temperature and may
bring light rain and cool breeze. This is also the season for localised thunderstorms,
associated with violent winds, torrential downpours, often accompanied by hail. In
West Bengal, these storms are known as the ‘Kaal Baisakhi’.
o Towards the close of the summer season, pre-monsoon showers are common
especially, in Kerala and Karnataka. They help in the early ripening of mangoes, and
are often referred to as ‘mango showers’.
 Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season)
o By early June, the low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifies. It
attracts the trade winds of the southern hemisphere. These south-east trade winds
originate over the warm subtropical areas of the southern oceans. They cross the
equator and blow in a south-westerly direction entering the Indian peninsula as the
south-west monsoon. As these winds blow over warm oceans, they bring abundant
moisture to the subcontinent. These winds are strong and blow at an average velocity
of 30km per hour. With the exception of the extreme north-west, the monsoon winds
cover the country in about a month.
o The inflow of the south-west monsoon into India brings about a total change in the
weather. Early in the season, the windward side of the Western Ghats receives very
heavy rainfall, more than 250 cm. The Deccan Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh
also receive some amount of rain in spite of lying in the rain shadow area. The
maximum rainfall of this season is received in the north-eastern part of the country.
Mawsynram in the southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the highest average
rainfall in the world. Rainfall in the Ganga valley decreases from the east to the west.
Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat get scanty rainfall.
o