Living Land

2010 - 2020

UNITED NATIONS DECADE FOR DESERTS AND THE FIGHT AGAINST DESERTIFICATION
Living Land

2010 - 2020

UNITED NATIONS DECADE FOR DESERTS AND THE FIGHT AGAINST DESERTIFICATION
 DISCLAIMER
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products
of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or
recommended by UNCCD in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

The views expressed in this information product are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the
views or policies of UNCCD.

ISBN 978-92-95043-24-4
Original title: Living Land

Text © UNCCD 2015. All rights reserved.

Photographs © as per credits

Published in 2015 by UNCCD

and Copublisher: Tudor Rose www.tudor-rose.co.uk
 Acknowledgements
Compiled by: Sean Nicklin, Ben Cornwell
Edited by: Dr Jacqui Griffiths
Designed by: Libby Sidebotham
Project Manager: Stuart Fairbrother

Cover photo: Mechanical labour of the soil, common nurseries and planting of the trees directly by the beneficiaries are key
elements of the afforestation approach “village – individual reforestation” which was developed by the German development
cooperation in Madagascar resulting in about 9,000 ha rehabilitated land so far. © GIZ/ECO
For the full story please visit https://youtu.be/fM7RQZKOB40

Printed in the UK by: Gomer Press Ltd.

With thanks to all the authors listed in the contents section for their support in making Living Land possible.

African Development Bank (AfDB) Institute for Nature Conservation and Forests, Portugal
Asian Development Bank (ADB) Institute of Environmental Studies (IES), University of New
Association Pour un autre monde South Wales (UNSW)

Bureau of Meteorology, Australia International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
(ICARDA)
Center for Global Environmental Research (CGER), National
Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), Japan International Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA)

Comisión Nacional Forestal (CONAFOR) International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics (ICRISAT)
Department of Environment, Energy and Climate,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Denmark Islamic Development Bank Group (IDB)

Department of Environmental Affairs, Republic of South Africa Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences
(JIRCAS)
Department of Environmental Affairs,Ministry of Environment
and Tourism, Namibia Keren Kayemeth LeIsrael — Jewish National Fund (KKL-JNF)

Disaster Management Training and Education Centre for Kuwait Environment Public Authority (KEPA)
Africa (DiMTEC) Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute
Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI), (MARDI)
Kyoto University Ministry for the Environment and Natural Resources,
Embassy of Denmark in Bolivia Department of Land and Natural Heritage, Iceland

Emirates Environmental Group Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand

Environmental Monitoring Group Ministry of Environment, Green Development

and Tourism of Mongolia
European Space Agency (ESA)
Ministry of Social Development and Fight against Hunger
Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (MDS), Brazil
(BMZ), Germany
Ministry of the Environment (MMA), Brazil
Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training
Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (NCGRT)
Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and National Forestry Commission of Chile (CONAF)
Development (GBPIHED)
Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz International Prize for Water (PSIPW)
General Directorate of Combating Desertification and Erosion,
Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, Turkey The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research (BIDR)

Global Environment Facility (GEF) Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM)

[ 3 ]
 Foreword
MONIQUE BARBUT, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, UNITED NATIONS
CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION

The number of migrants taking dangerous risks to cross borders is a signal of an emerging challenge. But if
the number of Europe-directed migrants is significant, their origin is even more so. The main countries of
origin are Afghanistan, Eritrea, Gambia, Iraq, Nigeria, Pakistan, Senegal, Somalia, Sudan and Syria. Civil war
or terrorism may explain the outflow of migrants in many of these countries, but what about Gambia and
Senegal? If you look below the surface, you can trace the origins of migration, even in these war-torn countries,
to deepening poverty in regions where naturally fragile lands are experiencing sharply declining fertility, and
infertility creates unemployment, hunger, lack of opportunity and, eventually, political breakdown.
Migration isn’t just a European problem. Every year, 700,000 people migrate from Mexico’s drylands
to other regions. But the greatest injustice is faced by the communities forced to migrate. For many
rural people in the developing world, the land and its natural resources are still the primary sources of
livelihood — from employment to meeting such basic needs as food, water, energy and medicine. More
than 2 billion people live in the driest regions of the world and are already touched by the effects of
climate change. Droughts and floods are more frequent and extreme. In the last 10 years, the number of
natural disasters globally has doubled from 200 to 400 per year. The push to migrate will only grow if we
do not act to address its root causes.
Living Land tells inspiring stories about tackling the challenges of land degradation and climate change,
and doing so affordably. These stories show how land degradation occurs, and that it is now a threat
beyond the Sahel and other dryland regions. They explain what we can do, and what is already being done.
Investors, policymakers and activists who have longed to do something about land degradation but have
found the subject daunting and incomprehensible will find this publication highly useful. This is a book by
experts for everyone who cares about our planet’s future.
Less than a decade ago, Professor Norman Myers from Oxford University projected that by 2050 at least 200
million people would migrate due to the impacts of climate change. Myers’ estimates were highly contested —
and still are. However, the political uproar in Europe over the influx of just 300,000 migrants in 18 months
shows how the future could unfold if we continue to ignore land degradation and drought elsewhere. The
political consequences are far-reaching and global. Living Land shows that to stem the flows of migration,
we must create solutions for its environmental push factors. Inaction is by far the more costly option, and as
Living Land shows, the solutions are cost-effective and produce real change in the first few years.

Monique Barbut
Executive Secretary,
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

[ 4 ]
 ­Contents
Acknowledgements....................................................................................3 Sustainable land management in Mongolia .............................................44
Bayarbat Dashzeveg, Ministry of Environment, Green Development
Foreword...................................................................................................4 and Tourism of Mongolia
Monique Barbut, Executive Secretary, United Nations Convention
to Combat Desertification Participatory saline soil management in Thailand ...................................48
Apichart Jongskul and Pranee Srihaban, Land Development Department; Worapong
Statement by Izabella Teixeira, Minister of the Environment, Brazil Waramit and Wisit Ngamsom, Focal Point Office of Thailand to United Nations
and Tereza Campello, Minister of Social Development and Fight Convention to Combat Desertification and Land Development Department
against Hunger, Brazil................................................................................7
Securing the upper end of the water value chain in South Africa..............51
Statment by Prof. Dr. Veysel Eroğlu. Forestry Christo Marais, Chief Director, Natural Resource Management Programmes,
and Water Affairs Minister, Turkey............................................................8 Department of Environmental Affairs, South Africa

Statement by Jorge Rescala Perez, Director General, National Forestry Translating policy into action — efforts to combat desertification,
Commission of Mexico..............................................................................9 land degradation and drought in Namibia...............................................55
Teofilus Nghitila and Bryn Canniffe, Department of Environmental Affairs,
Living Land: an introduction...................................................................10
Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Namibia
Wagaki Wischnewski, Focal Point, United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force of
the United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification Networks to combat desertification in Portugal.......................................59
Maria José Roxo, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa; Eugénio Sequeira, Liga para
Reversing land degradation in the drylands: scaling out and monitoring
a Proteção da Natureza and Lúcio do Rosário, Institute for Nature Conservation
proven sustainable land management options..........................................14
and Forests
Feras Ziadat, Nora Berrahmouni, Uwe Grewer Sally Bunning and Louis Bockel,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and Theib Oweis, Seizing opportunities for sustainable land management through targeted
International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas policies and strategies — German engagement........................................63
Christina Seeberg-Elverfeldt, German Federal Ministry of Economic
Enhancing water resources management in irrigated agriculture
Cooperation and Development (BMZ)
to cope with water scarcity in arid regions ..............................................18
Bakhodir Mirzaev, Shehzad Akram, Liban Ali Yusuf and Abdul Basit Jam, Combating desertification and land degradation in the forestry sector.....68
Islamic Development Bank Group Mexico’s National Forestry Commission

Sustainable smallholder agriculture, food security, agricultural Synergies in the fight against desertification for mitigation and
policy and the role of smallholder farmers...............................................22 adaptation to climate change...................................................................72
Umar I. Kamarah, Islamic Development Bank Group Angelo Sartori, Chief & Wilfredo Alfaro, Forestry Engineer, M.Sc., Climate
Change and Environmental Services Unit, Forest Development and Support
Combating desertification: introducing integrated ecosystem
Management Office, National Forestry Commission, Chile
management in the People’s Republic of China.......................................25
Frank Radstake and Bruce Dunn, Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines The continuing fight for the rights of Pachamama — Mother Earth
— in Bolivia............................................................................................76
Reclamation and sustainable development of degraded lands
Ole Thonke, Ambassador and Camilla Lodberg Holck Madsen, Royal Danish
in the Niger basin....................................................................................29
Embassy in La Paz, Bolivia
Seyni Seydou, Project Coordinator, Niger Basin Authority and Laouali Garba,
Principal Environment Officer, African Development Bank Controlling shifting sands in Kuwait: an approach for sustainable
development............................................................................................80
The right to water in the semi-arid region: managing Brazilian areas
Professor Doctor Raafat Misak, Environment and Life Sciences Research Center,
susceptible to desertification...................................................................33
Kuwait Institute of Scientific Research; Member of the National Committee for
Ministry of the Environment & Ministry of Social Development and Fight
Combating Desertification at the Kuwait Environment Public Authority
against Hunger, Brazil
Combating desertification under climate variability, climate change
The Afforestation and Erosion Control Mobilization Action Plan
and reduction of water resources in India ...............................................84
in Turkey......................................................................................................... 37
L. S. Rathore, N. Chattopadhyay and S. D. Attri, India Meteorological Department
M. Abdullah Yurtoglu, Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, General
Directorate of Combating Desertification and Erosion, Department of Functional rehabilitation of desertified ecosystems in Israel:
Combating Desertification, Turkey ecological and socioecological perspectives..............................................88
David Brand, Chief Forester, Head of the Forest Department, Keren Kayemeth
Building on partnerships and strong stakeholder involvement to tackle
LeIsrael — Jewish National Fund; Itshack Moshe, Deputy Director Southern
land degradation......................................................................................40
Region, Keren Kayemeth LeIsrael — Jewish National Fund; and Moshe
Thorunn Petursdottir, Soil Conservation Service of Iceland and Hreinn
Shachak, Ben Gurion University of the Negev
Oskarsson, Hekla Forest Project & Icelandic Forest Service

[ 5 ]
 ­Contents
Rethinking the sustainability of Israel’s irrigation practices Biosaline agriculture as an approach for combating desertification.........146
in the drylands........................................................................................93 Dr Abdullah Dakheel, Dr Rao Nanduri and Dr Richard Soppe, International
Professor Alon Tal, Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben Gurion University Center for Biosaline Agriculture, Dubai

Restoring lands and livelihoods in rain-fed areas through community Restoring the soil to feed people and fight desertification......................149
watershed management...........................................................................97 Claire Péhi-Verny, President, Association Pour un autre monde
Suhas P Wani and Kaushal K Garg, International Crops Research Institute
for the Semi-Arid Tropics, India Long-term drought in southern Australia...............................................152
David Jones and Alex Evans, Australian Bureau of Meteorology
The Uttarakhand Sustainable Land and Ecosystem Management
project — applying integrated approaches.............................................101 Recovering life in the desert: successful experience with indigenous
Mohamed Imam Bakarr, Jean-Marc Sinnassamy, Ulrich Apel, and Andrew communities in Mendoza, Argentina.....................................................155
Chilombo, The Global Environment Facility Elena María Abraham, Laura Torres, Darío Soria, Clara Rubio and Cecilia
Rubio, Argentine Dryland Research Institute of the National Council for
Ancient soils reborn...............................................................................106 Scientific and Technical Research
Noel Oettlé, Environmental Monitoring Group, South Africa
Wasteland rehabilitation for sustainable agriculture in the Indian
Environmental education and awareness programmes in the Himalayan region .................................................................................159
United Arab Emirates ...........................................................................110 G.C.S. Negi, Scientist E; P.P. Dhyani, Director; and R.C. Sundriyal, Scientist
Habiba Al Marashi, Chairperson, Emirates Environmental Group F, Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development,
Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, India
Disaster risk and two recent episodes in Japan.......................................115
Kaoru Takara, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan Soil and the living land — threats and responses...................................163
Uriel Safriel, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and The Jacob Blaustein
Australia prepares for a cycle of extreme droughts.................................119 Institutes for Desert Research, Israel
Professor Craig Simmons, Director, National Centre for Groundwater Research
and Training, Australia Returning agricultural productivity to former tin mining land
in Peninsular Malaysia...........................................................................166
Research and achievements in combating land degradation and Dato Dr Sharif Haron, Dr Mohamad Roff Mohd Noor, Dr Wan Abdullah
desertification for sustainable rural development...................................122 Wan Yusoff and Rohani Md. Yon, Malaysian Agricultural Research and
Satoshi Tobita, Takeshi Matsumoto, Yukio Okuda, Kenta Ikazaki and Akinori Development Institute
Oshibe, Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences
Innovative agricultural intensification of sandy desert soils using
Earth Observation approaches to sustainable land management in organic and inorganic amendments.......................................................171
drylands: experiences from the European Space Agency........................127 Shabbir A. Shahid, Abdullah Alshankiti, Shagufta Gill and Henda Mahmoudi,
Marc Paganini, Anna Burzykowska and Frank Martin Seifert, European Space International Center for Biosaline Agriculture, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Agency; Ute Gangkofner, GeoVille; and Thomas Häusler, GAF AG
Reclaiming degraded lands and building resilience to climate
Satellite laser altimetry: a powerful tool to enhance the capability change in Maharashtra, India.................................................................175
of global forest inventory.......................................................................131 Dr Marcella D’souza, Executive Director and Karan Misquitta, researcher,
Yoshiki Yamagata, Masato Hayashi and Habura Borjigin, National Institute for Watershed Organisation Trust
Environmental Studies, Center for Global Environmental Research, Japan
Rehabilitation of degraded tropical forests in Malaysia...........................178
Enabling investments in sustainable rangeland management.................134 Ismail Harun, Raja Barizan, Raja Sulaiman and Samsudin Musa, Forest
G. Metternicht, University of New South Wales Australia, School of Biological, Research Institute of Malaysia
Earth and Environmental Sciences and Dryland Ecosystems Thematic Group,
IUCN; P. Laban, Dryland Ecosystems Thematic Group, International Union for Awarding innovation to combat desertification and drought..................181
Conservation of Nature Commission on Ecosystem Management; J. Davies and C. Abdulmalek A. Al Alshaikh, General Secretary, Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz
Ogali, International Union for Conservation of Nature Global Drylands Initiative International Prize for Water

Combating desertification and land degradation in the drylands: Land use and the restoration of degraded land towards sustainable
research integration in practice..............................................................138 development in Malaysia.......................................................................184
Mahmoud Solh, Director General and Lamia El-Fattal, Executive Assistant to the Omar Osman, Kamarulazizi Ibrahim, Kanayathu Koshy, Fauziah Ahmad
Director General, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas and Ahmad Shukri Yahaya, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang

Food insecurity, drought and climate change: the case Notes and References............................................................................188
of Karamoja, Uganda .........................................................................142
A. J. Jordaan, Director: Disaster Management Training and Education Centre
for Africa, University of the Free State, South Africa

[ 6 ]
 IZABELLA TEIXEIRA, MINISTER OF THE ENVIRONMENT, BRAZIL
TEREZA CAMPELLO, MINISTER OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND FIGHT AGAINST HUNGER, BRAZIL

Brazil has sought constant innovation and improvement of national policies to simultaneously promote social
and economic development and environmental conservation. Emergency initiatives that previously had a focus
on combating the most visible effects of drought and desertification processes were replaced by structuring
actions in order to improve the living conditions of the local people and to promote a productive and decent
coexistence with drought. Environmental conservation as well as water, food and energy security have been
guaranteed with the use of locally developed technologies that are adapted to the conditions of the areas
susceptible to desertification, and aimed at the needs of the poorest population. The policies and cases presented
here give a sample of the results of participatory management that involves different levels of the Government
and civil society to preserve the environment and overcome extreme poverty. Such a model has been generating
innovations that contribute to combat desertification, conserve biodiversity and to promote adaptation to climate
change in our country.

Izabella Teixeira
Minister of the Environment, Brazil

Tereza Campello
Minister of Social Development
and Fight against Hunger, Brazil

[ 7 ]
 PROF. DR. VEYSEL EROĞLU. FORESTRY AND WATER AFFAIRS MINISTER, TURKEY

Global warming, climate change, desertification and drought are the most relevant global issues of our days.
Desertification, land degradation and drought that is threatening directly around 1.2 billion people in more than
110 countries and in 4 billion hectares in the world is not only an environmental issue, but it also has a negative
impact on economy, security and development.
Rapid demographic increase and industrialization worldwide is causing intensive pressures on natural
resources. Issues such as deforestation, soil and water resources pollution, desertification, climate change,
biodiversity extinction risk, hunger and migration emerging from these pressures were opened to discussion in a
more intensive way in international platforms after Rio Summit held in 1992.
The only way to confront this threat for humanity is to ensure that countries use their abilities to act together
and that they realize efficient cooperation.
In this context, the 12th Conference of the Parties for the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification to be held at Ankara, capital of our country, between 12-23 October 2015, will offer a very
important opportunity.
Turkey is aware of the responsibility given to country Parties according to United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification objectives fulfillment.
Our country is playing an active role in combating desertification and its negative effects both in national and
international fields.
In this scope our National Desertification Combating Strategy was prepared, and the current National
Desertification Combating Action Plan was updated in the light of the new National Strategy Document.
Furthermore, in the scope of Erosion Combating Action Plan prepared for years 2013-2017, Upper Watershed
Flood Control Action Plan, Mine Sites Rehabilitation Action Plan and Dam Watersheds Afforestation Action
Plan land degradation is prevented and watersheds protection is ensured so that it contributes to decrease
desertification and climate change effects on our country.
I hope that worldwide public opinion will consider environmental worries not only as scientific reality but also
as an ethical question and will notice their personal responsibilities.
As the host country for United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, we express our satisfaction to
share with the entire world this relevant publication entitled Living Land with Turkey’s experience and successes.

Prof. Dr. Veysel Eroğlu

Forestry and Water Affairs Minister, Turkey

[ 8 ]
JORGE RESCALA PEREZ, DIRECTOR GENERAL, NATIONAL FORESTRY COMMISSION OF MEXICO

A healthy environment is a fundamental human right that means a binding responsibility with future generations.
Far from being a burden it should be seen as an opportunity to generate employment and value and, as a
consequence, economic development and poverty reduction.
Economic growth and sustainability are not conflicting tasks; instead, they should be complementary.
Consistent with its commitment to combat desertification and land degradation, Mexico was the first country
in the world to subscribe to and ratify the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in 1995,
one year after its adoption. Furthermore, Mexico was the first country to submit its Action Plan to Combat
Desertification in 1994.
At the Third Scientific Conference of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, hosted by
Mexico in 2015, experts from around the world gathered to discuss the role of science, technology and traditional
knowledge and practices to fight desertification and land degradation. They recognized that, due to the cross-
cutting nature of land degradation, climate change and biodiversity loss, there is a need to promote integrated
landscape management approaches to address those challenges simultaneously, supported by the generation,
diffusion and exchange of scientific, technical and traditional knowledge.
The Government of Mexico has established clear policies and is advancing to conserve soil and reverse land
degradation. In doing so it seeks to maintain the provision of a wide range of benefits such as fertility, the
productive capacity of soils, regulation of the hydrological cycle, control of floods and landslides, climate change
mitigation and adaptation, and the conservation of Mexican terrestrial ecosystems which are among the world’s
richest in terms of biological diversity.
To lead Mexico to its full potential, the Government is implementing political actions aimed to promote
and strengthen the sustainable use of its natural resources in order to contribute to poverty eradication,
maintain livelihoods of local communities and increase the quality of life of Mexico’s population while avoiding
environmental degradation.

