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Theory of Projections
The most common projection method used by engineers are parallel projection method and more
specifically multiview orthographic projection and isometric projection.
• Convergent projection methods find its application in civil and architectural engineering.
• Axonometric projections, oblique projection and perspective projections are called pictorial
projection.
Orthographic Projection: It is a parallel projection technique in which the plane of projection (POP)
is perpendicular to the parallel line of following assumptions has to be made.
(i) Observer is at infinite distance so that the ray of vision is parallel to each other.
(ii) Projection planes are transparent so that observer can look through them.
(iii) Projection planes are rotatable so that 3D views can be converted to 2D views.
• Horizontal plane (HP) : It is a plane parallel to the ground.
• Vertical plane (VP) : It is a plane perpendicular to the ground plane.
• Profile plane (PP) : It is a plane perpendicular to both VP and HP and intersecting both of them.
• XY : It is also known as ground line or reference line. Which is intersection of VP and HP.
• In India, 1st angle projection method is used.
• In rest of the world either 1st or 3rd angle projection method is used.
• 2nd and 4th angle projection methods are not used.
• Any projectional view obtained on Vertical Plane (VP) is Front view (FV).
• Any projectional view obtained on Horizontal Plane (HP) is Top View (TV).
• Any projectional view obtained on Profile Plane (PP) is Side View (SV).
For 1st angle projection
• Left Side View (LSV) is obtained on Right Profile Plane (RPP) i.e on the right side of Front View
(FV).
• Right Side View (RSV) is obtained on Left Profile Plane (LPP) i.e. on the left side of Front View
(FV). Note that Side Views (SV) always comes along Front View (FV).
• Front View (FV) lies above XY line, Top View (TV) lies below XY line.
For 3rd angle projection
• Right Side View (RSV) is obtained at Right Profile Plane (RPP) i.e. on the right side of Front View
(FV).
• Left Side View (LSV) is obtained at Left Profile Plane (LPP) i.e. on the left side of Front View (FV).
• Front View (FV) is below XY line and Top View (TV) is above XY line.
• Axonometric Projection: In this projection, only one view showing all the three dimensions of an
object is drawn on a plane of projection (POP). The object is so placed that its three mutually
perpendicular edges will remain inclined to the plane of projection (POP). Axonometric projection
is a parallel projection technique to create a pictorial drawing of an object by rotating the object on
an axis relative to a projection.
• Isometric Projection: In this projection, the three mutually perpendicular edges of an object
makes equal inclination with plane of projection (POP) because of which true shape of the object
is obtained. In this isometric scale is used due to which its true size cannot be ascertained.
• Diametric Projection : In this projection two of the three mutually perpendicular edges of an
object are equally inclined to the plane of projection (POP). In this two different diametric scales
are used.
Trimetric projection : In this projection, all the three mutually perpendicular edges of an object
make different inclination with plane of projection (POP). In this three different trimetric scales are
used.
Oblique Projection: In oblique projection, the object is aligned such that one face (front face) is
parallel to the projection plane. In such projection, the projectors are not perpendicular to the
plane of projection rather inclined to the plane of projection (POP) at 30°, 45° or 60°. Here oblique
axis is called as receding axis. In oblique projection, projectors from various points on the object
are drawn parallel to each other and inclined to the plane of projection.

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• The location of LHSV in the third-angle method of projection is on the left-hand side of FV.
• The face of an object containing circles, irregular shapes, etc., is kept parallel to the plane of
projection is known as oblique projection.
• In an oblique projection, the front surface of the object is kept at an angle either respect to plane
of projection is parallel.
• The drawings in which the receding lines are drawn to half the scale are called Cabinet.
• Projection of an object shown by three views is known as Orthographic.
• If the front view of an object exhibits width and height, then what dimensions of an object are
exhibited by a right side view.
• For orthographic projections, BIS recommends which of the following projection first-angle
projection
• If a principal face of an object is parallel to the picture plane, the perspective projection is called
Parallel perspective
• The distortion in oblique projections can be decreased by reducing the length of the receding
lines.
• In oblique projections, the receding lines meet the plane of projection at an angle less than 90°
• In oblique projections, a semi-circle parallel to the plane of projection appears as semi-circle.
• In the cavalier projection, an angle at which the projectors meet the plane of projection is 45°.
• In the cabinet projection, an angle at which the projectors meet the plane of projection is 6326

Projections of Points
• Projectors are drawn using 2H pencil and thin lines are used.
• The line joining the front and top views of a point is called Projector.
• A point lying in the H.P. has its top view above the XY line. Its front view will be on XY line.
• A point whose elevation and plan are above XY is situated in second-angle.
• A point is 20 mm below the H.P. and 30 mm behind the V.P. Its top view will be 30 mm above XY.
• The actual points are denoted by capital letters A, B, C etc.
• The TV of these points are denoted by small letters a, b, c etc.
• The FV of these points re denoted by small letters a dash a', b', c' etc.
• The SV of these points are denoted by small letters with a double dash a'', b'', c'' etc.
• The intersection of HP and VP is shown by XY line and is called reference line.
• If both the front and the top views of a point lie on opposite sides of the reference line, the point
may be situated in the following angles: First or third.
• If both the front and the top views of a point lie on the same side of the reference line, the point
may be situated in the following angles : Second or fourth.