Jorge Rescala Perez

Director General, National Forestry Commission of Mexico

[ 9 ]
 Living Land

Living Land: an introduction

Wagaki Wischnewski, Focal Point, United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force
of the United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification

G
lobal understanding of climate change has under- desertification, land degradation or drought. They stretch from
gone a sea change since 1992, when the public Australia in Asia, through the Middle East, Western Europe and
became aware of the issue. Worldwide, policymak- Central and Eastern Europe, all the way down to Chile and the
ers, the public and the private sector, all the way down Cuban islands in Latin America. Underlying this is an important
to the household-level are taking measures to secure their lesson: land degradation is not a threat to Africa alone. It is a
assets against the impacts of climate change. Less noticed, global threat that manifests itself in a variety of ways.
until recently, is the sea change taking place on the issues The land’s vulnerability to degradation on a global scale is
of desertification, land degradation and drought. driven by a coincidence of two factors — one is human and the
other is climatic. On the climatic side are the weather condi-
In 1992, governments began international negotiations on tions that expose the land to conditions — harsh wind and
a convention to combat desertification, land degradation water effects — that erode the soil. The science shows that
and drought. This was never viewed as an issue facing all erratic and extreme weather events are becoming more regular
developing countries, much less a global community. Most and intense. But governments cannot control these climatic
negotiators understood it as an African problem, primarily, conditions on their own; it requires global collaboration.
and gave it an apt title to signify this fact: the United Nations On the human side are the inappropriate land use practices
Convention to Combat Desertification, in those Countries that make the soils fragile. Governments can limit the damage
Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, done to the land by creating the incentives that promote the
particularly in Africa (UNCCD). take-up of sustainable land use practices. Thus, it should come
This perception has shifted dramatically over the last 20 years. as no surprise that most of the authors present sustainable land
In a 2011 review by the UNCCD, 169 of the 194 countries that management practices as their key interventions. They reveal a
are party to the convention claim they are now affected by deser- wide range of approaches being used in different parts of the
tification, land degradation or drought. Living Land presents a world, a wide range of the actors involved and the roles they play,
range of initiatives from around the world on the fight against as well as a wide range of tools available and in use to support
these efforts; some of which are highly sophisticated, such as
satellites, while others are as basic as the manual installation of
Image: Chetan Soni & UNCCD 2009 Photo Contest

stone bunds. This publication highlights some of the challenges

national governments that are parties to the convention face in
their efforts to combat land degradation and manage drought.

Why another publication?

Clearly, these dimensions have all been covered before. So
what is the valued added of Living Land?
It responds to a knowledge gap that is vital in the mobiliz-
ing of the global public in the efforts to combat desertification,
land degradation and drought. Living Land provides technical
knowledge on the subject of land degradation in a language that
is accessible to the general public, policymakers and activists that
do not know the subject. Unlike many publications that focus on
the problem or assessment of desertification, land degradation or
drought, Living Land is about implementation. It is about experts
showing what governments are doing, how they are doing it,
where they are doing it and why they are doing it. Simply put,
through Living Land, the technical experts that implement
sustainable land management are reaching out to the public.
The first assessment of land degradation on a global level
The land’s vulnerability to degradation is driven by human and climatic was carried out in 1991.1 Known as the Global Assessment
factors, and global collaboration is required to address the issues of Human-induced Soil Degradation, the study was based

[ 10 ]
 Living Land

Image: Ricardo Spencer & UNCCD 2013 Photo Contest

More than 1.5 billion people depend on degrading lands, but land degradation is not fated, where there is political will

on the expert judgement of scientists. It produced a world Land degradation was also evident in Australia, Asia, Latin
map of human-induced soil degradation and concluded America and North America. In short, this is a global phenom-
that 15 per cent of the land surface was degraded. But it enon. GLADA uncovered other significant results. About 78
got outdated quickly. per cent of the degrading land is not in the dryland areas, but
The first comprehensive assessment of the status of deser- in the humid areas; 16 per cent of the land area is improving;
tification, land degradation and drought on a global level and 1.5 billion people depend directly on degrading land. The
is the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). It is a study also drew attention to the release of greenhouse gasses
well-researched presentation of the status and the economic, through land degradation. In spite of the study’s ground-
social and cultural values of the dryland regions of the world. breaking data, its highly scientific orientation means it didn’t
It brought to the attention of the international community capture the imagination of the general public.
the consequences, at the global level, of failing to combat At about the time the study was released, the international
land degradation or mitigate the effects of drought. The MEA community celebrated the International Year of Deserts and
remains a valuable resource for policymakers, activists and Desertification. In light of a persistent lack of awareness about
the scientific community. But it focuses on drought and land the scope and causes of desertification and the solutions to the
degradation in fragile ecosystems only, that is, the arid, semi- problem, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2010 to
arid and dry-sub-humid zones of the world. Thus, it does 2020 the United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against
not tell us the status of land degradation worldwide. And the Desertification. The purpose of the decade is to raise global
publication is still fairly technical, which has kept it inacces- awareness of desertification, land degradation and drought at all
sible to the general reader, in spite of its immense value. levels. This year, 2015, marks the half-way point of the decade.
The Global Assessment of Land Degradation and Improvement
(GLADA) was published in 2008 and offers a deeper analysis What has changed?
of land degradation.2 It reveals the scope of land degradation The adoption of the 10-year (2008-2018) strategic framework
in all types of ecosystems and the global population affected, for the implementation of the Convention was a watershed
but also probes where land is improving. Indeed, a fair assess- moment in the global efforts to combat land degradation. It
ment of the status of land degradation must take into account embraced science as the guide to policymaking in the global
the amount of degrading land and the unproductive land efforts to combat land degradation and drought. The science
being restored back to health. is today more robust and growing, and the Science and Policy
According to GLADA, 24 per cent of the global land area is Interface (SPI) established in 2013 is facilitating dialogue
degrading. Some of these are new areas and not just in Africa. between scientists and policymakers.

[ 11 ]
 Living Land

Image: Jorge Valenzuela & UNCCD 2009 Photo Contest

More than 2 billion people will be living in water-scarce regions in the world and rehabilitating degraded lands is a pathway to water security

Three scientific conferences have shaped how governments conference. The international community recognizes that
are implementing the convention. The first conference put the available technologies on alternative energy and carbon
forward 11 impact indicators to assess changes in the produc- capture and storage are not enough to keep the temperature
tivity of the land. Two of the indicators are mandatory for rise to below 2 degrees Celsius. But the trees, soils, forests,
194 governments when they report on the progress they are wetlands and other land-based resources that absorb carbon
making to combat land degradation. can store more than half of the remaining excess carbon
A database of the sustainable land management techniques emissions. The scientific community is urging governments
used around the world was also set up to facilitate the exchange to adopt these carbon sequestering measures as part of the
and diffusion of knowledge. Known as the Scientific Knowledge Paris 2015 Climate Change Conference because of their
Brokering Portal, the database has a lot of information and added value. Degraded lands and declining groundwater
knowledge for use by land managers and policymakers. levels would recover. Ecosystems would provide the resilience
The second scientific conference examined the economic needed during floods or droughts, for instance.
benefits of sustainable land management versus the costs of Other types of assessments of land degradation are also
inaction. The results persuaded governments that it is possible underway. The SPI is working on evidence to show that
and necessary to pursue a land degradation neutral world. That efforts to combat land degradation also address the issues
is, for every hectare of land that is degraded an equal amount of climate change and biodiversity loss. It is also identifying
of degraded land is restored back to health in the same time- how sustainable land uses effectively manage soil carbon. The
frame and in the same ecosystem. This idea is now part of the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Sustainable Development Goals, particularly goal 15.3, which Services is carrying out an assessment on land degradation
the international community will strive to achieve by 2030. and restoration. It will focus on the global status of and trends
The importance of this conference is reflected in the ongoing in land degradation in each region and for different types of
work of the Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) initiative, a land cover; and ecosystem restoration and options.
platform for policymakers and the private sector that is now The Global Land Outlook is a flagship publication that will
building data on the economic benefits of land and land-based be issued every four years from 2016. It is targeting a much
ecosystems. ELD’s aims are to establish a common approach for broader audience; an educated general public, non-govern-
robust economic analysis of land management and to highlight mental organizations and civil society, and decision makers in
the benefits of adopting sustainable land management practices. the private and public sectors. Its aim is to promote the main-
The scientific conference held earlier in 2015 considered streaming of sustainable land management in both policy and
the role land use systems can play to mitigate climate change. investment decisions. The publication is set up as a commu-
The Impulse Report was the basis for this discussion at the nications platform for strategic analysis to address the future

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Image: Nimai Ghosh & UNCCD 2013 Photo Contest

Sustainable land management — an untapped source of employment that can transform livelihoods in some of the poorest regions of the world

land management challenges in the context of sustainable about the subject or who wish to understand the issues of land
development. These include food, water and energy security; degradation will find this book particularly useful.
climate action and biodiversity conservation; urban and infra- But the book is also very rich in content and will be particu-
structure development; land tenure, gender and governance; larly useful for educators who are looking to understand the
and migration, conflict and human security. subject and for teachers of environmental sciences, including
Several important scientific assessments to support deci- at the undergraduate level. Other potential users are journal-
sion-making are in the pipeline. The consensus and policy ists, activists, researchers and extension works who need a
cooperation they are mobilizing are pointers of success. What comprehensive publication to introduce them to the subject
is lacking, however, are specific products aimed at the public. and to provide pointers in the direction the subject is moving.
Products that show, in practical terms, what it means to The third category is the practitioners who are interested in
restore or rehabilitate degraded land; where success has been doing something about land degradation. Funding agencies,
achieved; and how the public can get involved. the private sector, humanitarian and other non-governmental
As one of the few publications that have endeavoured to fill organizations and military personnel will all find this publica-
this gap, Living Land is a powerful outreach tool for sensitizing tion an important source of knowledge about different regions
the public about the problem, and mobilizing action globally. It of the world, the main drivers of desertification and land
is also an important tool for sensitizing policymakers and deci- degradation in different regions, the variety of tools available
sion makers who are not well versed in the subject, but whose to address the different challenges, and the key and range of
work is related to the issues of land degradation and drought. actors involved in this issue.
Living Land targets the same audience as the Land for Life Each of the articles is written as a stand-alone piece,
series of publications but its approach is different. It tells therefore readers can start with any article of their choice.
the story of fighting land degradation from the perspective Nevertheless, the articles are clustered around particular
of the actors with a duty to ensure good land stewardship themes, for instance, water or food security.
— governments. By contrast, the Land for Life publications Still, many of the articles cut across several themes. For
tell the same story from the perspective of other stakeholders instance, an article highlighting the link between land degrada-
— intergovernmental, non-governmental organizations and tion and water scarcity may also speak to a unique sustainable
community-based organizations. land management technique used or an innovative financing
mechanism employed as part of the solution. Therefore, educa-
How to use this publication tors need to invest some time to select the most suitable articles
Living Land is written in a style that is suitable for anyone inter- for their purpose. Skimmers can read the first paragraph (in bold
ested in this issue. Therefore, readers who are simply curious text) of each article to find out the central message of each piece.

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Reversing land degradation in the drylands:

scaling out and monitoring proven
sustainable land management options
Feras Ziadat, Nora Berrahmouni, Uwe Grewer, Sally Bunning and Louis Bockel, Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, and Theib Oweis, International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas

P
romising sustainable land management (SLM) Land degradation is causing serious economic, social
options are available to reverse land degradation. and environmental problems in the arid areas. It directly
Yet, land degradation and desertification are threat- affects the livelihoods of the rural population by reducing
ening people’s livelihoods and food security, particularly the productivity of land resources and adversely affecting
in the dry areas with unfavourable climate variability and the stability, functions and services derived from natural
change. We propose a guiding opportunistic approach to systems. Land degradation and desertification are driven by
reverse this trend. The approach helps in identifying target unfavourable natural factors and are aggravated by misuse
areas where adaptable SLM options have high potential and overexploitation of the natural resource base, particu-
of success. This is possible when coupled with an imple- larly through inappropriate and unsustainable agricultural
mentation and scaling-out campaign supported by proper practices, overgrazing, deforestation and forest degradation.
policies and financial mechanisms. It requires continuous The types and causes of land degradation and desertifi-
monitoring and evaluation to assess the impact and guide cation vary from one site to another, even within a short
the fine-tuning based on future fluctuations. distance. Therefore, to propose workable solutions, the dry

Image: Ethiopia/ICARDA

Implementation of SLM in farmers’ fields by the whole community

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areas should be classified based on specific challenges, then

suitable SLM practices are implemented and adopted for Proven interventions
each class. Four dominant agroecosystems are considered in
the dry area in general and in the Near East and North Africa

Image: ICARDA Benchmarks – Jordan

in particular. These are the pastoral (rangeland) agroecosys-
tems, rain-fed agroecosystems, irrigated agroecosystems and
forests and agroforestry.
The challenge in pastoral (rangeland) agroecosystems
is to enhance productivity and halt/reverse land degrada-
tion through rehabilitation and improved management
of the natural resources, particularly the most limiting
resources, land and water. By concentrating (collecting) the
run-off into target areas, water harvesting increases water
availability to plants, controls soil erosion, reduces the
impact of drought, improves the productivity and vegeta-
tion cover, and increases rainwater productivity. Within
the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the
Macro- and micro-catchment water harvesting practices are a proven
Dry Areas (ICARDA) led rangeland benchmark site in the intervention against land degradation
Badia of Jordan, innovative methods to select and imple-
ment water harvesting interventions were developed and
Among the proven interventions/packages to help in fighting
the willingness of farmers to adopt these technologies has land degradation and secure more food in the dry areas are:
significantly increased. • R angelands: macro- and micro-catchment water harvesting
In rain-fed agroecosystems, production is dependent practices (contour ridges and semicircular bunds using
on a low and extremely variable rainfall and, therefore, the Vallerani mechanized system), rooftop and courtyard
water harvesting
productivity is low and unstable. This is further affected by • I rrigated areas: water-saving techniques (raised beds
frequent droughts and continuing land degradation. One and deficit irrigation)
option that has the potential to provide large productiv- • R ain-fed areas: supplemental irrigation and early sowing
• F orests and agroforestry: innovative water harvesting
ity gains is the use of supplemental irrigation for rain-fed
techniques, use of treated wastewater, sand dune fixation,
crops, provided there is water available for irrigation. This conserving soil fertility, controlling erosion, using vegetative
is done by using and optimizing limited water resources in strips in farmland, assisted natural regeneration, community
supplemental irrigation to increase and stabilize yields and forestry and development of community-based small and
medium enterprises.
water-use efficiency. In the ICARDA-led rain-fed bench-
mark site in Tadla, Morocco, work in the farmers’ fields has The World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies
shown that wheat yields are doubled with limited supple- (www.WOCAT.net) is acknowledged by the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification as the primary database
mental irrigation while increased by 30 per cent with the
for SLM best practices to support the 194 signatory countries
application of only 50 mm of water to advance the sowing in recording their own SLM best practices and using the SLM
date by few weeks. Water productivity is nearly doubled knowledge of stakeholders worldwide.
(exceeding 2 kg of grain per cubic metre of water).
In irrigated agroecosystems, increasing water produc-
tivity/efficiency in irrigated areas is a top priority almost
everywhere in the world; but it is of particular importance The Global Soil Partnership
in the dry areas where water scarcity is high and is rapidly
Five pillars of action:
increasing. Increasing water productivity in irrigated agri- 1. Promote sustainable management of soil resources for soil
culture requires reducing water losses and improving water protection, conservation and sustainable productivity
management and cropping patterns at the farm, field and 2. Encourage investment, technical cooperation, policy, education
awareness and extension in soil
basin levels. In the ICARDA-led irrigated benchmark site 3. Promote targeted soil research and development focusing
in Egypt, an alternative option to the inefficient furrow on identified gaps and priorities and synergies with related
irrigation followed by farmers was introduced. The raised productive, environmental and social development actions
bed system and package was developed and mechanized. 4. Enhance the quantity and quality of soil data and information:
data collection (generation), analysis, validation, reporting,
It has resulted in 30 per cent lower water use by farmers, monitoring and integration with other disciplines
along with correspondingly lower pumping and labour 5. Harmonize methods, measurements and indicators for the
costs, without reduction in yield. Farmers’ incomes have sustainable management and protection of soil resources.
been increased by 15 per cent and water productivity by The implementation plans for the regional soil partnerships are in
30 per cent. Net return per unit of water was increased by an advanced stage of development based on regional challenges,
20 per cent. gaps and priorities and are expected to substantively strengthen
Forests and agroforestry systems in drylands play crucial partnerships for promoting sustainable soil management and
restoring degraded soils worldwide.
ecological, social and economic roles while improving
environmental sustainability and resilience in the wider www.fao.org/globalsoilpartnership
landscapes. They harbour species that are particularly

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Areas similar to the rangeland benchmark research site in Jordan and potential areas for scaling out
mechanized water harvesting intervention

Source: Similarity and Suitability Analysis to Assist the Out-Scaling of Sustainable Water and Land Management Practices in West Asia and North Africa. ICARDA

adapted to extreme ecological conditions and provide identify areas similar to those where the improved tech-
essential goods and ecosystem services. However, forests nologies were developed. This starts with the selection and
and their associated ecosystems are facing serious and characterization of a benchmark site in an agroecosystem;
multiple threats, ranging from deforestation to degrada- then improved technologies are developed and evaluated
tion, fragmentation and desertification. Nevertheless, if in this site and, finally, similar areas to the benchmark site
well managed and properly valued, forests and agrofor- are identified and mapped to better target the out-scaling
estry landscapes in drylands can help alleviate poverty and on a large scale.
contribute to food security and sustainable livelihoods for Similarity analyses are used to find areas with certain
2 billion people worldwide. Many drylands countries are characteristics that match those where technologies were
developing and piloting approaches and technologies to tested and fine-tuned. Similarity maps were generated at
support sustainable management and restoration of dryland the regional level using expert criteria, defined by an inter-
forests and agroforestry systems. disciplinary team and using the available datasets. Among
Over the past several years, these technical practices were the factors used to develop these criteria are the soil,
fine-tuned and tested and a number of packages for the climate, land use and water resources. Suitability analyses
best management of water and land, including reducing are used within the similar areas at the national level, to
land degradation, were developed. However, to achieve identify areas where the water and land management pack-
better adoption by farmers and ensure positive results ages developed can be applied with a high probability of
from their implementation, suitable techniques/technolo- success. Professionals, planners and decision makers can
gies need to be disseminated on a large scale to similar dry use the information and products generated from these
areas. Identifying areas similar to those of the benchmark analyses to target the scaling-out of improved and adap-
research sites where technologies are developed is a tool to tive technologies.
facilitate the scaling-out process. The purpose of these analyses was to identify geographic
In many countries, the dissemination of improved tech- locations for scaling out. A follow-up socioeconomic
nologies does not usually take into consideration the analysis would be needed at the community level before
specificities of the agroecosystems. Consequently, the effi- interventions can be implemented. This should be
ciencies of the technology transfer programmes remain supported by a proper enabling environment to enhance
low. Benchmarking has provided an approach that helps adoption by the communities.

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The joint use of similarity and suitability analyses/maps a continuous soil cover, supplying organic matter to soils
can guide the targeting of areas within the four agro- and reducing soil temperature through shading. Besides,
ecosystems for the dissemination and promotion of the degraded annual cropland is rehabilitated through the
implementation of sustainable water and land management practice of half-moon pits or demi-lunes that increase plant
interventions. It is anticipated that these will be used by nutrient availability as well as water storage close to the
decision makers, planners and donors who seek to iden- plant root zone. Practices of improved cropland manage-
tify areas for the scaling out of sustainable water and land ment, afforestation of dunes and the establishment of living
management interventions. hedges are further project components.
Implementing sustainable options to manage agriculture, The FAO EX-ACT analysis indicated that through
forestry and land use change in targeted areas is expected to these project actions a total of 6.9 millon tonnes of
reduce land degradation, improve productivity and contrib- CO 2-equivalents will be mitigated over a period of 20
ute to reducing current levels of greenhouse gas emissions years. This is equivalent to annual mitigation benefits of
and increasing carbon sequestration. Many of the techni- 1.4 tCO2-eq per hectare. Thereby the project component
cal options for climate change adaptation are available and on Assisted Natural Regeneration provided the strongest
often provide central co-benefits for carbon sequestration mitigation benefits due to its large scope. This analysis
and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. For example, in identifies thus also in quantitative terms the strong climate
dryland ecosystems, decreasing the rate of cropland and change mitigation benefits from sustainable management
grassland degradation and halting the process of desertifica- practices in drylands.
tion as part of a sustainable landscape approach will reduce Another example of the use of EX-ACT is the ex-post
the vulnerability of small-scale farmers to climate variability analysis of the FAO Transboundary Agro-ecosystem
and extreme events and likewise prevents high amounts of Management Project for the Kagera River Basin (Kagera
soil and biomass carbon loss. TAMP) in Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. The
The Ex-Ante Carbon-balance Tool (EX-ACT) is an Kagera TAMP project lead to the scale-up of sustainable
appraisal system developed by the Food and Agriculture land management practices such as agroforestry systems,
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) providing sustainable management of annual cropland, erosion
estimates of the impact of agriculture and forestry devel- prevention on hillsides, and the increased use of soil and
opment projects, programmes and policies on greenhouse water conservation structures. The EX-ACT analysis was
gas emissions and carbon sequestration. The net balance integrated as part of the general project monitoring frame-
of a project or policy is expressed in CO 2 equivalent work and required the monitoring and evaluation staff
and considers all greenhouse gases that were emitted or to indicate the total area of achieved land management
sequestered due to its implementation compared to a objectives after project finalization. The EX-ACT tool was
business-as-usual scenario. The tool helps project design- then used to indicate the total mitigation benefits gener-
ers estimate and prioritize activities with high benefits in ated by the outlined activities, and allowed comparison
economic and climate change mitigation terms and requires of the mitigation benefits of the various different project
only a limited set of time and data resources that fit well components: Thereby agroforestry and afforestation prac-
to investment project and policy design processes. Up to tices could be identified as the most important carbon sinks
2015, EX-ACT analyses have been carried out in over 40 that are generated through the project, while also improved
countries as part of cooperation with a wide range of stake- management of annual croplands and grasslands contrib-
holders, including the World Bank, Agence Française de uted to the overall provision of GHG benefits.
Développement, the International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IFAD) and the United States Agency for
International Development.
Sustainable agricultural practices in drylands that Support for long-term solutions
conserve and increase carbon stocks in soils and biomass
lead thereby to especially strong synergies between posi- Since 2010 FAO, with the European Union and the Global
Mechanism of the UNCCD, has been supporting the
tive livelihood and environmental outcomes. The EX-ACT implementation of the African Union Initiative Great Green
tool has been used for estimating the mitigation impacts Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative aimed at improving
of the FAO-supported IFAD Family Farming Development the resilience of human and natural systems and to find
long-term solutions to desertification, land degradation and
Programme in Niger. Within the project area, small-
drought, climate change and biodiversity loss. As a follow-up
scale farming systems are under pressure from prolonged to this successful cooperation, a new project, Action Against
periods of soil degradation that are further intensified Desertification, was recently approved under the EU-ACP
through wood logging at unsustainable rates as well as low (European Union African, Caribbean and Pacific countries)
collaboration programme, to support implementation of
organic matter inputs to annual croplands that experience action plans in selected countries and expand activities to the
extended periods without soil cover. In order to reverse Caribbean and Pacific regions. Examples of success on the
the soil degradation dynamic and increase agricultural ground are many: farmers from hundreds of villages, including
productivity, the project invests in the scale-up of Assisted men and women, have been able to turn their degraded land
to production using native plants; guidelines and successful
Natural Regeneration practices that conserve and propagate practices are compiled and being disseminated for scaling up
naturally occurring shrubs and trees on agricultural land. action within drylands.
This practice provides important benefits for maintaining

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Enhancing water resources management

in irrigated agriculture to cope with
water scarcity in arid regions
Bakhodir Mirzaev, Shehzad Akram, Liban Ali Yusuf and Abdul Basit Jam, Islamic Development Bank Group

G
lobal water resources are becoming scarce and The water sector lacks the infrastructure and institutional
are already a source of competition in all sectors set-ups needed to provide water services and effective water
of the economy in the arid regions. Competition management. Countries with less than 2,000 m 3 annual
exists between sectors that depend on the same water per capita freshwater availability are located in Africa, the
sources such as river basins. Rivers and lakes that cross Middle East, and South-East and Central Asia.
international boundaries generate competition, as one The Islamic Development Bank Group (IDB) is a south-
country can limit another’s access to the water resource south multilateral development finance institution. It was
through over-extraction or pollution. According to the established to foster the economic development and social
United Nations World Water Development Report,1 263 progress of its member countries and Muslim communities,
river basins are shared by two or more nations, indicating individually and collectively in accordance with the princi-
that international competition for shared water bodies ples of Shari’ah. IDB has a critical milestone in its five-year
could be a serious source of international debate in the programme (2011-2016)2 to “Enhance cooperation, alliance
upcoming decades. Competition exists between various and partnership; establishing regional dialogue for facilita-
water use sectors and societies — between urban and tion and supporting agreements on management of common
rural water users, between hydropower demand and agri- natural resources as well as land and water resources.”
culture users, between upstream and downstream areas. In the water sector, the programme envisages providing
Moreover, most current water management systems advisory support and technical assistance, leading member
undervalue environmental and ecosystem water needs. countries’ dialogue on the development of water resources
management planning at river basin scale, and providing
The population tends to grow as a geometric progression decision-making and financial support. The plan should
in developing countries that face water scarcity problems. include integrated approaches such as knowledge manage-

Global water scarcity

2000 2050

Less than 1,000 m3 per person per year

Between 1,000 and 2,000 m3 per person per year
Greater than 2000 m3 per person per year

Source: Fischer and Heilig

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Images: IDB
The Dasht e Abbas irrigation scheme carries water to farms through a network of mains and distribution pipelines

ment and investments in infrastructure with innovation methods at the farm level has opened many opportuni-
and advanced technologies which are socially, economi- ties for farmers.3 However, in order to arrive at this stage,
cally and financially viable. farmers face many difficulties. Improvement of irrigation
IDB is directly involved in natural resources manage- methods includes converting from a low-efficiency irriga-
ment with integrated rural development; water resources tion system (such as furrow irrigation) to a high-efficiency
management and environmental protection; and agriculture system such as sprinkler, drip and micro-irrigation. As
and food security team members. IDB strengthens member mentioned above, over the past decade the countries
countries’ capacities to better respond to environmental located in arid regions that face water scarcity have already
challenges in current climate constraints. At the same time, made a considerable investment to assist farmers to convert
it assists member countries in dealing with river basin from conventional irrigation practices to high-efficiency
(transboundary) water resources management issues at sprinkler, drip and micro-irrigation systems.
national and regional levels. IDB strives to promote sustain-
able natural resources management, increase agricultural Dasht-e-Abbas irrigation scheme
productivity, enhance capacity development, promote The development objective of the Dasht-e-Abbas irrigation
inclusiveness and equity, encourage rural development, scheme was to improve food security and alleviate poverty by
and facilitate farmers’ access to agricultural technologies increasing agricultural production and productivity through
and support services. the development of about 32,750 ha of irrigated land. The
Improving water use efficiency will require accurate project contributed to increasing income and living standards
measurement of water supplied to farmers’ fields. However, of the rural population of the region by generating employ-
irrigation water application is not measured due to a lack of ment for about 6,500 people in the agriculture, fish farming
simple measuring devices. Also, farmers do not have an incen- and animal husbandry sectors.
tive to save irrigation water and have insufficient knowledge The Dasht-e-Abbas irrigation scheme is located in
about the negative impacts of over-irrigation. These problems the South-Western province of Ilam, which includes the
have been accumulating for more than half a century. They Doyraj River catchment area. The newly developed scheme
were insufficiently studied at the initial stages, and the effects carries water through a network of mains and distribu-
of many technical solutions were not as obvious at the outset tion pipelines up to on-farm level. In the on-farm plots,
as they are today. Now it is necessary to find feasible ways out advanced irrigation technologies such as pressurized
of this difficult situation. sprinkler and drip irrigation are introduced. The project
Surface and subsurface drainage are required in arid achievements include:
irrigated agriculture to ensure crop development and to • a 32,750 ha irrigated area developed for pressurized
manage soil salinity. Surface drainage from furrow irriga- irrigation, including 7,210 ha by drip irrigation and
tion is often discharged into drainage ditches and lost for 25,540 ha by sprinkler irrigation where water efficiency
future use on the farm. Subsurface drainage is discharged increased from 67 per cent to 92 per cent
into large open drains to be disposed of later in surface water • c onversion of a 270 km main water delivery canal to a
bodies. Improving irrigation management will reduce the pipeline system, increasing water efficiency from 74 per
total volume of drainage water being discharged and provide cent to 98 per cent
additional water supply for irrigation. • 8 8 km of primary/secondary drainage channels put in
During the past decade technologies in irrigation have place to drain field plots towards natural flood ways and
improved tremendously and the modernization of irrigation on to the Doyraj river.

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Image: IDB
The Chókwè irrigation scheme rehabilitation project aimed to enhance agriculture productivity and farmers’ income in the area

Rehabilitation of Chókwè irrigation scheme In the irrigation sector the main challenges are related to poor
The development objective of the Chókwè irrigation scheme management of irrigation and drainage systems, low levels of
rehabilitation project was to enhance agriculture produc- land preparation and operation and maintenance costs which
tion and productivity and consequently farmers’ income in affect agriculture productivity.4 The main and primary irriga-
the Chókwè irrigation scheme area. This contributed to the tion canals are running well, but secondary and tertiary canals
rehabilitation of the existing 50-year-old irrigation scheme are still not rehabilitated. The tertiary canals, especially, are
covering 7,000 ha as well as enhancements to agriculture seriously damaged as they were built in the late 1950s.
productivity. The local smallholder farmers are challenged with the
The Chókwè irrigation scheme is located 250 km from operation and maintenance of the on-farm scheme, which
Maputo, the capital city of Mozambique. It is in the Gaza identified a shortage of agricultural machinery and proper
Province, downstream of the Limpopo river and extended agro inputs such as improved seeds, fertilizers and land prep-
along the eastern side of the river. Rehabilitation of the aration. Thus, the irrigation area is developing slowly and
irrigation scheme has improved the livelihood of the 5,000 farming efficiency and crop yields are low. This area has very
smallholder farmers, enabling them to come out from productive soil, but a lack of agricultural investment and low
subsistence farming and become small commercial farmers. levels of agricultural technology has led to a great waste of
The rehabilitation of the scheme improved the secondary local agricultural resources and obstacles to the further devel-
and tertiary canal network with flumes up to on-farm level. opment of the regional economy.
Improved furrow irrigation was introduced on farms after The local smallholder farmers lack technical knowledge
levelling the land. The project achievements include: of modern agronomic and irrigation practices as a result
• existing water supply facilities were increased from 1,200 of outdated or missing technology and a lack of technol-
ha to 7,000 ha ogy transfer infrastructure. Insufficient technology and
• investment in irrigation facilities improved the information are further exacerbated by the institutional
socioeconomic status of more than 5,000 smallholder setting in which irrigators operate. One example of a
farmers and provided them with access to irrigated lands water management problem is the basis for determining
• agriculture production increased, with main crop rice the irrigation water requirement for crops. Both irrigation
yield increasing from 1 t/ha to 5 t/ha systems and crop varieties have changed considerably over
• 2,120 km of water delivery canal was rehabilitated to the time as farm field sizes have decreased, groundwater levels
flume system, increasing water efficiency from 62 per cent and mineralization have increased, cropping patterns have
to 96 per cent. diversified (particularly as centralized planning was abol-

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Images: IDB
Investment in the Chókwè irrigation facilities has improved the socioeconomic status of more than 5,000 smallholder farmers

ished in peasant farmland) and awareness of the limitation In addition to these factors, irrigation quality still depends
of water withdrawals has increased. However, no correc- on the availability of water in the right quantity and at the
tions have been introduced to address these changes. right time. Areas with water supplied through irrigation
Water resources management challenges have increased systems are better supplied, while areas with pumped water
significantly in the past two decades. Continuing popula- often suffer from delayed water supply due to pump capac-
tion growth and rising incomes have led to greater water ity or insufficient electricity.
consumption as well as more waste. Rural populations in Several lessons have been learned, with potential for
developing countries are growing dramatically, generating wider applicability. For example, the implementation of
demand well beyond the capacity of already inadequate advanced irrigation technologies (more efficient sprinkler,
water and sanitation infrastructure and services and food drip and micro-irrigation systems) can be used in the most
security. Overcoming these issues requires more effective arid regions.
and integrated, intersectoral water management, enhanced In order to be able to invest to advanced irrigation tech-
capacity at all levels and better welfare for rural people. nologies, cropping patterns should be changed from field
It is the view of many development agencies that even very crops (such as cotton, alfalfa, rice, wheat) to high value
sophisticated water management technologies at all levels of crops such as trees, fruits, nuts and vegetables. The produc-
the system will not solve the water supply problem without tion value and market values of field crops are lower than
increasing water use efficiency in the field. Better water use those of high value crops, while the water use and acreage
efficiency is described as increasing the yield while maintaining is much higher.
existing water application. Every cubic metre of water saved in In addition to generating improved farm incomes, peren-
the field (when efficiency of the irrigation network is 50-60 per nial crops require year-round maintenance and tend to
cent) reduces the need for water delivery by 50 per cent without provide stable employment at higher wages. Spring and
any reconstruction of the canal network. However, efficiency fall vegetable crops, although seasonal, are labour-intensive
of furrow irrigation is also affected by several external factors: and generate strong on-farm revenues that support regional
• poorly levelled field surfaces economic growth.
• fluctuations of water supply flow during irrigation In particular, water management institutions play an
• use of non-optimal irrigation technique elements that do important role in their interaction with farmers to intro-
not correspond to specific natural conditions duce different programmes at local level. Low-interest loans
• lack of interest among land users in using improved or microfinance programmes have been created to enable
methods of irrigation farmers to change from traditional irrigation methods to
• lack of a real cost for water delivery. advanced irrigation technologies.

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Sustainable smallholder agriculture,

food security, agricultural policy and
the role of smallholder farmers
Umar I. Kamarah, Islamic Development Bank Group

I
ncreasing prices for agricultural commodities offer a promotion: are smallholder farmers helped most effectively
historic opportunity to intensify production systems for by a farming/livelihood systems approach or a value-chain
small-scale farmers in many developing countries. But approach? And there is debate about who is responsible for
without agricultural policies supporting them in making use ensuring sustainable and climate-smart land use practices and
of this opportunity, many of them would lose their access adaptation of farmers to climate change. However, the over-
to land and income, resulting in aggravated food insecurity. arching question is whether there are general global answers
Hence, an agricultural policy guided by the objectives of to these questions or whether the answers depend on the
food security, poverty reduction and sustainability, taking specific local context. The answers to these questions must
into account the dynamics of rural growth, must ensure: be guided by the policy objectives above.1
increased supply of agricultural products (including, but Although some of the dynamics are of global nature and demand
not exclusively, food) based on intensification; broad-based global answers, specific local conditions have to be considered to
income/livelihood opportunities for the rural population; find appropriate policy responses.2 Consequently, there cannot
environmentally friendly, sustainable land use. be any general rule on whether small or large farms, low or high
external input solutions, or private business, civil society or the
There is some debate over what a ‘development and food government will do better. Rather than embarking on dogmatic
security oriented’ agricultural policy actually means. Should debates on what is preferable in general, the first rule for designing
it focus on the potentials of existing smallholder farms, or on agricultural policies is to follow the principle of context specific-
the efficiency of commercial scale large-scale farms? Should it ity. This principle has far-reaching implications for the process of
embark on high external input technology based on chemicals policy design. Policies need to be drafted on the basis of local-level
and fuel, or give preference to sustainable land use practices? analysis and experience and with the participation of people with
Should it go for a ‘food first’ policy, or should all agricultural local knowledge. Such a process has to be adequately resourced.3
commodities receive the same attention? Should smallholder Smallholder farmers (SFs), given the opportunity, can inten-
farmers be promoted by public or private services? Moreover, sify their production methods and thus increase productivity
there is disagreement on the appropriate approaches of considerably. Especially in low-wage countries, SFs dispose of
Image: IDB

Image: IDB

Gender empowerment is smart economics: Sierra Leone’s SAGs play a vital Watershed management and environmentally-sound water-harvesting help to
role in enhancing economic efficiency and improving development outcomes improve food security and conserve the natural resource base in Mont Bpabit

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Image: IDB
competitive advantages in the production of many commodi-
ties regarding quality requirements (African hand-picked cotton,
for example), while they suffer from disadvantages in manag-
ing access to markets and services due to limited economies of
scale. Taking their potentials into account SFs should, for the
sake of food security and poverty reduction, be given preference
by agricultural and land policies wherever smallholder farming
is the predominant mode of production. Thereby not only can
agricultural production be increased, but the masses of the rural
poor, who still rely on farming as a source of income or subsist-
ence, will have access to food. The disadvantages of smallholders
in accessing markets and services can be compensated by making
use of the capacities of agribusiness to facilitate contract farming
arrangements. To become strong and reliable partners within
contract farming systems on the one hand and empowered nego- Adopting high-yield varieties has helped Mont Bbapit’s small farmers to
tiation partners on the other, SFs need to be organized.4 increase crop productivity by up to 70 per cent
According to the International Fund for Agricultural
Development, support for smallholders will be crucial to
future food security.5 In emerging markets, three out of four the participating economic interests together in a socially
low-income people depend directly or indirectly on agricul- inclusive process of collectively identifying the development
ture for their livelihoods. Indeed, the World Bank suggests priorities of their respective communities and translating
that supporting smallholder farming is the most effective way these priorities into investment activities managed by the
of stimulating economic development and reducing poverty.6 communities themselves. This participatory process resolved
conflicts and ensured that funded subproject activities repre-
Sierra Leone: strengthening communities, reducing poverty sent the interests of the group.
The development objective of the Islamic Development Bank Income-generating activities supported by the project
Group (IDB) financed Sierra Leone Community Driven have helped communities to achieve tangible benefits and
Development (SLCDD) project was to assist war-affected results including increased income and reduced rural poverty
communities to reduce poverty and build local capacity for through access to better livelihood opportunities. At project
collective action, thus contributing to the country’s stability, completion in 2014, the real income of 50 per cent of the
peace and sustainable economic growth. 675 communities covered by the project is estimated to have
The specific objectives of the project were to: increased by 63 per cent.7
• improve the socioeconomic conditions of the communities The SLCDD project has succeeded remarkably in organizing
in the targeted areas, especially the women and youth, women into self-help affinity groups (SAGs) of 10-15 members,
through improving physical and social rural infrastructure, empowering them to save and loan money to each other,
providing health education and preventative care and developing their skills and making them attractive clients to
facilitating economic growth and livelihood development commercial banks and large-scale social safety net programmes.
• support capacity-building at the local level through By definition, SAGs are generally homogeneous and related
skills training and strengthening of linkages between by affinity. Their members use savings, credit and social
communities, local and chiefdom councils and the involvement as instruments of empowerment — pro-poor
National Commission for Social Action. capacity-development relating to the rural poor themselves and
building their local institutions for sustainable rural economy.
Given the depth and severity of poverty across geographical Currently there are 118 SAGs covering the four provinces of
niches in the country, the project benefited 675 communities Sierra Leone. As the Sierra Leone case shows, gender empower-
spread across 12 districts of Sierra Leone, namely Bombali, ment is smart economics — it can enhance economic efficiency
Port Loko, Kambia, Tonkolili, Bo, Moyamba, Bonthe, Pujehun, and improve other development outcomes in three ways. First,
Kono, Kenema, Western Rural and Western Urban. The improving women’s absolute and relative status feeds many
project sought to empower local communities and improve other development outcomes, including those for their chil-
the Government’s capacity to reach out to stakeholders in the dren. Second, levelling the playing field — where women and
project areas such as SFs, fishermen, pastoralists and poor and men have equal chances to become economically, socially and
vulnerable groups, including women and unemployed youth. politically active, make decisions, and shape policies — is likely
Importantly, the strategy represents a shift from public to lead over time to more representative, and more inclusive,
sector domination to a community-driven development institutions and policy choices and thus to a better development
(CDD) approach. With this project, IDB was able to induce a path. Third, removing barriers that prevent women from having
paradigm shift in Sierra Leone by empowering local commu- the same access as men to economic opportunities and produc-
nities to follow a socially inclusive and participatory process tive inputs can generate broad productive gains which are
for the preparation and implementation of their own devel- increasingly important in a competitive and globalized world.
opment plans. The project introduced an innovation in the The SFs face high transaction costs in accessing credit,
formulation of local development plans, which brings all markets and public entitlement programmes. Small groups