Projection of Lines
• A line is the locus of a point moving along a fixed path .in space. The shortest distance between
two given points is a straight line.
• If a line is parallel to both H.P. and V.P., its true length will be seen in both front and top view
• The point at which the line intersects the V.P., extended if necessary, is known as vertical trace
• If the front view of a line is parallel to the XY line, its true length is shown in top view
• If top view of a line is a point, its front view is perpendicular to XY line and of true length
• Horizontal trace of a line exits when the line inclined to horizontal plane
• If a line is inclined at 45° to the H.P. and 30° to the V.P., its front view is inclined at greater than
45°
• For a line situated in the first angle, H.T. and V.T. may lie below XY, H.T. lies below XY and V.T.
lies above XY, H.T. and V.T. may lie above XY

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• If a line is inclined to the HP and parallel to the VP, it will have only HT
• If a line is parallel to both the RPs, then TL > EL
• To obtain the point view of a line, the auxiliary plane is set perpendicular to TL
• The distance between two skew lines is equal to the length of the perpendicular from the point
view of one line to the corresponding view of another line.
• Plan length (PL) or Top View length : It is the length of line seen from TV.
• Elevation length (EL) or Front View length : It is the length of line seen from FV.
• Hidden part is shown by keeping it inside small bracket.

Projection of Planes
• A plane (known as Lamina if it has limited extent) is a two dimensional geometrical entity which
has only two dimensions viz. length and breadth having negligible thickness (since dimension of
thickness is too small compared to other dimensions). A plane can be a regular plane surface
(if all sides are equal) otherwise irregular plane surface. Composite planes are those planes
which is composed of two or more
• If a plane is parallel to the HP, its TV gives the true shape. Hence TV should be drawn first.
• FV will be an edge view parallel to XY and SV will be perpendicular to X1Y1.
• There exist no horizontal trace (HT).
• If a plane is parallel to VP, then its FV gives true shape of it hence it should be drawn first.
• TV will be an edge view parallel to XY and SV will be parallel to X1Y1.
• If a thin set-square is kept perpendicular to both the horizontal and vertical planes, its true shape
is seen in profile plane.
• Planes which are inclined to both the horizontal and vertical planes are called oblique planes.
• In a multi view orthographic projection, the front view of a circular plane may be a circle, an
ellipse, a straight line.
• If both the front and top views of a plane are straight lines, the true shape will lie on profile plane.
• If a circular plane is inclined at 30° with the H.P. and 60° with the V.P. its side view will be a
straight line.
• The front view of an elliptical plane may be an ellipse, a circle, a straight line.
• If the top view of a plane is a rhombus, the object may be a square or a rhombus.
• The trace of a hexagonal plane may be an equilateral triangle.
• If both the principle views of a plane object are ellipses of the same size, the side view will be an
inclined line.
• If a corner of a pentagonal plate is in the VP, then its TV has one point on XY.
• If a plane is parallel to an RP, its projection on that RP shows the true shape and size.
• The trace of a plane is a line.
• A continuous straight line in FV of an object may represent.

Projection of solids
If axis is not perpendicular to its base i.e. it is at any angle then such type of solid is called as oblique
solid. If axis of a solid is perpendicular to HP then its base will be parallel to HP. So the true shape
and size of the base will be seen in the top view. Hence, the top view of the solid should be drawn first
and from its projectors, the front view must be drawn.
Axis Perpendicular to VP: If the axis is perpendicular to VP then the base of the solid is parallel to
VP. Hence true shape and size will be obtained on VP. Therefore, front view (FV) should be drawn
first and then TV is projected from it.
Axis Perpendicular to both H.P. and V.P.: In this case true shape and size will be obtained only
when viewed from side i.e. side view. Hence, side view is drawn first and all other views are projected
from it.

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SUSPENDED SOLIDS
A solid may be suspended freely in air by attaching a string at some suitable point. The projections of
such a solid should be treated as special case. The interesting fact is that an imaginary line joining the
point of attachment of the string to the centre of gravity (CG) of the solid is always vertical. Therefore,
the location of CGs of the various solids should be known. Table shows the location of CGs of basic
solids
CGS of the Solids
Group of solids Location of CG
Pyramids (including Tetrahedron) and cone 1/4 (Height) from base along the axis
Prims (including cube) and cylinder Midpoint of the axis
Sphere Centre
Hemisphere 3/8 (Radius) from circuar face along the
perpendicular to the face at centre.