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were ineffective, hence the need to aggregate and build and it mobilizes local populations to manage natural
institutions of the poor from the grass-roots level. The insti- resources in a sustainable manner. To incorporate tribal
tutional platform of smallholder farmers created a local systems into their management framework, community
source of finance and organization that the rural poor need groups which determined their own composition and struc-
to start enterprises, gain job skills, increase incomes and ture were established.
try innovative solutions to their problems — including food With the objective of conserving the natural resource
security and nutrition centres. base, 1.2 million cubic metres of water storage facilities
Key lessons were learned during the project. Rural credit have been constructed, exceeding the estimated target by
programmes, particularly in remote areas, require innovative about five times and representing a 45 per cent increase in
mechanisms that adapt to constraints on financial institutions water availability. The project also established 150 rangeland
and beneficiaries. Following the success of SLCDD Phase 1, management units, and established fodder trees and shrubs
the Government of Sierra Leone was strongly committed to on approximately 2,000 ha. In terms of poverty reduction
the CDD approach and requested a follow-on project, SLCDD and improving livelihoods, construction of safe drinking
Phase 2, which has been processed and approved by IDB’s water storage facilities resulted in agricultural and health
Board of Executive Directors. In June 2015 a financing agree- benefits for the local rural population. Increased fodder
ment was signed by IDB and the Government at the IDB availability and genetic improvement led to increased income
Annual Meeting in Mozambique. SLCDD Phase 2 will scale up from livestock and the adoption of high-yield varieties led
on the results of SLCDD Phase 1. It relies on demand-driven to increases of 27-70 per cent in the productivity of vegeta-
investments and the empowerment of local communities to bles and other crops. Overall, socioeconomic conditions of
improve productivity and is specifically focusing on technol- 10,440 households have been improved. In addition, the
ogy improvement, enabling SAGs to leverage collaboration project built a good foundation for local capacity in resource
between project and research and extension systems and management through training and support for project staff,
improve the quality of livelihoods. farmers and community representatives.
Engaging an isolated group in a broad NRM project
Ensuring sustainable rural livelihoods in Cameroon through the incorporation of existing community-based
Cameroon’s poverty rate remains at 20-25 per cent and is a institutions was an innovative approach. Core project
disproportionately rural phenomenon. With limited irriga- beneficiaries include farmers — especially SFs, farmers’ asso-
tion potential, natural resource management (NRM) issues ciations, cooperatives, rural producer organizations (RPOs),
are critical to sustainable economic development, especially in private sector and value chain actors at the local, district and
more marginalized rural areas such as the Mont Bpabit region. national level. Overall, these RPOs represent about 10,000
The rural poor, who make up 85 per cent of the popula- farming households, of which 1,200 produce cassava, 2,050
tion in the area, rely on rain-fed agriculture and herding. Given produce maize, 3,000 produce vegetables and 4,000 produce
that the population in this area is expected to increase by more rain-fed upland and lowland rice.
than 20 per cent between 2012 and 2020, the sustainability The project illustrates that a multisectoral/multidiscipli-
of such livelihood systems is in question. The Government of nary approach in NRM and poverty reduction projects is
Cameroon has sought to maximize agricultural potential in more likely to achieve objectives than single-sector projects.
dryland areas while managing natural resources in a sustain- Participatory project implementation requires flexible budget-
able manner, but there have been several problems as the tribes ing that is not constrained to predetermine outputs, but relies
and agricultural producer organizations have tended to remain on a demand-driven identification of activities. And adequate
isolated, and the Government has had little experience address- initial training and capacity-building is a prerequisite to the
ing these rural concerns. start-up of activities requiring beneficiary participation.
The development objective of the IDB-funded Rural Land
Development Project was to help reduce rural poverty and Future direction for smallholder farmers
improve food security in the Mont Bpabit region through the The question serious analysts would pose is: which sectors
development of 1,200 ha of lowlands, and improvement of of the economy in Sierra Leone and Cameroon need urgent
agricultural production and NRM. The project components attention? Agriculture is the motor of the economy and is
were designed to achieve this objective through lowland therefore a priority. There is also the issue of illegal migra-
development and construction of socioeconomic infrastruc- tion, which sees African youth migrating to Europe only
ture; water harvesting and watershed management, which to perish in the Mediterranean. This is of concern to their
would introduce several environmentally-sound water- countries of origin as well as recipient countries. In order to
harvesting interventions; adaptive research implemented on make agriculture attractive to the youth, there is an urgent
a demand-driven basis; and extension and training, which need to invest in activities that are likely to create employ-
would provide funding for establishing effective agricultural ment; to invest massively in labour-intensive infrastructure
extension services. projects and transform agriculture from subsistence-based
All activities are implemented within the framework of production to business; and to reform the land tenure
traditional community-based structures/tribal organiza- system and improve farming practices. Agriculture has to
tions, resulting in a demand-driven development process. be a rewarding business. Not only will this automatically
This tribal framework ensures that government personnel earn rural farmers more money, but it will also make agri-
become sensitized to rural community needs and concerns business a more viable proposition.

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Combating desertification: introducing

integrated ecosystem management in the
People’s Republic of China
Frank Radstake and Bruce Dunn, Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines1

Image: Frank Radstake

he People’s Republic of China (PRC) is on the
frontline of combating one of the most important
global environmental challenges of the twenty-first
century — the growing degradation and desertification of
dryland ecosystems that cover more than 40 per cent of
the Earth’s land surface. More than a third of the world’s
population lives in dryland ecosystems. About 90 per cent
are citizens of developing countries. Many of them are
poor and primarily depend on land for their livelihood
and consumption.

In the PRC more than 250 million people, including several large
ethnic minorities, live in the dryland ecosystems that cover much of
the northern and western regions of the country. The provinces of
Gansu, Qinghai, and Shaanxi and the autonomous regions of Inner
Mongolia, Ningxia Hui, and Xinjiang Uygur are the worst-affected
areas. These dryland ecosystems are home to approximately three-
quarters of the country’s rural poor, and house over 5,000 species
of wild animals and plants. Many rural people have benefited only
marginally from the country’s spectacular overall economic growth
over the past three decades. The economic loss caused by desertifi-
cation is reportedly estimated to be about 1.4 per cent of the PRC’s
annual gross domestic product (GDP) and over 23 per cent of the A dryland farmer in Gansu province, one of the areas most
annual GDP of the main affected provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, and affected by desertification
Shaanxi and the autonomous regions of Inner Mongolia, Ningxia
Hui, and Xinjiang Uygur.2
The PRC Government has long recognized the potential Since the ratification of the United Nations Convention to
ecological, economic and social crises building in its dryland Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in 1997, the PRC has progres-
areas. It can ill afford droughts, and it cannot allow more sively intensified its efforts to combat land degradation as a matter
vast tracts of its territory to be stripped by wind and water of of national priority. In 2002, the Asian Development Bank (ADB)
topsoil and productivity. The effects already spread beyond agreed to a lead role to support the PRC to rethink, restructure
the dryland ecosystems themselves. Distant cities as far away and strengthen its dryland management programme. Led by the
as Japan have been affected by the more frequent and severe Ministry of Finance and the State Forestry Administration, the
dust storms that rise in north-west PRC and Mongolia. Government’s decision to establish the Global Environment Facility
The PRC also recognized that its past efforts, although (GEF)-PRC Partnership for Combatting Land Degradation in
impressive, were hampered by an uncoordinated, piecemeal Dryland Ecosystems (the partnership) reflected the Government’s
approach. A wide variety of national government agencies growing commitment to addressing the country’s deepening prob-
planned and carried out their own narrowly-focused activi- lems. The partnership aimed at promoting good farming practices,
ties with little or no consultation. Conflicts arose between land preservation, and water and soil conservation with strategies
the responsibilities, priorities, goals, methods and regulations for rural development that reach, include and benefit the poor.
of the institutions involved. They also duplicated efforts and A 10-year country programming framework (2003-2012)
wasted resources. This lack of cohesion diminished the impact was prepared, introducing an effective integrated ecosystem
of the Government’s work. management (IEM) approach through a portfolio of new

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Pilot projects: alternative agricultural solutions

Image: Frank Radstake

Greenhouses in Qinhai province

In Guohan County, Inner Mongolia autonomous region, subsistence farming In Qinghai province, villagers in Huangyuan County undertook
livelihood and access to land and water resources were adversely affected greenhouse and mushroom farm trials and increased their annual
by the arrival of environmental refugees from a village whose dryland incomes. With more than 500 greenhouses on pilot sites, farmers are
ecosystem had been destroyed. With the partnership support, villagers built now ready to set up a cooperative to sell directly to the
greenhouses to grow higher value cash crops. As a result, their incomes rose. provincial capital.
Growing industry in nearby Wuhai City had depleted local groundwater Minhe County, in Qinghai province, was among several sites that
resources. To save water, farmers adopted a drip irrigation system, introduced courtyard vegetable gardens, thereby adopting a traditional
which increased water efficiency by 40 per cent and helped control architectural feature that has been rarely used for vegetables. The
pests and diseases. Twelve sites tested drip irrigation, canal repairs or gardens have improved household nutrition, reduced expenses, and
rainwater collection to conserve water. led to small-scale experimentation with new crops.

investment and capacity development projects, with cofinanc- sharing of information.3 All along, the PRC sought to learn
ing by ADB, GEF, the International Fund for Agricultural from countries that have wrestled with similar problems.
Development and the World Bank. The IEM approach provided In the initial stages of its work, the partnership placed heavy
new ways to plan and manage dryland natural resources by emphasis on critical groundwork. It developed and disseminated
combining knowledge and experiences from diverse disciplines. the policy, legal, institutional and technical concepts and frame-
The PRC’s adoption of the IEM concept was unprecedented. works of IEM through the central and provincial government
It was the first time that the Government had established such agencies involved in dryland activities. This effort included the
a high-level, cross-sectoral, national and provincial institutional building of knowledge, skills, laws and regulations, policies and
coordination mechanism for natural resources management. legislation, organizational and institutional abilities, and the
It allowed a wide array of national, provincial and local insti- communications and relationships necessary to put IEM into
tutions and agencies (such as those operating in the areas of practice in the six hardest-hit dryland jurisdictions. The work
agricultural and rural development; land, forestry and water of six legal teams added substantially to PRC’s knowledge base
management; environmental protection; finance and planning) on the subject.4 New local laws were put on the books, includ-
to work together on building the foundations to combat land ing, for example, the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Regional Wild
degradation. This included the introduction of new policy, legal Plants Conservation by-laws, the Forest Resources Management
and institutional concepts and frameworks, the development and Protection Regulation in Beijing, and the Regulation for
of provincial strategies, implementation of pilot projects, and Implementation of Law on Combating Desertification in Gansu.

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Pilot projects: clean energy, conservation and salinity control

Images: Frank Radstake

Clean energy for cooking: biogas (left) and solar

The partnership supported significant household-level investments In Minhe County, Qinghai province, villagers contributed to the purchase
in alternative and renewable energy systems to reduce dependence of 35 new units of agricultural machinery for conservation agriculture and
on wood, manure, straw and crop stubble. New heating and cooking reduced tillage. They shared maintenance expenses and developed a roster
technologies like solar, biogas and electromagnetic stoves and pressure system for sharing the machines among the 270 beneficiary households.
cookers allowed villagers to make better ecological use of straw for These farm machineries and tools greatly reduced labour hours for tractor
penned animal fodder, crop stubble for protecting topsoil and seedlings, ploughing, and even made tractors available to be hired out.
and manure for fertilizer. More efficient traditional stoves are being tested. Gansu province adopted institutional and physical measures to combat
The Naiman Women’s Federation in Inner Mongolia worked closely with soil degradation in eight sites that suffer from severe primary or secondary
the local government in promoting conservation agriculture and reducing salinity. In former wetlands, Gansu province has instituted grazing bans
tillage. Women in dryland ecosystems have become increasingly responsible to restore the natural ecology. To biologically rehabilitate areas severely
for agriculture while men work away from farms. The women’s federation affected by salinity due to too much irrigation, the province also pioneered
reported that by keeping animals off fields and leaving straw and stubble the use of Chinese wolfberry, also known as Goji berry, which is resistant to
on the land, farms have reduced wind erosion, protected seedlings and drought and salt and is a highly profitable crop. The partnership provided
improved soil quality. Penned animals also increased in weight. The trial area wolfberry farmers with field training in pruning and in the use of organic
has been expanded. fertilizer to replace chemical fertilizer, which is known to increase salinity.

The partnership helped the six provinces and autonomous Villagers collectively helped choose the IEM interventions
regions formulate individual IEM strategies and action plans. they felt would best address their challenges. GEF provided
Until then, individual provincial agencies had followed narrow catalyst funding, but provincial and county governments were
strategies, each focusing on a fraction rather than the whole ­co-financiers. Beneficiary households contributed in kind
of the wider problem. The governments have integrated the and cash. Government officials, like the mayor of Huangyuan
strategies into their five-year planning cycles, and pay particular County, Qinghai province, said they welcomed the knowledge
attention to the sensitivity of the ecological environment, levels and hands-on experience of planning and implementing IEM
of poverty in affected areas, and the potential environmental, pilots, even more than the GEF financing.
social and cultural benefits of prospective IEM projects. Through the piloting of new technologies, the PRC
The partnership implemented pilot projects to give the PRC’s Government was able to document best practices to be added to
central, provincial and local agencies and dryland stakeholders the database of the World Overview of Conservation Approaches
field experience in the adoption of the IEM approach. These pilots and Technologies, (WOCAT).5 WOCAT is a global network that
provided examples and guidance for a growing number of larger, collects, compares, disseminates and uses information on soil
more widespread investments in subsequent years. The pilots have and water conservation technologies and approaches.
also proven the ecological and development value, cost-effective- In parallel, the pilot experiences have been integrated
ness and sustainability of the IEM approach on the ground. into larger-scale sustainable land management investment
Pilots focused on specific challenges in each province or projects in Gansu and Shaanxi provinces and in Ningxia Hui
autonomous region. The sites were representative of prevailing and Xinjiang Uygur autonomous regions. For example, ADB
soil, vegetation, water and other natural resource conditions. is currently supporting the implementation of the Ningxia

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Image: Frank Radstake

Image: Frank Radstake

Replacing annual crops with perennial and more climate resilient economic
trees in Gansu province Planting shelter belts in Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region

Integrated Ecosystem and Agriculture Development Project,

the Forestry and Ecological Restoration Project in three Pilot projects: better animal husbandry and
North Western Provinces, and the Shaanxi Weinan Luyang sustaining biodiversity
Integrated Saline Land Management Project. Total investment
by all partners for assistance, grants, and investment projects Among the major causes of land degradation in the pilot sites are
the conversion of marginal land to pasture and overgrazing by
under the partnership is about US$800 million. goats and sheep. Because penning animals can have significant
Since 2014, the partnership has entered a new phase as it socioeconomic and environmental benefits, the partnership
seeks to build on successful capacity and institutional devel- helped to popularize new breeds, feeding methods, weight-gain
technologies and the use of animal manure for biogas and fertilizer.
opment. With the support of ADB, a new Integrated Strategy
Farmers were encouraged to enrol in vocational training and to
for Sustainable Land Management in Western PRC for 2014-2023 rehabilitate their grazing areas. In response to declining fodder
has been prepared. Critical new challenges include adapt- and rainfall, livestock owners reduced their number of sheep and
ing to climate change, developing public-private partnerships fattened the remaining animals.
Jingbian County, Shaanxi province, was given 50 sheep of an
and innovative financing mechanisms, keeping updated with improved breed whose lambs can be weaned in two to three months
new sustainable land management concepts, and improving instead of the usual 10 months, and can reach an average weight
coordination with other programmes such as the PRC-GEF of 80 kg in four months, instead of eight. Villagers anticipated high
demand for the improved lamb and stud services. Farmers began
Biodiversity Partnership Framework and the UNCCD.6 A key
focusing on the quality of their livestock rather than quantity.
lesson learned is that scaling up sustainable land management The Hudan watershed in Huangyuan County, Qinghai province,
is a complex process, and time, patience and persistence is was confronted with upstream and downstream water conflicts,
needed to embed cross-sectoral cooperation across govern- dying local tree species, significant reduction in biodiversity and
inappropriate agricultural and grazing practices. Hillside grazing
ment agencies. Furthermore, greater levels of investment are was partially banned and steps were taken to restore vegetation.
needed and resources will need to be channelled and supported The partnership trained farmers in sound ecological practices and
through innovative cooperation mechanisms that have been the use of renewable energy and helped them start alternative
livelihood activities. The quality of local soil and water improved,
initiated over the past decade. With this approach the part-
and native plants have regrown. Villagers participating in monitoring
nership will continue to strive towards its long-term goal of activities reported the return of several species of native birds for
improving sustainable land management in dryland areas that the first time in many years.
benefit poor people.

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Reclamation and sustainable development

of degraded lands in the Niger basin
Seyni Seydou, Project Coordinator, Niger Basin Authority and Laouali Garba,
Principal Environment Officer, African Development Bank

T
he catchment area of the Niger River covers 2.2 Four parallel stripes are commonly distinguished in the
million km² (with an active basin of 1.5 million climate from south to north of the basin. These are the
km²), crossing four agroclimatic zones successively humid tropic zone, with over 1,200 mm of average annual
in nine West and Central African countries: Benin, Burkina rainfall; the subtropical zone in the dry season, called the
Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Mali, Niger ‘Sudanian zone’, with an average annual rainfall between 800
and Nigeria. The entire basin is characterized by a general- and 1,200 mm; the long dry season subtropical zone, called
ized degradation of its natural resources and it is affected ‘Sahel’, with an average annual rainfall between 100 and 800
to varying degrees by water and wind erosion and siltation. mm; and the subtropical desert, called ‘Sahara’, with very
irregular or near absent annual rainfall of less than 100 mm.
In this highly differentiated bioclimatic context lives a popu- The physical and chemical constitution of the geological
lation estimated at 113 million inhabitants in 2005, more bedrock of the Niger basin is the basis of arenization and
than half of the population of the nine countries of the Niger sand. Transported and deposited by water and wind paths,
basin. The Niger River is therefore of vital importance to the it is the major cause of the silting up of the Niger River.
socioeconomic advancement for the nine basin countries. The The climate is the main factor in the production of sand
realization off this is unfortunately compromised by climatic by dissolving rocks with moisture, through their cracking
and anthropogenic factors. with temperature differences, by their disintegration (soil)

Image: AfDB

An awareness session in Sembé village, Mali

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Image: AfDB
Image: AfDB

Glaze treatment methods include benches to control erosion, like these

Dune fixation in the Gao region, Mali ones at Yettoré Allah, Niger

with drought and from their wear with hydraulic transmis- inhabitants per km². The areas with higher population densi-
sion and wind. The intensity of the weathering of rocks and ties (30-50 inhabitants per km2) register intense agricultural
strong pedogenesis is dependent on weather conditions activities, often centred on the double production of food
(temperature, humidity). Indeed, under hot and humid crops and cash crops, including cotton. In the Niger basin it
conditions, chemical weathering promotes dissolution of was found that the high population densities and poor agri-
the silica igneous rocks or carbonate limestone elements. cultural practices accelerate the silting process.
The silting processes are more important and more visible The main anthropogenic factors of land degradation in the
especially in a hot and dry climate. basin include: rapid population growth (3 per cent per year),
These processes have led to three major erosion systems in increasing urban consumption of natural resources (40 per
the Niger River basin: cent of the population live in cities), extensive agriculture
• the Guinean system consisting of a feed head, high erosive (about 50 per cent of the active area of the Niger basin is
power and a spreading and settling zone (Delta basin of cultured), overgrazing (UBT 31.3 million with an annual
Mali), connected by a transport zone (between Bamako and growth rate of 2.4 per cent), overexploitation of wood energy
Segou), representing 13 per cent of the basin area and the expansion of mining activities.
• the Sahelo-Saharan system corresponding to the Niger
loop and having a reduced internal power supply Approach and intervention techniques
network, unsustainable under dependence of the outlet To cope with the accelerated land degradation process of in
of the Delta basin of Mali, representing 58 per cent of the the Niger basin, the Niger Basin Authority (NBA) member
basin area countries have adopted different strategies and policies for
• the Nigerian system composed of two well-watered feed sustainable management of natural resources. This political
heads with high erosive power (Jos Plateau and Plateau will has led to the commitment of the NBA in a shared-vision
Yoruba for Niger River, Jos Plateau and Adamawa for process with a main component, the development of the
Benue river) and a wide application and sedimentation Sustainable Development Action Program (SDAP) including
area (confluence of oceanic region and delta), an investment plan. Three core areas of actions were defined
representing 29 per cent of the basin area. in the SDAP: the preservation of ecosystems in the basin,
development of socioeconomic infrastructure, and capacity-
With an annual average growth rate of nearly 3 per cent the building and stakeholder participation.
population of the Niger basin, estimated at 113 million in The African Development Bank and the West African
2005, will reach 160 million in 2020, including 90 million Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) funded a project
urban and 70 million rural. The average population density (2006-2014) called the ‘Fighting siltation programme in the
is 55 inhabitants per km² and rural population density is 37 Niger River Basin’ (PLCE/BN). The major aim is to effectively

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Image: AfDB
Thresholds of gabion and dry stone in the Tillabery region, Niger

and sustainably undertake actions/activities against silting in ers, fishermen, loggers, youth and women) in all activities of
the Niger River. The PLCE is a multinational programme with the programme, and better learning conditions to internalize
a regional integration ambition. It includes the involvement technical and organizational approaches.
and consultation of the nine NBA member states through the Land recovery/restoration techniques used during the PLCE
implementation of national components in Mali, Niger and implementation are grouped into three methods: glaze treat-
Burkina Faso. The total cost of the programme is US$51.1 ment, dune fixation and correcting ravines. The glaze (which
million including contributions from the NBA, member states refers to degraded land with impermeable crust) occupies a
and beneficiaries. significant part of the Sahel basin. This degradation makes
A participatory approach was adopted for the implementa- the rain wash over the soil and results in the decline/denial
tion of activities for siltation control in the Niger basin. It of crops and the disruption of socioeconomic activities of
included the generation of the required information, creation the communities. To reverse this situation emphasis was put
of awareness, and the training and organization of commu- on the recovery and recycling of glaze with the objective to
nities and other stakeholders to develop their capacity and reduce run-off speed, promote infiltration, increase the clay-
commitment through their significant involvement and silt-sand deposits, and thus help to achieve improved soil
accountability to implement the programme’s activities. The fertility which in turn leads to increased productivity and
participatory approach was deployed in six major steps: production with the associated revenue. In addition, this
• inform/raise awareness on the programme content effort also led to the restoration of biodiversity. The methods
• establish democratic community organizations used for glaze treatment are mechanized subsoiling, making
• conduct a participatory diagnosis to define the erosion control strips (half-moons, benches and trenches),
communities’ landscape and identify resources, problems, the Zaï or Tassa, stone barriers and dry stone thresholds.
possible solutions and associated costs The mechanical works are reinforced by biological treatment
• record the commitments of each stakeholder through (direct sowing, planting trees and grasses, agricultural and
a signed memorandum of understanding with each fodder speculations).
community organization Dune fixation entails stabilizing dunes through a combina-
• supervise the communities in the implementation of tion of mechanical (wattle using plant-based materials) and
activities based on an Annual Work Plan biological actions (planting trees and herbaceous cuttings
• conduct a participatory evaluation of the activities carried out. with species suited to the environment).
Ravine correction is done by building filter works (thresh-
This approach generated, among other things, a massive and olds of stone or gabions) through the ravines to block run-off,
voluntary membership of the beneficiaries (farmers, breed- retain solids (sand and detritus) and let off the water without

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Image: AfDB
Bench restoration in the Tillabery region, Niger

solid fillers. These structures must be strengthened by biologi- performance reflects the effectiveness of an intervention
cal plantation to ensure durability. strategy based on a participatory approach that enabled the
empowerment of benefiting communities through an effec-
Results achieved tive decentralization of financial resources and of natural
The implementation of this first phase of PLCE has yielded resources management.
very encouraging results. These include the development and In order to consolidate the significant benefits and
adoption of a master plan for siltation control in the Niger to bring actions across the entire basin, the African
basin including an action plan and an investment programme; Development Bank and other NBA partners (including
the implementation of actions to protect and fight against the UEMOA, KfW, the Global Environment Facility and the
siltation of 41,600 ha in Burkina, Mali and Niger; beneficiaries’ West African Development Bank) commenced, in 2014, the
use of technical and planning tools to protect and fight against formulation of an ambitious (scaled-up) siltation control
erosion and silting through a participatory approach; training programme covering all nine countries of the basin. This
of 100,000 farmers in the different technical areas for degraded is called the Integrated Development and Adaptation to
lands restoration; and the installation and supervision of 217 Climate Change Program in the Niger Basin (PIDACC/
Village Committees for Natural Resources Management. BN). Its overall objective is to contribute to the improve-
The PLCE programme implementation has generated other ment of livelihoods and resilience of people in the rural
positive environmental and socioeconomic effects including communities through sustainable management of natural
restructuring and improving the texture and fertility of soil, resources in the basin. Specifically it aims to reduce the
revegetation (grass and trees) and the reduction of rural youth silting process of the Niger River, improve communities’
exodus in the basin. The main lessons learned are that: adaptive capacity to climate change, and improve the inte-
• reversing the trends of land and water degradation is grated management of natural resources in the Niger basin.
possible if you put in adequate human, financial and PIDACC/BN will focus on developing the resilience of
technological package resources ecosystems and natural resources through the protection of
• fighting against desertification and Niger River siltation natural resources and ecosystems and the strengthening of
should be a cross-border/multinational and multisectoral shared management of water resources; and on developing
issue with strong involvement of all the stakeholders the resilience of rural communities through the construc-
which augers well for accountability in the whole basin. tion of multipurpose infrastructure and social protection.
The estimated cost is US$300 million. The programme
The implementation of PLCE in the Niger basin helped to preparation is to be finalized in 2016 for effective imple-
achieve the desired results for all the planned activities. This mentation in 2017.

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The right to water in the semi-arid

region: managing Brazilian areas
susceptible to desertification
Ministry of the Environment & Ministry of Social Development and Fight against Hunger, Brazil

I
n Brazil, areas susceptible to desertification (ASD) cover to this popular mobilization, the Brazilian Government designed
1.3 million square kilometres of the national territory. The a policy to mitigate the effects of drought. Governmental actions
semi-arid area in the north-east region is the largest of related to ASDs have an integral approach and also aim at the
such areas, with a total extension of 980,000 km2 and a popu- mitigation of poverty and inequality; the sustainable expansion
lation of 22 million people. Better known in Brazil as ‘Sertão’ of production capacity; and the conservation and sustainable
(backlands), this region has most of its territory covered by management of natural resources.
Cerrado and Caatinga, biomes rich in endemic species. Emergency initiatives that were previously focused on
combating the most visible effects of drought gave way to a set
In contrast to other ASDs, the semi-arid area has relatively high of structuring actions, jointly promoted by the Ministry of the
average rainfall, but with precipitation levels unevenly distrib- Environment (MMA) and the Ministry of Social Development
uted in time and space. Some droughts may last particularly long, and Fight against Hunger (MDS). The National Commission to
as a result of the El Niño phenomenon and other weather factors. Combat Desertification gathers government agencies, members
Recently, the region has endured the longest drought in 50 years. of civil society and stakeholders to discuss the implementation
The persistence of drought in the ASD led to the mobiliza- of the National Action Plan to Combat Desertification, with
tion of various civil society stakeholders for the promotion of particular emphasis on access to water. The Brazilian policies
the fundamental rights of vulnerable populations, including the also put emphasis in the provision of credit lines for projects
right to water and the right to a sound environment. In response that combine innovation and local knowledge.

Image: Paulo Araújo - ASCOM/MMA

The construction of cisterns has positively affected the lives of more than 4 million people in the semi-arid area

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Image: João Vital

Successive sediment containment barriers, ensuring water retention in the soil and a productive environment

Water access Besides the above-mentioned technologies, the construction

In the Brazilian backlands better access to water is promoted, of cisterns based on the traditional knowledge of the local
in particular, through improving the storage of water in the population has positively affected the lives of more than 4
soil and maintaining the vegetation cover. These objectives million poor people in the semi-arid area. Cisterns are a low-
are reached through technologies such as: cost technology, which allows for the capture and storage
• Retention terraces — transversal channels built in the of rainwater. The implementation of cisterns is funded and
direction of the declivity of the terrain, reducing the coordinated by the Federal Government in partnership with
speed of the flood and its destructive potential on the soil. civil society organizations, state and local governments.
• Contour stone barriers — applied on small farms, in areas Since 2003, over 1.2 million cisterns have been built. Labour
where the use of agricultural mechanization is difficult. is chosen preferably within the local community, lowering
These also reduce the volume and speed of floods. costs and generating job opportunities. Beneficiary families
• Successive sediment containment barriers — structures and bricklayers are trained both for the construction and for
built with loose stones in small inflowing rivers or the proper use of correspondent technology. Each cistern is
streams, with the objective of retaining the sediments monitored for the assessment of its results.
generated by erosion in cultivated areas. Increasing access to water in this region generates profound
• Underground dams — the use of a plastic canvas in the changes in the lives of families: it reduces the incidence of
underground to create a barrier that will prevent the diseases and liberates women and children to other activities.
accumulated water in the soil continuing to flow during This experience strengthens the enormous capacity of local
the dry season. Such underground water reservoirs are dwellers to cope with the hardship of the Sertão. In addition,
therefore used as a moist substrate for growing crops and it releases families from dependence on tank trucks and other
as a support for water supply. forms of political patronage.
• Sustainable forest management — the planned use of
forests, allowing for natural regeneration. It protects Overcoming extreme poverty
the soil and ensures the conservation of species and of Food security is recognized as one of the top priority issues for
vegetation cover. The planned use of dry forests allows for Brazil. Initially, with the Zero Hunger Programme and later
taking advantage of their forage for cattle farming, as wells with the main Brazilian conditional cash transfer programme
as providing sustainable and legalized forest biomass to — called ‘Bolsa Família’ — Brazil managed to consider-
meet energy demands and enhancing the use of non-timber ably reduce extreme poverty. Currently the Bolsa Família
species. Other positive outcomes are favouring beekeeping programme reaches 14 million households. Public sponsor-
and better regulating the water supply. ship for the construction of cisterns is specifically devoted to

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Image: Mr. Ubirajara Machado

Image: Paulo Araújo - ASCOM/MMA

José Nivaldo with the pavement cistern, built with funds from the Brazil Brazil has been promoting programmes to foster community and family
without Extreme Poverty Plan forest management

that goal. In 2011, the Brazil without Extreme Poverty Plan closed, the cistern is protected from contamination caused
was released to further promote social rights. by animals and evaporation.
In recent years, small farmers in the semi-arid area have The improvement in production, made possible by irriga-
benefited from nationwide policies that are designed to tion, opened other opportunities for income generation. The
facilitate domestic market access to agricultural products. couple is part of an association of agroecological farmers
One is the Food Purchase Programme (PAA), through which sells their production to the Federal Government’s
which the Government purchases food produced by family PAA. The programme buys food from family farmers and
farmers and distributes it to people in areas of nutritional provides for people in situations of vulnerability. In 2014,
insecurity. PAA also contributes to the formation of public the family received US$3,000 from sales to the PAA. The
stocks of food produced by family farmers. Furthermore, product of their work, organic and locally harvested food,
the programme strengthens local and regional commercial was used in school meals. “I am happy that my children
networks. It also values organic food production, encour- do not go hungry as I did,” Aparecida recalls. In the past,
ages healthy eating habits and fosters cooperatives and they had to walk 12 kilometres to get water to drink.
associations. Today, the semi-arid population is better “There were times when I would leave at 4 a.m. and would
prepared to face prolonged droughts with low to no migra- return around noon.” Nilvaldo says that “Today, I eat meat
tion to cities, hunger or unemployment. The consolidation every day. In the past, the poor people only ate meat on
of these new public policies, which combine overcoming Sundays”. On the property, they have 24 kinds of agricul-
extreme poverty and adaptation to climate change, will tural products, and breed geese, turkeys, chickens and pigs.
bring progressively more positive results. During the The family also has its own bank of native seeds. Working
more favourable seasons, the families can improve their in partnership with the Brazilian Semi-Arid Articulation
productive assets so that they are better suited to resist the non-governmental organization (NGO), the Brazilian MDS
expected periods of hydric crisis. supports community seed banks on several farms in the
region, including in Areal.
Case study: security for small farmers
José Nilvaldo and Maria Aparecida dos Santos raised four Forest management
children on their small farm in rural Areal, State of Paraiba. As part of its policies related to the sustainable use of forest
They are beneficiaries of the Bolsa Família and made their resources, Brazil has been promoting programmes to foster
own water cistern for drinking water. In 2013, with funds community and family forest management. Those contribute
from the Brazil without Extreme Poverty Plan, the family to job and income generation in rural areas.
could also count on the ‘cisterna calçadão’ (pavement This set of benefits is essential to the conservation of water-
cistern). The calçadão cistern captures rainwater on a 200 sheds in ASDs. Sustainable forest management, coupled with
m² paved surface. Surrounded by a curb, the construction the legal protection of forests — Legal Reserve and Permanent
is made on a slope. Water is fed to a settling box and then Preservation Areas — enables a community to maintain forest
to the reservoir which can store 52,000 litres. Covered and cover over 50 per cent of its total area. The combination of

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Image: Mr. Ubirajara Machado

José Nilvaldo and Maria Aparecida dos Santos on their farm in rural Areal

sustainable use and conservation policies allows for a produc- The commercialization of this sustainable forest produc-
tive activity with low environmental impact. tion generated an average annual family income of
The MMA promotes the Community and Family US$1,000 during the first year of implementation of the
Forest Management Federal Programme, with special programme. Now it brings an average income of US$2,000
focus on ASDs and in partnership with NGOs such as per family per year. Sustainable forest management in Baixa
the Northeastern Plants Association and the Araripe Grande settlement became an important instrument for
Foundation, and with financial support from development environmental management, promoting water, food and
institutions such as Caixa Econômica Federal and Banco energy security with benefits to biodiversity and vegeta-
do Nordeste. More than 5,000 families have benefited in tion cover. The testimony of José Rodrigues, President
an area of approximately 85,000 hectares, generating an of the Association of Settlement Baixa Grande, illustrates
average monthly income supplement of US$70 per family. the success and benefits of management practice for the
The forest management activities in ASDs maintain an community: “The Forest Management Plan brought about
area of 350,000 hectares, providing jobs and income for only good things to our association. Families that did not
over 7,000 farmers in dry periods and contributing to the have a fixed income or had low income, are now able to
permanence of families in the countryside. guarantee their livelihoods with sustainable management.
To those people who already had any kind of small fixed
Case study: Baixa Grande income, such as low retirement pensions, the wood produc-
There are 115 farming families living in the Baixa Grande tion provides an extra income and helps every month. After
settlement, city of Jati, Ceará State. They all benefit from the implementation of this project, there was a change
the Federal Programme of Community and Family Forest in people’s way of thinking with regard to deforestation.
Management. In an area of approximately 8,500 hectares, Before that, there was much more illegal deforestation,
agriculture and livestock are developed as main activities, use of fire and other activities that are not allowed. Today,
and forest management in a complementary way. The forest there is more awareness about the need to preserve the
area is divided into production plots ranging from 74 to187 environment and respect environmental laws. Our commu-
hectares, in a 20-year production cycle. nity is 100 per cent stronger.”

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The Afforestation and Erosion Control

Mobilization Action Plan in Turkey
M. Abdullah Yurtoglu, Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, General Directorate
of Combating Desertification and Erosion, Department of Combating Desertification, Turkey

T
he effects of a rapidly growing world population be affected severely by these problems. In order to re-establish the
and the extension of the global economy mean that greenhouse gas balance in the atmosphere, we need to decrease
the stress on natural resources is increasing day by greenhouse gas releases and increase carbon sinks.
day. As a result of overconsumption, fundamental indica- Immediate rehabilitation of infertile forests and afforestation
tors of the environment are gradually being degraded. wherever possible are among the most efficient precautions
to be taken against global warming and the climate change it
Forest areas shrink, the water level decreases, erosion leads to causes. To achieve this, a cooperative project was implemented
soil loss, wetlands disappear, rangelands are degraded, rivers dry by Turkey’s Ministry of Environment and Forestry (now the
up, the average temperature increases, coral islands are dying, Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs) and public institutions
and species of plants and animals become extinct. The global and organizations, municipalities, non-governmental organiza-
economy, which is continuously developing and extending, will tions and the community assigned by National Afforestation and
eventually destroy its own life-support system, Earth’s ecosystem, Erosion Control Mobilization Law no. 4122.
unless necessary precautions are taken. The world needs to solve Our greatest aim was to increase the forest lands, which are
this problem by designing a system that can provide for the basic important carbon sink areas, in order to achieve a balance in the
needs of all people without self-destruction. greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. At the earliest opportu-
Turkey is among the countries facing a high level of land nity, forest assets should be increased, degraded forests should
degradation and erosion due to topographical structure, climate be rehabilitated, and soil loss through lakes, dam reservoirs and
and improper agricultural practices, overdestruction of range and seas should be prevented by combating erosion. Therefore, we
forest lands and the sensitivity of most of the lands to erosion. felt the need to mobilize the resources of our country and accel-
The problems caused by climate change and global warming as erate the works in order to achieve this aim as soon as possible.
a result of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere are The National Afforestation and Erosion Control Mobilization
continually increasing. Our country is among those that would Action Plan prescribed the need for coordinated work among
Image: Min. of Forestry and Water Affairs, Turkey

Image: Min. of Forestry and Water Affairs, Turkey

Afforestation and rehabilitation of forests is one of the most efficient Roadsides were among the areas afforested, with planting on 8,135 km of
precautions against global warming and climate change highways and 2,262 km of village road

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Image: Min. of Forestry and Water Affairs, Turkey

Each year of the mobilization, 300,000 people were employed for seed and seedling production, afforestation, rehabilitation and erosion control work

public bodies and institutions as well as all the parties of the The National Afforestation and Erosion Control Mobilization
community. The action plan was applied from 2008 to 2012. Action Plan had several objectives:
During its five years, the plan detailed the undertaking of • R ehabilitate forest and 10 per cent of canopy closures in
afforestation, rehabilitation and erosion control and rangeland Turkey and make them productive again with minimum
rehabilitation works on an area of 2.3 million hectares. The effort and minimum cost through a forestry approach
Ministry of Environment and Forestry aimed to accomplish the close to the nature.
work on 2.16 million hectares of this area and other bodies and • Restore the balance of nature to establish a liveable
institutions on 136,000 hectares. The total cost of these works environment and minimize the potential effects of global
was estimated at more than TL 2.7 billion. warming, climate change and desertification in the country.
In order to assume that a country is self-sufficient in terms • Prevent floods and overflows, which are seen frequently in the
of its forests, at least 30 per cent of its land should be covered river watersheds and lead to loss of lives and goods; regulate
with forest. In 2004, 27.2 per cent of Turkey’s land was water run-off in the watersheds and improve water quality.
covered with forest. This figure was close to the world norms. • R educe the current pressure for wood production on
However, 49 per cent of our forest lands are degraded, and the forests by establishing forests in order to meet the
these should be converted to productive forests as soon as country’s need in for wood raw materials.
possible. Our target for 2023 is to reach 23 million hectares • R aise community awareness of the importance of caring
of forest area, which means 30 per cent of the country’s area. for saplings, trees and forests by initiating afforestation
Some parts of Turkey’s degraded forest lands are stony and mobilization, and establish the planting of saplings as
rocky so they cannot quickly be made economically productive. a common tradition practised by citizens every year.
Nearly 4.2 million hectares of degraded forest can be converted to Through a love of nature, the concept of beautification of
productive forest areas by afforestation, rehabilitation and erosion the environment will be established in citizens’ hearts.
control works. Furthermore, there are nearly 1 million hectares of • L ook after each sapling planted and prevent our country’s
treasury land suitable for afforestation and erosion control works. soil from being carried away by erosion to the lakes, dams
According to the results of the forest inventory works, there or seas, so Turkey’s citizens can live in a greener and
has been an increase of nearly 1 million hectares in the area of cleaner environment.
forest lands in Turkey during the past 30 years:
• 1963-1972: 20.2 million hectares (26.1 per cent of the Today, humankind frequently experiences various types of disas-
total area) ters such as drought, desertification, erosion, floods, avalanches
• 1997: 20.7 million hectares (26.6 per cent of the total area) and famine. Each year, many humans and other creatures die due
• 2004: 21.19 million hectares (27.2 per cent of total area). to natural disasters in Turkey and across the world. The people

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Image: Min. of Forestry and Water Affairs, Turkey