Solid Position of the Cutting True Shape of

Plane Section
Cylinder Perpendicular to the axis Circle
Inclined to the axis cutting all generators Ellipse
Parallel to the axis Rectangle
Inclined to the axis cutting all generators Ellipse
Cone Parallel to a generator Parabola
Inclined to and on one side of the axis Hyperbola
Parallel to the axis Rectangular Hyperbola
Passing through the axis or the apex Triangle

• An orthographic view of a hemi-sphere may appear as circle

• A square pyramid is resting on a face in the V.P. The number of dotted lines which will appear in
the front view is Two
• A cube is resting on the H.P. with a solid diagonal perpendicular to it. The top view will appear as
regular hexagon
• A cylinder rests on a point of its base circle in the H.P., having the axis inclined at 30° to the H.P.
and 60° to the V.P. The inclination of the top view of the axis with the reference line will be 90°
• A pentagonal pyramid is resting on its triangular face on the HP with its axis parallel to the VP
then FV shows TL of axis, SV of axis is perpendicular to XY, TV of axis is parallel to XY.
• The largest possible section of a pentagonal prism will have Seven edges.
• To obtain the true shape of the section of a solid, an auxiliary plane is set Parallel to cutting plane.
• If the cutting plane includes the axis of a cylinder, the section obtained is a Rectangle.
• The development of all the surface of a cube will be 6 squares.
• Whenever a prism and a pyramid intersect, the curve seen at their intersection is a Segmented-
line curve.
• If a cutting plane is parallel to a face of the tetrahedron, the section will be an equilateral triangle.
• If a cutting plane is parallel to a side of the tetrahedron, the section will be a rectangle.
• If a cutting plane is parallel to a side of the tetrahedron and passes through the midpoints of other
edges, the section will be a square of side equal to half of the side of the tetrahedron.
• Type of views are used to provide clarity and reveal interior features of a part is section views.
• A cone is cut by a section plane parallel to the profile plane. Its true shape of section is seen In
side view.
• When two prisms intersect at right angle, the curve of intersection is made up of straight line.
• When two cylinders of equal diameters envelope a common sphere, the curve of intersection is
made up of straight line.

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• The line of intersection between cylinder and cone, unless they envelope a common sphere, is
made up of curved line. The study of intersection of surface helps in sheet metal work.
• The intersection of a cone by a plane results in conic section.
• When a cylinder penetrates into a vertical cone with their axes parallel to each other, the top view
of the curve of intersection is a circle.
• When a vertical cylinder is penetrated by a horizontal cylinder, the top view of the curve of
intersection is circular arc
• The curve of intersection of a vertical cone with an auxiliary vertical plane is hyperbolic curve.
• The points at which the curve of intersection changes its nature are known as key points.

Development of Surfaces
Surface generated by moving a straight line is called plane surface and that generated by a curve is
called curved surface.
• The development of a curved surface of a cylinder will be a Rectangle.
• The method by which the development of surface of an oblique solid is obtained is triangulation
method.
• Methods for the development of solids are parallel line method.
• Development of sphere is done by zone or Lune method.
• The nature of lateral surface of a cylinder is singly curved surface.
• The nature of surface of a sphere is doubly curved surface.
• If a semi-circular thin sheet is folded to form a cone, then the front view of the cone appears as
equilateral triangle.
• Isometric drawings fall into the category of axonometric drawings.
• The projectors in isometric view are perpendicular to plane projection.
• Pictorial views drawn on isometric scale are called isometric projection.
• Perspective projections are mostly used in architectural and civil engineering drawings,
advertisement campaigns etc. It is to note that perspective views are not used in manufacturing
drawings.
• Parallel line development method is suitable for cubes, prisms and cylinders. Since tetrahedron is
not included in any of the above classification, hence this method is not suitable for tetrahedron.
• The shortest possible length of the thread will be the longest chord of the development sector.
• The development of a curved surface of a cylinder will be a rectangle.

Miscellaneous
• A square is seen as rhombus, rectangle is seen as parallelogram and circle is seen as ellipse in
isometric.
• Any angle in orthographic view is never seen as it is in isometric. It is obtained in isometric by
locating and joining the end points of the two lines making the angle.
• Isometric projection of an object is seen smaller in size than its actual size.
• Isometric scale is used to draw isometric projection.
• Isometric view of an object is seen in its actual size.
• Isometric scale is not used to draw isometric view.
• In isometric, extreme generators of cone or cylinders are drawn tangent to base face (in case of
cone) or tangent to both the end faces (in case of cylinder).
• The isometric projection of a sphere appears same in size as that of the actual sphere. The
isometric scale is used to draw isometric projection of the sphere in relation to other solids.
• The isometric view of a sphere is seen larger in size than the actual size of the sphere. The
spherical scale is used to draw the isometric view of the sphere.
• Compared to the actual diameter, the isometric diameter of a sphere is Equal.
• In isometric projection, the length or width of the object is drawn at 30° to the horizontal
reference line.

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