Green belt afforestation was important to address a growing need for recreational space in urban areas

that have been destroying nature are unconsciously paying for To address this need, green belt afforestation around urban
it. Trees and forests are our biggest resources to prevent these areas was undertaken and urban forests were established.
disasters. We should look after these resources and their assets During the mobilization, the works received support from every
should be sustained and accelerated. This can be achieved by walk of life. Seedlings were planted on the behalf of supporters and
mobilizing everyone to plant saplings and re-establish the forests. memorial forests were established. In this context banks, firms,
Potential afforestation areas cannot be established by the real and legal entities have contributed TL 20.6 million (US$11.5
Ministry of Environment and Forestry’s financial and physical million) in financial support, 15.2 million seedlings were planted
capability alone. One of the biggest services that can be provided on the behalf of supporters and 79.288 hectares were afforested.
to our country is to say: “stop erosion” by planting saplings. Over the five years of the action plan, 109 million seedlings were
Everyone should have this spirit of enthusiasm. Therefore, distributed to the population free of charge.
agencies and institutions, bodies of troops, local authorities Action plan implementations also provided employment
and non-governmental organizations in Turkey should provide opportunities to the rural population. Every year during the
financial and physical support to this afforestation mobilization. plan’s implementation, 300,000 people were employed for six
Countrywide afforestation mobilization began in 2008, with months in the production of seeds and seedlings, afforesta-
the goal to afforest and rehabilitate 2.3 million hectares by tion, rehabilitation and erosion control work.
2012. The soil that had been carried from these areas to dams The Turkish Government’s decision to initiate mobilization
and seas due to erosion would be conserved. The most effec- resulted in Turkey’s greatest project to achieve afforestation
tive and permanent precautions against climate change and and combat erosion. Turkey is among the countries which
global warming have been taken. will be affected by climate change and desertification because
While the forests are decreasing constantly, Turkey is one of its geographical location. There is active erosion in 59 per
country that is increasing its forest asset. Our forests covered cent of its agriculture lands, 54 per cent of its forest lands and
20.2 million hectares of land in 1973, and had reached 21.7 64 per cent of its rangelands, while 48 per cent of its forests
million hectares in 2012. are degraded. To address these issues, the Afforestation and
During the five years in the scope of the mobilization, we Erosion Control Mobilization Action Plan focused on key
achieved afforestation of 210,169 hectares; soil protection goals to increase forests, improve degraded forests, prevent
afforestation in 315,889 hectares; and private afforestation erosion and minimize the effects of these in Turkey. During
in 49,385 hectares. Some 1.75 million hectares of degraded the five years of action plan activities, all parts of society
forest were rehabilitated and rangeland rehabilitation was have participated in achieving those goals and carrying out
achieved in 37,880 hectares. afforestation, rehabilitation, erosion control and rangeland
Roadsides, schools, hospitals, health centres, sanctuaries and rehabilitation work.
cemeteries were afforested in action plan works in addition to The original target of the action plan was to afforest and
afforestation, rehabilitation, erosion control and rangeland reha- combat erosion across 2.3 million hectares of land within five
bilitation work. Planting was done on 8,135 km of highways and years. This target has been exceeded, with 2 billion seedlings
2,262 km of village road, in 27,000 school yards, 1,095 health planted to establish more than 2.4 million hectares of forest
centres and hospital orchards and 9,826 sanctuaries and cemeter- plantation between 2008 and 2012.
ies. In the scope of the ‘Schools get life’ initiative, works are being The mobilization of afforestation has been achieved and
conducted and school orchards are being planted. its effects continue to be seen. Between 2003 and 2014
Green belt afforestation has also been achieved around afforestation, erosion control, rehabilitation and rangeland
cities. As a result of migration from rural to urban areas, the rehabilitation works were realized on 4.2 million hectares of
population’s need for recreational space in cities has increased. land and a total of 3.25 billion seedlings met with soil.

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 Living Land

Building on partnerships and strong stakeholder

involvement to tackle land degradation
Thorunn Petursdottir, Soil Conservation Service of Iceland
and Hreinn Oskarsson, Hekla Forest Project & Icelandic Forest Service

I
celand is ecologically the most damaged country considerable to very severe erosion still occurs on about half
in Europe. The story of its ecosystem degradation of the remaining ecosystems. Most of the desertification can
stretches as far back as to the Norse settlement, or be directly related to mismanagement of natural resources,
approximately 1,100 years ago when the Vikings discov- but in a few cases the deserts were formed solely by volcanic
ered this pristine volcanic island located just south of the eruptions or they are located beyond vegetation limits.
Arctic Circle in the Atlantic Ocean. Organized work aiming to halt soil erosion and further
degradation and to protect the remaining woodlands started
At the time of settlement, around two-thirds of Iceland was nationwide in 1907 when the Icelandic Government approved
vegetated with at least 25 per cent woodland cover. Due to the first Act on forestry and protection against soil erosion.
a harsh climate and erodible volcanic soils, the Icelandic It was followed up by the establishment of two governmen-
ecosystems were highly vulnerable to the year-round livestock tal agencies, the Icelandic Forest Service (IFS) and the Soil
grazing and woodland utilization practised by the settlers. Conservation Service of Iceland (SCSI). Ever since, the two
Over the following centuries, unsustainable land use triggered agencies have actively practised and facilitated ecosystem
ecosystem degradation resulting in extreme loss of fertile soil conservation and ecosystem restoration through diverse
and vegetation. Today, around half of the original vegeta- reclamation and forestation projects. Furthermore, in recent
tion cover is lost including almost all the woodlands; leaving decades most of their projects have centred on stakeholder
approximately 42 per cent of Iceland desolated. Furthermore, involvement and participatory approaches in order to ensure

Image: Johann Thorsson

Severe erosion still occurs on about half of the remaining ecosystems in Iceland

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Image: Hreinn Óskarsson

Image: Hreinn Óskarsson

Successful restoration of birch woodlands in Goðaland south Iceland. The
Natural colonization of birch woodlands in the Hekla forest area remnants of birch woodlands were protected from grazing in 1925 by IFS

social acknowledgement and local support for the conser- In recent years the diversity of restoration projects has
vation measures implemented, and to secure the long-term increased significantly, with a stronger focus on multiple inte-
ecological maintenance of treated areas post implementation. grated outcomes. Their goals are, for example, related to raising
The Icelandic Forest Association (IFA) non-governmental awareness about how soil conservation and the processes
organizations (NGOs), dedicated to forestation on deforested driving climate change are inevitably interconnected and how
areas, were established by 1930. In the following decades, to enhance the socioecological resilience of degraded ecosys-
several regional branches were established under the IFA tems to increase the livelihood of local communities. Currently,
umbrella. From its establishment, IFA has provided profound a number of restoration partnership programmes and projects
support to the forestation and woodland protection practised exist, managed by governmental agencies, NGOs or as independ-
directly by IFS. In 1969, increased public discussions about ent projects funded by the state and by businesses. There follows
the poor condition of Icelandic ecosystems compared to past a short description of the main programmes. A complete summa-
ecological richness led to the establishment of conservation tion of all restoration measures was published in a report titled
NGOs; Landvernd. These new NGOs were meant to provide ‘Ecological Restoration in Iceland’, released in 2011.
voluntary support to soil conservation activities comparable to Farmers Heal the Land (FHL) is a cost-shared governmental
what IFA, the forest NGOs, provided to forestation projects. restoration programme established by SCSI in 1990. It is based
Around 1970, a number of small individual NGO groups that on collaboration between farmers and SCSI. It is the largest
annually worked on land reclamation on a voluntary basis were programme of its kind, with around 600 participants working
also established. The increased environmental awareness was individually on lowland restoration projects at their own farm-
also reflected at the governmental level, for example through a steads. The programme was established to increase rangeland
major revision of the laws on soil conservation and through a restoration and improve grazing management; however, its
parliamentary resolution that substantially increased the public main underlying target was to ease cooperation and build
funds available in the 1980s for ecosystem restoration and for mutual trust between farmers and SCSI, as this had been
promoting methods of sustainable land management. perceived by the correspondence as lacking. The programme
After 1990 the prevailing methodology driving governmen- provides direct and indirect incentives to participants in the
tal ecosystem restoration practices was substantially changed. form of minimum subsidy payments and regular in-person field
Instead of the previous top-down approaches, the governmen- visits by restoration experts located at the nearest extension
tal agencies responsible for soil conservation and forestation SCSI office. The FHL programme has facilitated the restora-
adopted new participatory strategies for their restoration tion of approximately 300 km2 (3 per cent) of degraded areas
measures. Furthermore, instead of continuing to promote the below 400 m elevation. Furthermore it has substantially eased
use of agronomic methods, the agencies increasingly adopted communications and strengthened trust between SCSI and
the ecosystem approach in their restoration activities. Today, farmers, as hoped for in the beginning. The majority of the
governmentally driven ecosystem restoration projects are farmers practise restoration to extend the size of grazing land.
based on strong stakeholder involvement and participatory Participants also claim that the restoration of degraded lands
approaches throughout the project lifetime and preferably is their moral responsibility; to ‘pay the debt to the land’ and
afterwards as well. return it to their descendants in a better condition than it was in

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Image: Hreinn Óskarsson

Volunteer groups plant birch seedlings in the Hekla Forest project

when they received it. Economic factors do not play a substan- restoration activities practised by several groups of volunteers.
tial role in that context; neither do governmental policies. Substantial changes can be seen within the restoration areas but
Regional afforestation projects are state funded and the greatest success lies in the public awareness-raising that the
implemented by farmers and landowners. The first regional project has engendered since its establishment.
afforestation project was established by the state in 1991. The United Nations University (UNU) Land Restoration
Later on it was followed by the establishment of comparable Training Programme was founded in 2007 by the Icelandic
projects in other regions of Iceland. Each project operates at Ministry for Foreign Affairs in partnership with the Agricultural
an individual level and runs its own regional advisory office. University of Iceland and SCSI. It was formally approved as a
Nevertheless, they work in close cooperation under the same UNU programme in 2010. The programme provides training
umbrella association. These projects provide maximum subsi- for specialists from developing countries in the field of ecosys-
dies to farmers and other landowners who want to practice tem restoration and sustainable land management, focusing
commercial forestry on their land, but they also support those on strengthening institutional capacity and gender equality.
who want to practice forestry using only native species. The The fellows stay in Iceland for six months and get extensive
projects are based on strong partnership and, in addition to professional and vocational training, given by a large variety
regular in-person field visits by experts from the regional of experts. Around 70 specialists from Africa and Asia have
office, they offer participants a variety of forestry-related semi- already graduated with a diploma from the training programme.
nars and courses. In total approximately 450 farmsteads are The Mount Hekla forestry project was founded in 2007, with
currently participating in these projects. the main objective to restore birch (Betula pubescens) wood-
The regional Gróður fyrir fólk í landnámi Ingólfs (GFF) NGO lands near the active Mount Hekla. Only few hundred years
was established in 1997. The main aims of the organization are ago the Hekla forest area was mostly covered with extensive
to halt soil erosion and ecosystem degradation in the vicinity birch forests and woodlands. Historical records show that
of Iceland’s capital city Reykjavik and adjacent towns, and to prior to settlement, deposits of volcanic ash and pumice from
enhance the ecosystem services these systems can provide to eruptions in Mount Hekla were mostly stabilized on the forest
increase the quality of life of inhabitants in the area. GFF uses floor, preventing secondary distribution. After more than a
only organic residues, such as hay litter, livestock manure or thousand years of farming in the area, both grazing and forest
gurry in its restoration projects. The NGO is funded by the clearing had devastated the woodlands and today the areas
state, local authorities, governmental agencies and various types near the Hekla volcano are some of the most severely degraded
of business. The organizations work closely with school pupils ecosystems in Iceland. These areas are quite fragile with low
who take an active part in the restoration work and use it for resilience, and ash deposits from nearby volcanoes such as the
educational purposes. Furthermore, each year GFF coordinates active Mount Hekla cause heavy damage to the remaining vege-

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Image: Hreinn Óskarsson

Birch seeds are collected in September and sowed in the autumn

tation following each eruption. Currently most of the area is for the project. They contributed actively to planning and
eroded, the soil is poor in nutrients and water-holding capacity, promotion until the project was officially approved by the
and frost heaving is extensive. Erosion is extensive; primarily state as an independent governmental project, run by the
wind erosion but also water erosion the during the spring thaw. state with funding from the business sector. Since then, the
Therefore, natural establishment of seedlings is limited. committee’s role has changed to be mainly advisory.
Local farmers or landowners, SCSI, IFS, regional afforestation Local landowners and other volunteers participate actively
projects and local forestry associations have been working on in the project, mostly by planting birch seedlings provided by
stopping the erosion and restoring the vegetation in the area the project. The project area extends over 90,000 hectares.
since the nineteenth century. The early efforts were mainly Due to the size of the area, low-cost methods are essential.
focused on protecting local farmhouses and hayfields from Therefore, the restoration of woodlands will mostly rely on
the sand and creating grazing areas. Later the work dealt with colonization of birch and willows rather than large-scale plant-
protecting larger areas from sheep grazing; spreading fertilizer, ing. Birch seedlings are planted in small groves or woodland
especially nitrogen and phosphorus; and seeding grasses and islets, from which these species will colonize surrounding
nitrogen-fixating species, mainly Nootka lupine. Trees have areas during the next decades. However, stabilizing the soil
been planted or sown in reclaimed areas with good success, and in the nearby areas is needed to create favourable conditions
natural colonization of birch can be found around both the old for woodland expansion by seed. This is done by spreading
remnants of the birch forests and younger plantations, which inorganic or organic fertilizer onto the land in order to facili-
suggests that tree planting is a feasible method in the area. tate the establishment of soil crust and local flora. Sowing a
The eminent results from these restoration activities were mixture of grass species is also needed in some areas.
the main arguments for the establishment of the Hekla forest Since the Hekla forest project started in 2007, all planting,
project. Its primary goals are to increase the resilience of the spreading of fertilizers and sowing of grass has been mapped
ecosystem to deposits of volcanic ash during eruptions in the and stored in a GIS database. Several research projects have
volcano and to prevent secondary distribution of the ash by been conducted in the area and some are ongoing, looking at
wind and water. Other goals are the restoration of ecosystem both ecological factors and cultivation techniques.
function and biodiversity, carbon sequestration and improved In 2015, 215 landowners had joined the project and more
options for future land use. than 2.5 million seedlings had been planted. The afforested area
From the very beginning, the project was based on building covered more than 1,300 hectares, divided into numerous small
effective partnerships and the involvement of various stake- patches throughout the area which have already started to facili-
holder groups in the process. Local farmers, governmental tate self-seeding. The project has been successful and will be a
organizations and NGOs formed a collaboration committee model for other similar projects in Iceland in the years to come.

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Sustainable land management in Mongolia

Bayarbat Dashzeveg, Ministry of Environment, Green Development and Tourism of Mongolia

M
ongolia is one of biggest inland countries in ties where it has created a distinctive distribution pattern. On
Asia with an area of 156.65 km2, most of which the other hand, Mongolia has one of the region’s most arid
is arid and semi-arid land. It lies at a fairly climates and its ratio of precipitation to evapotranspiration
high elevation (approximately 1,580 m) above sea level, fluctuates in most territories between 0.05 and 0.65, therefore
completely separated from oceans and seas (500 km from it is highly vulnerable to desertification.
the Atlantic Ocean, 1,600 km from the Yellow Sea) and The main characteristics of Mongolia’s climate are its distinc-
surrounded by high mountain ranges. It borders on China tive four seasons, high fluctuations in air temperature, low
in the east, west and south and on Russia in the north. precipitation, and notable climate differences in latitude and
According to the definition provided in the United Nations altitude zones. Results from continuous studies based on offi-
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), 90 per cial data from the National Meteorological and Hydrological
cent of Mongolia’s landmass is highly vulnerable to deser- Observation Network demonstrate that the mean annual air
tification and land degradation. temperature in the Altai, Khangai, Khentii and Khovsgol moun-
tainous regions is colder than 400C, while the valleys between
Mongolia has a typical continental climate and average mountains and major river valleys are colder than 6-80C, the
temperature of 1.56a. The lowest temperature is -500C in desert steppe zone is warmer than 20C, and southern Gobi is
winter and in the Gobi area the highest temperature can warmer than 60C. The mean annual air temperature corre-
reach 400C. The topography of the land largely influences the sponds with the northern edge of Mongolia’s desert steppe
geographical distribution of climate characteristics, and is to zone, at latitude approximately 46° north. Permafrost occurs at
some degree reflected in the soil and vegetative cover proper- territories with a mean annual air temperature lower than -20C.

Desertification rates in Mongolia

Source: Min. Env. Mongolia

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Dominant factors affecting desertification in Mongolia

Source: Min. Env. Mongolia

From meteorological observation data since the 1940s, the fragile, with high winds causing sand and dust storms for
lowest recorded air temperature was -55.30C in the Zuungovi 30-100 days a year, compared to 120 days in southern parts of
soum (district), Uvs aimag (subdivision), in December 1976. Mongol Els. Meteorological observation data indicates some
According to data from nearby aerological stations, surface 300-600 hours of sand and dust storms a year.
temperature inversion occurs or develops diurnally at 600-1,000 From the results of studies on the impacts of global climate
m depth and 6-170C. This is why in winter the river valleys change on Mongolia’s territory, it is evident that the mean
and depressions have the coldest temperatures compared to the annual air temperature has increased by 1.90C between 1940
nearby higher terrains or open plains. and 2004. Taking the period 1961-1990 as a base, it is evident
The evapotranspiration level is less than 500 mm at the that the warming trend in Mongolia started in 1989, intensi-
high mountain belt region; 550-700 mm at the forest steppe fying in the later twentieth century and the beginning of the
zone; 650-750mm at the desert steppe; and 800-1,000 mm at twenty-first century. Studies show that the mean air tempera-
the desert zone. Mongolia receives about 230-260 days and ture increased by 1.60C between 2000 and 2010 compared to
2,600-3,300 hours of sunshine per year. the period 1961-1990. In those 10 years 2001, 2004 and 2007
Mongolia’s steppe and desert steppe zones are very windy. were the warmest and the mean annual air temperature was
The annual average wind velocity in these areas is 4-6 m/s. 1.3-2.70C higher than that of the base year.
Wind velocity is 1-2 m/s in the Altai, Khangai, Khovsgol and Climate warming is evident in all seasons. According to
Khentii mountain areas and mountain valleys, and 2-3 m/s records from the meteorological stations in Mongolia in the
in all other areas. According to data from the meteorological last 20 years the mean annual air temperature in the winter
observation stations near aimag and soum centres around the (November-January) increased by 0.50C, in spring (February-
country, wind velocity of higher than 4 m/s was recorded in April) and fall (August-October) by 1.3-1.70C, while the
one quarter of the country’s territory. summer temperature (May-July) increased by 4.30C.
Mongolia’s precipitation is several times less than the Grassland is the major ecosystem in Mongolia, and is very
potential evapotranspiration and the territory is lacking in important to the country’s economy and eco-environment.
humidity. The level of precipitation in the Khangai, Khovsgol Farming is a pillar industry, contributing more than 30 per
and Khentii mountains is 300-400 mm, in the forest steppes cent of Mongolia’s gross domestic product. Typical grassland,
and Mongolia Altai zones it is 250-300 mm and in the steppe shrubberies with large areas for pasture, desert and the Gobi
zone it is 150-200 mm, while in the desert steppe and desert with little vegetation or bare land make up 83.2 per cent of the
zones it is 50-150 mm. country’s land area of 1.3 million km2. The pasture is distributed
The Gobi desert steppe and desert zone accounts for about in the south-west, south and north-east of the country, joining
41.3 per cent of Mongolia’s territory and its soil is loose and with Inner Mongolia and China, constituting the fringe area of

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Image: Min. Env. Mongolia

The high-yield results encourage herders from ‘Bayantuhumiin Uguuj Horshoo’ group to make their desert area green

European-Asian grassland in north-east Asia with a lot of human project harvested high yields of hay. This was the result of
activity. Now most of the grassland in Mongolia has degraded several years of effort to improve the soil condition in their
and is in the process of desertification because of overgrazing, localities, representing arid and semi-arid regions.
overcultivation, overdeforestation and open-pit exploitation. With funding from the Netherlands and Switzerland govern-
In the past 40 years, 42.5 per cent of the country’s land has ments and UNDP, the Sustainable Land Management (SLM)
been desertified, with desertified lands increasing by 13-18 project started in 2008 and operates in 13 soums of four prov-
per cent per year. Potential arable land has decreased quickly, inces representing different ecological zones of Mongolia. It
from 130x104 ha in the 1990s to 90x104 ha in 2004. Now, aims to introduce and promote sustainable land management
44.5 per cent of grassland is influenced by desertification. practices, adjusted to local soil and climatic conditions and
The East Gobi province has the most severe desertification in livelihoods. Herder communities involved in the project
Mongolia. Its area is about 11.5x104 km2, of which 17.6 per have fenced new hayfields to prevent livestock movement
cent is light desertified, 41.7 per cent moderate desertified and and obtained abundant harvests by improving irrigation and
40.5 per cent severe desertified land. applying organic fertilizers.
Mongolia is united with UNCCD, and the Mongolian Mongolia is located in an arid and semi-arid zone of conti-
Government promulgated national action programmes, called nental Asia, characterised by hot and dry summers, low soil
‘Green Belt’, in 1997 and 2005 to combat desertification. The fertility and scarce vegetation cover dominated by few species.
Government has implemented programmes to protect against Nomadic herders rear sheep, goats, cattle, horses and camels
land degradation, combat desertification and soil erosion, and as their main source of income. They often face insufficiency
improve ecological structure, costing an estimated Tog 200-300 of hay and fodder in winter and spring seasons, which is a
million per year. However, it could not achieve satisfactory major obstacle in sustainable livestock husbandry. In recent
results in combating desertification. There are eight nurseries in years, herders have become less mobile, leading to overgraz-
arid areas and the 150-500 thousand seedlings they grew every ing and hindering plant seed maturation, which in turn leaves
year before transition to a market economy satisfied demand. In pastureland barren and prone to wind and water erosion.
the market economy, however, most nurseries do not have active With the collapse of the socialist system and the disman-
work and only 3-10 thousand seedlings are grown in a year. tling of state-owned cooperatives in the 1990s, livestock was
The Mongolian Government is implementing the Green privatised but not the land itself. Although the number of live-
Belt programme and the National Programme to Combat stock has been steadily increasing, the practice of collaboration
Desertification, and aims to build national capacity for preven- between herders was lost and the rearing of excessive numbers
tative measures in view of the global trends and the present of livestock which exceeded the pasture’s carrying capacity has
economic situation. largely degraded the land during the past two decades.
In the summer of 2013, herder communities involved in Before the start of the SLM project, 70 per cent of
the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP’s) Baruunbayan-Ulaan soum in Uvurkhangai province was
Sustainable Land Management for Combating Desertification degraded with increased sand invasions, the main reason for

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Aridity trends measured by Mongolia’s meteorological observation stations

Source: Min. Env. Mongolia

which was unsustainable use of pasture exceeding the carry- members in 2010. The group leader, Mr D. Tumurchudur,
ing capacity. ‘New generation’ herders have poor knowledge says: “We worked as one to rest our field from livestock, irri-
of pasture use, and have limited experience in haymaking and gated and used organic fertilizers, which rewarded us with a
pasture rotation and fencing to support natural regeneration. good amount of hay. Because of the hay we reserved, we did
The UNDP project provided support for the formation of not lose a single lamb in the past severe winter. Neighbouring
herder groups and a series of training opportunities with field herders now come to us to learn from our experience.”
demonstrations on pasture management, hayfield fencing, He also stated that herders can harvest five times more hay
soil quality improvement and maintenance techniques, and from one hectare by merely supporting natural regeneration.
methods of planting alfalfa and barley. In 2009, the train- Initially, the herders were pessimistic about planting new
ing courses organised by the UNDP project enrolled over crops. However, after seeing the first results, the community
2,600 participants, 60 per cent of whom were women. After was very much inspired. Herder group women made barley
the training, with the project’s support, herder communities flour and as well as using the flour for household needs, the
fenced off 12 hectares of pasture in the Taats river valley in excess was sold on the provincial market generating a revenue
2009. The project also provided technical assistance in restor- of Tog 500,000 (approximately US$385). The herder group
ing old water ditches and establishing a borehole well to be won first place by participating in the brand product fair of
used in case of severe water shortage. The plot was used by a Uvurkhangai province.
former state collective farm to grow barley and for haymak- Following the experience of the Bayantuhumiin Uguuj
ing over 20 years ago. However, due to irrigation difficulties herder group, five new groups with 43 households were estab-
caused by continuously declining water levels, herders had lished in 2010, all working on soil improvement and pasture
slowly abandoned crop farming. management. With UNDP support, the herders have created
In 2009, under the technical guidance of the UNDP project, added value and alternative income opportunities aside from
the ‘Bayantuhumiin Uguuj Horshoo’ herder group planted livestock husbandry through small-scale vegetable farming,
alfalfa in 2.2 hectares, barley in 1 hectare, and 10 ha of land diversified diary and wool products.
was used for haymaking. Due to their collaborative efforts to With UNDP support, the annual soum-wide pasture/land
maintain hayfields, fencing and improved irrigation, herders management plan is developed and implemented with herder
were able to once again harvest crops and prepare their own hay community participation, which will be the basis for signifi-
for winter. The herder community harvested 2.5 tons of alfalfa, cantly reducing degraded land towards the end of the project.
2 tons of barley and 80 tons of hay that fully meet their needs. The UNDP-supported herder groups have pioneered a revival
The herders who worked on the hayfield established of collective action for pasture management and the preven-
a formal herder group involving 10 households and 23 tion of land degradation.

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Participatory saline soil management in Thailand

Apichart Jongskul and Pranee Srihaban, Land Development Department; Worapong Waramit and Wisit Ngamsom, Focal
Point Office of Thailand to United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification and Land Development Department

T
he United Nations Convention to Combat rice cultivation. Saline affects both on-site and off-site agricul-
Desertification has indicated that the world popula- ture areas. The former limits the area for cultivation and causes
tion is estimated to increase to 9.6 billion by the year low productive yield due to its toxicity to the root system of
2050 and there is a need to clear 3 million hectares of new rice and degradation of the soil’s physical properties. The latter
land every year for food supply. Promotion of sustainable causes saline water contamination in natural streams. As a result,
land management to reclaim degraded land and turn it into it initiates the expansion of areas affected by saline soil. Paddy
a robust foundation for food security is an urgent priority. rice is vulnerable to soil salinity conditions. It has been reported
that the rate of germination of paddy rice in saline soil is lower
Participatory saline soil management in Thailand is an compared to non-saline soils. Seedling and root systems will be
approach to reclaim degraded land and enhance food security unhealthy and the budding rate will be low. The rice plant will
through farmer participation. Saline soil, a prevailing problem become dwarfed, with low weight and low protein in the grain.
in agriculture land, covers 2.84 million hectares or 29 per cent When the paddy field becomes dry, the level of saline concentra-
of the area of north-eastern Thailand. Soil salinity levels have tion will increase and the risk of rice plants dying will be higher.
been categorized into three classes: severely saline, moder- LDD rehabilitates saline soils according to its category of
ately saline and slightly saline. The saline causes unfavourable severity. In severely saline soils, it introduces both mechanical
soil structures and degrades the ecosystem, particularly the and vegetative measures for the instant installation of drainage
system that supports rice cultivation. Leaching of saline soils systems (open drains and sub-drains) to permit rainwater to
by rainwater deteriorates natural water resources, irrigation leach the saline from soils. The salt-tolerant plant Acasia ampli-
and underground water. ceps is grown to pioneer and generate the plant ecosystem in the
The Land Development Department (LDD) of the Ministry affected area. In moderately saline and slightly saline soils, LDD
of Agriculture and Cooperatives in Thailand has tried its best constructs soil and water conservation systems for instant land
to rehabilitate saline soil to return it to agricultural purpose, levelling and extensive water storage in paddy fields; incorpo-
particularly in severely affected sites in Tung Muang Pia in the rating green manure crops, growing salt-tolerant trees on the
Ban Pai district of KhonKaen province. The project area covers dykes along paddy fields, and adding rice straws to paddy fields
approximately 122,880 hectares where most farmers depend on to increase organic matter in the soil.

The concept of participatory saline soil management

NSTDA

KU SCG

LDD Area approach Farmers

TAO Others

Income
Saline soil
Rice product Sustainability Rice yield rehabilitation

Source: LDD

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Images: LDD
LDD works with farmers to rehabilitate saline soil, which covers 29 per cent of the area of north-eastern Thailand

The approach used to improve saline soil begins with provid- order to raise farmers’ income in the project area. Biophysical
ing knowledge to farmers on how to use rainwater to leach rehabilitation helps to improve soil properties and the capac-
saline in paddy fields. This entails storing water in paddy fields ity for rice production, while other supporting activities from
for two to three days until its colour turns brown, then discharg- partner agencies contribute to increasing knowledge of other
ing the water to the installed drainage system. After repeating development techniques, such as rice production techniques to
the same leaching step two or three times, the farmers can achieve premium-grade rice with a unique aroma when cooking,
grow paddy as usual. LDD also recommends that farmers use as well as marketing. As a result farmers’ incomes have increased.
organic substances such as rice husk, compost and farmyard Participatory actions have been introduced since the first year
manure together with green manure such as Sesbania rostrata of the rehabilitation project. Apart from soil improvement gained
to incorporate into the soils after harvesting for 100-120 days from applying green manure crops (Canavalia ensiformis or Jack
to increase organic matter, help retain moisture in the soil and Bean) and growing Sesbania on paddy field dykes, farmers also
prevent upward migration of saline to the soil surface by capil- earn additional income from selling seeds. SCG Paper, a public
lary water. To reduce utilization of chemical fertilizers and limited company taking part in the project, supports the provi-
ensure the use of organic substances, LDD promotes the use sion of seedlings of eucalyptus, a fast-growing and salt-tolerant
of microbial activators in making composts and liquid ferti- tree species, to farmers. After a period of three to three-and-a-half
lizers for the improvement of saline soil on individual farms. years, the trees can be harvested and sold to the company for
Agricultural residues are locally available for this purpose. about B22,000 per rai (6.25 rai = 1 hectare).
Thus, saline soil will be improved through leaching out the At the very beginning, though the rehabilitation project was
saline and increasing organic matter in the soil. taking place, the rice yield was apparently very low. Productivity
Rehabilitating saline soils takes time. Salinity levels will not was only about 300-320 kg/rai while the cost of production was
decrease much in the first and second year, so a better yield as high as B4,600 per rai. Instead of gaining profit, farmers lost.
cannot be fully expected in this period. Apart from the focus The question was how to improve both production and the price
on technical and biophysical aspects of saline soil rehabilitation, of the rice. Then LDD coordinated with the National Science and
the area approach has been used to implement the project, and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) and provided capac-
its potential to improve farmers’ incomes and sustainable liveli- ity-building to farmers on improving rice yield and quality. The
hoods has been considered. Therefore, farmers in the reclamation training focused on soil and seed-bed preparation; identification
areas receive technical assistance and other support from various and selection of good quality, salt-tolerant rice seeds; appropriate
government agencies and institutions including local govern- growing techniques and water management; harvesting and post-
ment and the private sector. The concept of participatory saline harvest techniques; rice-mill processing for good quality grains,
soil management has been introduced, with LDD as the main and packaging. Under the training programme, farmers gained
agency that coordinates and works with other relevant partners more knowledge about saline soil improvement and techniques
in the area. The partners have a shared goal to increase rice for quality rice production. Additionally, many workshops had
productivity and enhance the value added to rice products in been organized by NSTDA to identify and select groups of skilled

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Image: LDD

Image: LDD
Rice growing in saline soil: capacity-building has helped farmers to improve Rice produced from the participatory saline soil management project attracts
rice yield and quality a higher price and market demand due to improved quality

farmers. Then skilled farmer groups and networks were estab- added value, enabling an increased supply to meet market
lished for good quality rice production. Rice yield produced by demand, it is possible that farmers’ income could reach four
the groups and networks is high, the quality is acceptable and times their present level or US$1.7 million per year.
there is demand from consumers and markets. To provide backstopping services, LDD has established a land
Rice produced from the participatory saline soil management development centre where farmers can look for most of their
project receives a higher price and market demand than normal required materials, various best practices, and recommendations
due to the improved quality. SCG supports the project in terms on sustainable saline soil management. The centre facilitates the
of market development for selling ‘saline soil rice products’ and sharing of knowledge and experience and technology transfer.
facilitates the sale of rice products for farmers’ groups. It encourages the adoption of saline soil rehabilitation tech-
Regarding research and development of saline soil rice prod- niques and promotes collaborative working among farmers. It is
ucts, the Sakon Nakhon Campus of Kasetsart University has hoped that with full support and knowledge gained from their
conducted research and promotes the improvement of rice participation in the project, farmers will be strengthened and
quality and value through improving the quality of aromatic rice will be able to manage the saline soil sustainably. The project
varieties. In addition, the Tumbon Administration Organization has been designed to be a model for saline soil management in
(TAO) fulfils the coordination between relevant agencies, institu- other salt affected areas of north-eastern Thailand as well.
tions, the private sector and farmers in the project area. TAO also In 2014, the project received the Excellence Award for
contributes in terms of disseminating information, performing achievement in delivering integrated public services from
public relations activities, facilitating and hosting technical train- the Thailand Public Service Awards organized by the Office
ing, and raising awareness among farmers. of Public Sector Development Commission. The key learn-
It is now 14 years since LDD implemented the participa- ing experience from this saline soil management project is
tory saline soil management project. The transformation from how to overcome the challenges to farmers’ adoption of saline
abandoned bare land with crust surface soil to an outstanding soil improvement techniques. There is a need to understand
rice cultivation area is remarkable. Between the years 2000 farmers’ problems and their needs as well as other related
and 2014 the rice growing area has been expanded to 4,320 contexts by working closely with farmers and relevant stake-
hectares or 60 per cent of the total 7,200 hectares of the devel- holders in the area, and to bring about cooperation among
opment area. Average rice production is approximately 430 them including influencing people and local agencies to
kg/rai, and its total value in 14 years is approximately US$5.6 become fully involved in the project in order to achieve the
million or US$414,643 per year. In this regard, if member desired goals. The project turns an idle, degraded land into a
agencies, institutions, organizations, the private sector fertile outstanding place for high quality rice production. Its
and farmers continue to integrate their work in a coopera- impact not only generates better and sustainable income and
tive manner and invite new partners to fulfil other required livelihood to farmers, but also enhances sustainable agricul-
improvements in saline soil rice productivity, quality and ture and food security as a whole.

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Securing the upper end of the water

value chain in South Africa
Christo Marais, Chief Director, Natural Resource Management Programmes,
Department of Environmental Affairs, South Africa

O
n 30 November 1993 a group of researchers, jobs while containing the spread of invasive alien plants to
planners and natural resource managers met to improve water security was presented to the late Professor
discuss the impacts of invasive alien plants on Kader Asmal, the then Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry,
water resources and biodiversity in the Fynbos Biome, or in June 1995. In October 1995 the Working for Water (WfW)
Cape Floristic Region, the smallest of the world’s six plant programme was launched by Professor Asmal, a multide-
kingdoms. Two resolutions were made at the meeting: to partmental programme with a budget of US$6.9 million
present to local decision-makers the threat that invasive (R25 million based on the exchange rate at the time). The
alien plants pose to the country’s scarce water resources programme has since seen phenomenal growth, with a budget
(the initiative that developed into the ‘Working for …’ increasing to US$1,317.3 million (around R9.88 billion based
programmes); and to approach ‘the rich north’ for support on the mean exchange rate for 1995-2015) and peaking with
in the battle against invasive alien plants and their an expenditure of US$105.3 million (R1.263 billion) during
impacts on biodiversity. The latter is the forerunner to the 2014/15, while also giving part-time employment opportuni-
landscape planning programme, Cape Action for People ties to more than 40,000 people over the last few years.
and the Environment and later programmes funded by the Initially the primary focus of WfW was on the management
Global Environmental Facility of the World Bank. of invasive species known to have negative impacts on stream-
flow. It was soon realized, though, that WfW cannot operate
Hydrological research going back as far as 1943, when in isolation. When invasive alien plants are cleared from
Professor C. L. Wicth published the first scientific papers riparian zones and wetlands there is still the imperative for
showing that Pinus plantations have a negative impact on restoration of the wetland to improve water purification and
streamflow, provided the initial rationale for the clearing of retention, and ultimately to improve dry season flows. In 2004
invasive alien plants. This was confirmed by further research the Working for Wetlands (WfWet) programme, initially run
between the 1960s and 1980s1,2. The idea of also creating as a sub-programme of WfW and implemented by the South
Image: Christo Marais

Image: Christo Marais

Pinus species invading the Southern Cape Mountains where 8 per cent of
streamflow is lost due to invasive alien trees Workers restoring a highly degraded wetland in the Baviaanskloof

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Images: Christo Marais

Images: Christo Marais
Top: WoF has more than 30 per cent women in its employment and over 90 per cent of the fire fighters are younger than 35
Bottom: To date some 2.8 million hectares of invasive alien plants have been treated. Invasive alien plants cover around 20 million hectares of South Africa

African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), was formally subtropical thicket in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. After
established. During the same period there were a number of some years the project was expanded to the grasslands and
devastating wildfires across the fire-prone biomes of South savannah areas of the Maloti-Drakensberg range in the north-
Africa. Often the most devastating ones were associated with ern parts of the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and the other
high fuel loads, the result of dense stands of invasive alien northern provinces, more specifically Limpopo.
plants which caused very hot fires that not only threatened With the establishment of Working for Ecosystems there
infrastructure but had devastating impacts on topsoils and was now an integrated programme in place for the imple-
biodiversity. In September 2004 Working on Fire (WoF) was mentation of restoration and maintenance of ecological
established, again as a sibling programme of WfW. infrastructure and the delivery of ecosystem services. It
The Subtropical Thicket Restoration Programme — the completed the family of programmes that could address
forerunner of what would become Working for Ecosystems challenges related to water security, climate adaptation and
— was also established in 2004 to develop a scientific plat- mitigation, improved productive potential of land, natural
form for catalysing public and private sector investment in disaster risk management and most importantly, restoration
the restoration of more than 1 million hectares of degraded of biodiversity.

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Image: Dr. Bennie van der Waal

Image: Christo Marais

The silted-up dam at Mount Fletcher Large-scale degradation in the catchment of the Mount Fletcher dam

Furthermore, over the last 20 years the Working for… To date some 2.8 million hectares of invasive alien plants
programmes have succeeded in mainstreaming ecologi- have been treated. To put this in context, one has to compare
cal restoration into the employment and rural development it to the extent of such plants in the country. Invasive alien
debates. South Africa has a number of socioeconomic chal- plants cover some 20 million hectares of South Africa to a
lenges, the toughest of which arguably include unemployment, lesser or greater extent. If compressed to 100 per cent density,
safety and security, education, health, rural development and they would cover around 1.9 million hectares, an area bigger
water and energy security. The natural resource management than the Gauteng Province or the Kruger National Park.
programmes contribute primarily to addressing unemploy- Although on the surface it looks as if WfW is making progress,
ment, rural development and water security, but have the research has shown that invasive alien plants may be spread-
potential to make more tangible contributions to primary ing by between 7.4 per cent and 15.6 per cent, necessitating
health (water quality of run-of-river water extractions in rural additional investment.3 To curb the rate of spread and improve
areas), education and energy. the sustainability of the labour-intensive clearing programmes
Strong political buy-in and active support for programmes WfW is investing around US$4 million of its annual budget in
started with Professor Asmal in 1995 and continues today biological control.4 Biocontrol is known to drastically reduce
under Minister Edna Molewa, with the programmes having seed set and in some cases even kill its host species.
the full support of every minister responsible for water and WfWet has invested in the restoration of 970 wetlands since its
environmental affairs since its inception. Political support, inception. Despite this being a substantial number, investments
though, cannot be sustained without substance. The magni- in wetland restoration will have to be increased significantly if the
tude of the natural resource management programmes today impact on countrywide water quality and retention for improv-
is not to be underestimated. Its socioeconomic impacts, the ing dry season flows is to show a marked improvement.
areas cleared of invasive alien plants, degraded land restored To date Working for Ecosystems has nearly 22,000 hectares
and fires suppressed are very significant contributions not under restoration for improving watershed services, seques-
only to the economy but also to environmental resilience and tering carbon, improving the productive potential of the land
the mitigation of, and adaption to climate change and improving biodiversity. WoF has fought more than 13,100
Since the inception of the WfW programme the family of fires since its inception. On average it has contributed to the
natural resource programmes has together created more than suppression of around 15 per cent (expressed as a percentage of
227,100 person years of employment across South Africa. The estimated area burned) of all veld and forest fires since its incep-
programmes grew from just over 6,100 employment opportu- tion, with a high of 27 per cent during the 2014/15 fire seasons.
nities to more than 50,000 on average over the last three years. It is important, though, to put these achievements into context.
During that time, consistently around 50 per cent of these Arguably the biggest investment in the restoration of ecological
were female and more than 60 per cent were younger than 35 infrastructure and the delivery of ecosystem services has been done
years old. WoF, a programme where one would expect a very through WfW. It is estimated that invasive alien plants reduce
low percentage of women, has more than 30 per cent women streamflow by around 3 per cent. This might sound small but it
in its employment, arguably the highest for any fire manage- represents 1,443.56 million m3 of water per year. In the high yield
ment institution in the world. More than 90 per cent of the catchments that are important water sources for economic growth
fire fighters are younger than 35. in the country, the reduction in streamflow exceeds 5 per cent of

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 Living Land

Image: Mike Powell (left), Christo Marais (right)

The slope facing up the valley at the Cambria site (left) shows hardly any above-ground biomass in 2004; (right) the view of the slope from the top of the
valley in December 2014

mean annual run-off with a high of 8.4 per cent in the Southern Africa simply cannot afford not to invest in the restoration of
Cape. The catchments with the highest impacts all fall within the its ecological infrastructure. In the Eastern Cape Subtropical
Maloti-Drakensberg range, the ‘water tower’ of South Africa that Thicket Restoration Programme, of which more than 11,000
supplies water to KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng Provinces, and the hectares is already under restoration, not only does restora-
Southern and Eastern Cape mountain ranges that supply water tion have the potential to increase carbon capture by around
to the Nelson Mandela Metropole (Port Elizabeth), the economic 80-100 tons of above-ground and soil carbon per hectare, but
hub of the Eastern Cape, the Garden Route (one of the country’s intact thicket also increases infiltration significantly.10,11,12
ecotourism draw-cards), the catchment areas of Cape Town and Research has shown that more than 100 times lower infiltration
the wine lands in the Western Cape.5,6 Not all the water used by in soils associated with degraded thicket, relative to the soils
invasive alien plants is utilizable by humans though. In 2007 it under intact vegetation, results in lower levels and less reten-
was estimated that invasive alien plants in high-yield catchments tion of soil moisture, almost double the amount of run-off and
and along riparian zones reduced usable water (registered water an almost six-fold increase in sediment load.13 The increased
use) by more than 4 per cent and if left unchecked this could run-off might sound positive but it all happens as part of flood
increase to more than 16 per cent. A water-scarce country like flows and leads to a reduction in dry season flows. Water-scarce
South Africa simply cannot afford this.7,8 South Africa cannot afford to lose dry season flows.
Large-scale desertification is mainly caused by abandoned At the moment it is estimated that the South African
croplands, overgrazing and unsustainable use of timber and Government invests around US$166 million per year overall, of
other fibre resources. Other contributing factors are unsustaina- which the Natural Resource Management Programmes contribute
ble fire regimes — short fire return periods, burning during the about US$147.6 million. In order to get on top of the challenge
wrong season and then grazing the land too soon after the last though, the country will need to invest around US$1 billion per
burn. These can all lead to major erosion, especially in the high- year, adding around 100 000 jobs to the economy.14 Footing such
yield catchments. Five of the country’s large dams have been a bill is unaffordable for the South African Government alone. All
silted up by more than 60 per cent and the worst of them, the enterprises depend on water and energy; it is therefore a logical
Welbedacht dam, is silted up by more than 90 per cent.9 Such imperative that the private sector increases its commitment to the
figures don’t represent the full picture, though, as many smaller restoration of the country’s ecological infrastructure and the deliv-
dams are also silted up but this information is not captured ery of ecosystem services. Once the private sector has internalized
in the national records. One such example is the municipal the impacts of catchment degradation on profitability, sustainabil-
dam of the small rural town of Mount Fletcher in the Eastern ity and risk reduction, investments in ecological restoration could
Cape. The dam, which has a catchment of 77,100 hectares and a be absorbed into companies’ investment in enterprise and supplier
storage capacity of 500,000 m3, was completed in 2008. Within development. The restoration of ecological infrastructure not only
five years it was more than 80 per cent silted up. improves water security, contributing to economic growth and
From the above it is clear that not only does land degradation livelihood security; it is also a critically important contribution to
have a major impact on water security, it also impacts negatively managing climate change. To unlock resources the country will
on our ability to adapt to climate change. All climate change need a legislative platform allowing for incentives to restore and
models point to an increase in the intensity of both droughts disincentives to degrade, backed up by appropriate institutions to
and floods, combined with extreme temperatures. South facilitate investments in ecological infrastructure.

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 Living Land

Translating policy into action — efforts

to combat desertification, land
degradation and drought in Namibia
Teofilus Nghitila and Bryn Canniffe, Department of Environmental Affairs,
Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Namibia

I
ssues of desertification, land degradation and drought In spite of these harsh conditions, almost 70 per cent of the
are particularly important to Namibia. Known as the population relies on agriculture to some extent for their liveli-
land between two deserts, Namibia is the driest country hood, while approximately 71 per cent of the land surface is
in sub-Saharan Africa, with over 90 per cent of its landmass used for agriculture and mainly livestock farming. This high
classified as hyper-arid, arid or semi-arid. Annual rainfall level of dependence on the land exists despite the predomi-
varies from just 10 mm in the south-west to some 700 mm nance of infertile soils and harsh climatic conditions.
in the more tropical north-east. In all parts of the country These factors make the United Nations Convention to
rainfall is highly variable and unpredictable. Combat Desertification (UNCCD) highly important for
Namibia, particularly the first two strategic objectives of the
This situation is expected to worsen under the climate change UNCCD 10 Year Strategic Plan — to improve the living condi-
scenario with increasing temperatures, an increased number of tions of affected populations and to improve the condition of
drought and flood events and even greater rainfall variability affected ecosystems. The bottom-up approach of the UNCCD
expected. Namibia already experienced its worst drought in 30 also resonates with Namibia, which aims to empower commu-
years in 2013 and rainfall is also well below average in 2015, nities, especially women, as these are the custodians and
which is a major threat to water and food security in the country. day-to-day managers of the land and its resources.

Average annual rainfall and average plant production in Namibia

Average annual rainfall (mm) Green vegetation

Average biomass
annual rainfall (mm) Green vegetation biomass
Less than 50 Barethan
Less ground,
50 extremely low Bare ground, extremely low
50–103 Very low
50–103 Very low
100–150 Low
100–150 Low
150–200 Medium
150–200 Medium
200–250 High
200–250 High
250–300 Very high
250–300 Very high
300–350 Extremely high
300–350 Extremely high
350–400 Highest
350–400 Highest
400–450 400–450
450–500 450–500
500–550 500–550
550–600 550–600
More than 600 More than 600

Source: Mendelsohn 20021

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 Living Land

Maps showing suitability of soil for crop cultivation (left) and the types of agricultural land uses practised

Low Small-scale cereals and livestock

Medium Cattle ranching
High Small stock
Protected parks and reserves
Intensive agriculture

Low Small-scale cereals and livestock

Medium Cattle ranching
High Small stock
Protected parks and reserves
Intensive agriculture

Source: Mendelsohn 20022

In line with its Presidency of UNCCD Conference of the tion, exclusion of veld fires, and climatic and soil moisture
Parties (COP) 11 and the Namib Declaration, which was adopted conditions caused by prolonged droughts.
at COP11, Namibia has sought to provide national-level leader- Deforestation is most prevalent in the more d
­ ensely-populated
ship in the implementation of the UNCCD and to tackle issues of northern regions of the country and is due largely to the unsus-
desertification, land degradation and drought head-on. tainable uses of trees to build houses and provide fuel, clearing
A number of manifestations of desertification and land of land for dryland cropping, and unsuitable fire management.
degradation are commonly found in Namibia. These include: It is estimated that wood is still the primary energy source for
• overgrazed and overstocked land at least 60 per cent of Namibia’s population.
• bush encroached land Soil degradation is considered an increasing problem,
• deforested land caused by erosion from wind and water, and associated
• soil degradation with declining fertility and loss of organic matter on both
• water degradation. commercial and subsistence cropland. However soil health
is not systematically monitored throughout Namibia.
Overstocking and overgrazing has led to loss of ground Impoverished soils and cases of soil compaction have been
cover and land productivity as well as increased vulner- identified in northern Namibia due to dryland cropping
ability to drought. This problem is particularly acute in over many years with limited nutrient inputs or soil fertil-
Northern Namibia and in a number of other scattered ity management under subsistence agriculture and through
places, typically around large settlements. Open access to unsuitable tillage methods.
land and unsuitable distribution of watering points, includ- Water degradation refers to decreased water quantity and
ing boreholes, is a major driver for overstocking. quality. Strong population growth, rapid urbanization and
Bush encroachment refers to the invasion of undesired industrialization and expanding national economic output
woody species in rangeland environments, which leads to all place increasing demands on a resource already under
an imbalance of the bush to grass ratio, depletion of under- stress and have the potential to jeopardize the quality of
ground water sources, a decrease in biodiversity and decreases the resource. Current land management practices are also
in carrying capacities. It occurs predominantly on commer- leading to water degradation through:
cial agricultural land in the central and eastern areas of • o  ver-abstraction of water through dams and boreholes
the country. Overall, it is estimated that around 26 million • i nappropriate irrigation management which can cause
hectares of land is affected and economic losses incurred have salinization
been estimated to be up to N$1.6 billion per year. It is believed • l owering of water tables and desiccation of springs
to result from a number of complex interacting factors such as through invader bush species
overgrazing and reduced browsing in favour of cattle produc- • i nappropriate provision of artificial water points.

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 Living Land

Stocking density in carrying capacity in terms of kg/hectare in Namibia

Stocking density – carrying capacity (kg/ha)

More than 100
80–100
60–80 Overstocked
40–60
20–40
-20–20 Stocked near carrying capacity
-20–-40
-40–-60 Potential for more stock
Less than -60
Veterinary fence
Protected areas

Source: Mendelsohn 20023

The identification of desertification as a threat to national developed and piloted a range of effective coping mecha-
development and the need for the sustainable management nisms to assist farmers in Namibia’s North-Central regions
of land has been a leading priority for the Government ever to better cope with climate change.
since independence in 1990. The CALL-C Project: Enhancing institutional and human
The Government, in partnership with non-governmental resource capacity through local-level coordination of integrated
organizations, donor agencies, academic institutions and the rangeland management and support tested ways for communi-
private sector, embarked on a National Action Programme ties to work together with government and other bodies to better
to Combat Desertification (NAPCOD) in 1994, a full three manage grazing lands in the North-Central regions.
years before it ratified the UNCCD. Namibia was one of the The Kalahari-Namib Project is a transnational project
first developing countries to implement a national action involving Namibia, Botswana and South Africa to imple-
programme and it laid a lot of the groundwork for tackling ment sustainable land management practices in the
challenges at the national and local level. It systematically Molopo-Nossob basin area. The implementation of this
addressed a number of shortcomings in the areas of policy, project in Namibia was delayed and it is now being imple-
institutional and individual capacity, awareness-raising, moni- mented in the period 2013-2016.
toring and community engagement in land degradation issues. In 2014, Namibia’s Third National Action Programme
NAPCOD came to an end in 2005 but its pioneering work (NAP3) to the UNCCD was launched as an overarching
and lessons were built on through the Global Environment strategic document aiming to “prevent and reverse deser-
Facility-funded Country Pilot Partnership Programme for tification and land degradation in affected areas and to
Integrated Sustainable Land Management, which ran from mitigate the effects of drought in Namibia in support of
2007 to 2012 and included the following four subprojects. poverty reduction and environmental sustainability.” NAP3
The Integrated Sustainable Land Management Support/ contains six desired outcomes for the period 2014-2024
Adaptive Management Project had a mission to find inno- and is fully aligned with the UNCCD 10 Year Strategic
vative ways of managing land in a way that restores the Plan. A national sustainable land management committee,
natural environment and increases income-generating involving different line ministry representatives, non-
opportunities for communities. governmental organizations, donor agencies, academic
The Climate Change Adaptation Project, through institutions and the private sector, is spearheading the
improvement of traditional crops and livestock farming, implementation of NAP3.

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 Living Land

The NRMPS promotes new approaches to rangeland management based on an improved understanding of
the rangeland ecology

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry 20144

Years of testing and piloting of good practices have resulted in initiative and this led directly to the development of the
enhanced policy frameworks for the sustainable management of Comprehensive Conservation Agriculture Programme
rangelands and croplands at the national level. This includes the for Namibia (2015-2019). This programme is now build-
National Rangeland Management Policy and Strategy (NRMPS) ing on a range of conservation agriculture practices and
of 2012 and the Comprehensive Conservation Agriculture techniques appropriate for specific farming systems and
Programme for Namibia (2015-2019). These complement the agroecological zones. These include approaches to land
National Drought Policy and Strategy of 1997, which seeks to preparation such as ripping and minimum tillage as well
promote the long-term on-farm management and diversifica- as soil moisture conservation, agroforestry and crop rota-
tion of risk and preparedness for drought events. tion. There is considered to be great potential for these
The NRMPS seeks to ensure that rangelands are managed so approaches, particularly in the subsistence farming sector
that productivity and biodiversity are restored and maintained. in the northern regions, as part of an overall shift towards
It identifies eight principles for sound rangeland management: climate-smart agriculture.
1. Know your resource base A striking feature of NAP3 is its intention to move
2. Manage the rangeland for effective recovery and rest Namibia on a pathway towards land degradation neutral-
3. Manage the rangeland for the effective utilization of ity (LDN). This is also in line with commitments laid out
plants (grasses and shrubs) in Namibia’s COP 11 Presidency Strategy and the Namib
4. Enhance soil condition Declaration from COP 11, which called for a bolder agenda
5. Address bush encroachment to secure the ‘Future We Want’.
6. Plan for droughts Namibia is one of 14 countries engaged in a pilot project
7. Monitor your resource base — including rangeland to implement the concept of LDN at the national level. The
condition, stocking densities, water levels etc. first phase of the project has developed draft targets in a
8. Plan infrastructure developments — especially water points. range of areas such as forest cover, cropland productivity
and bush encroachment for Namibia to achieve LDN. A
The NRMPS is currently under implementation through a dedi- national working group on LDN was also established and
cated national task force team and has resulted in a number of pilot sites were identified across the country for testing of
innovative approaches to rangeland management, which bring the LDN principles.
together modern range management science and traditional and Phase two of the project is currently under development
indigenous knowledge and practices. Addressing the frequency and will consider:
of grazing through combining herds and herding all livestock • t he further integration of LDN into the national
from a single or several water points to a different patch to development agenda
graze each day, based on an agreed grazing and land use plan, • s etting up/strengthening of existing monitoring
is a key feature of these approaches, which have been found mechanisms for land degradation
to have positive effects on perennial grasses. These also allow • i mplementation of needed intervention/restoration
for increases in stocking rates, which is important when one activities identified for the pilot sites
considers the cultural significance of maintaining large herds. • p roduction of an updated land degradation risk
Conservation agriculture is identified in Namibia’s assessment map for Namibia, that will be used for
fourth National Development Plan as a priority strategic planning purpose.

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 Living Land

Networks to combat desertification in Portugal

Maria José Roxo, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa; Eugénio Sequeira, Liga para a Proteção da Natureza
and Lúcio do Rosário, Institute for Nature Conservation and Forests

P
ortugal adopted the United Nations Convention clear direct and indirect relationships between human activi-
to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) on 17 June ties, climate and the dynamics of ecosystems.
1994, some time before it came into effect on 26 Considering the increasing problems related to natural
December 1996. After 16 years, and having reviewed the resources scarcity, such as soil and drinking water, one
National Action Programme to Combat Desertification method for calling attention to this situation has been to
(NAPCD) with a new version in December 2014 to align organize a programme of events during the last five years.
it with the goals of the UNCCD Strategy 2008-2018, the This included conferences, workshops, photo exhibitions and
problems of desertification remain a reality in Portugal. documentaries, developed particularly in the areas affected or
Despite significant progress with the inclusion of deserti- susceptible to desertification.
fication in its main territorial management instruments, During this period several crucial steps were taken. In its
the adoption of a communication strategy to increase first phase the programme focused mainly on recognition of
public awareness of the gravity of this phenomenon the main causes of this serious environmental problem, with
continues to be one of the biggest challenges of this new particular attention to natural factors (soil, water, vegetation,
national action plan. climate). In the second phase it was necessary to integrate
human factors (social, economic and cultural issues) for a
Portugal faces a troubling scenario based on the evidence better understanding of such a complex phenomenon.
of global warming and climate change, in which there is an The research undertaken enabled a knowledge of the deep
increase in the occurrence of extreme weather phenomena natural causes which have contributed to the genesis of the
(droughts, floods, heatwaves and cold waves, among others). desertification phenomenon, including climatic extreme
It is crucial that governments and citizens are aware of the events and droughts. Climatic extreme events include intense
causes and consequences of desertification. Both should seri- precipitation periods that can cause the loss of organic matter
ously look for solutions to mitigate and combat it, as there are and destroy soil structure (erosion). Droughts are character-

Image: Photo M.ª Roxo

The landscape of desertified areas in the Mértola region (south-west Portugal), one of the most arid areas of the country

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 Living Land

Aridity index for the Mediterranean region, 1950-2000

Very arid
Arid
Semi-arid
Dry subhumid
Moist subhumid
Wet

Source: Lúcio do Rosário, based on FAO (PM) CGIAR-CSI

ized by the occurrence of below-normal precipitation values, not least, soil sealing by the creation of infrastructures, equip-
recorded during an extended period, associated with a change ment and urbanization also have an effect.
in the distribution of rainfall, with significant reduction of One of the main goals of NAPCD 2014 was to develop
precipitation in spring and an increasing period of water cartography and indicators to help decision makers find
deficit. This affects the normal development of vegetation and appropriate solutions to the management of resources in the
weakens soil resources and agricultural production. dry territories and at the same time favour and encourage the
However, other major causes of desertification can be seen recovery of degraded lands areas.
in all the unsustainable activities linked to the use of natural Considering the cartography of the aridity index (the ratio
resources and agriculture, including agricultural bad practices. between precipitation and potential evapotranspiration) for
These include deep and continuous crop farming on greater Portugal it is clear that the area susceptible to desertification
slopes; monoculture that leads to loss of soil nutrients and its has increased in the last half-century. This is most evident
breakdown; the use of species not suited to the climate or soil; when comparing the periods of 1970-2000 and 1980-2010,
contamination of soil by overuse of fertilizers, herbicides and and even more relevant when looking only at the decade 2000-
pesticides; use of heavy farm machinery, and use of poor-quality 2010, which had some particularly severe annual droughts.
water with the consequent risk of soil salinization and sodization. Therefore, the aridity or the equivalent susceptibility to
Activities related to livestock may also cause severe soil/water desertification have affected 58 per cent of the territory of conti-
degradation, such as grazing or excessive livestock density in nental Portugal in the last three decades (1980-2010), while in
a given area resulting in the appearance of tracks favouring 1960-1990, 36 per cent was affected. In this context the areas
shallow seepage and soil compaction by excessive cattle tram- of the south, central and northern interior were included, but
pling. We should also mention the extensive destruction of it should be noted that at a national level it is also necessary to
shrubland for land use changes, deforestation and the exces- consider the arid areas of south-eastern Madeira Island and the
sive consumption of water (tourism and agriculture irrigation) islands of Porto Santo, Desertas and Selvagens.
that lead to the reduction and depletion of groundwater, which The indicator of land productivity relates to the services
often contains excess salts and causes soil salinization. Last but provided by the ecosystem and includes information about the

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 Living Land

Image: URZE

Image: ATN
Sustainable land management and fire prevention on the Estrela mountain, Sustainable landscape management on Portugal’s first private natural
central Portugal, promoted by the URZE forest association (Dryland reserve (north-east Portugal) promoted by Transumância e Natureza (Dryland
Champion 2013) Champion 2013)

dynamics of the quality and quantity of land productivity. It is The strategic objectives of NAPCD 2014 include the
based on the long-term fluctuations of the factors that affect promotion and sustainable management of ecosystems
the conditions of standing biomass, specifically its productiv- in areas susceptible to desertification and the recovery of
ity and phenology. In this context, for Portugal, such features areas affected by desertification or land degradation. In this
are approaching the Food and Agriculture Organization context, it is important to stress a set of specific objectives
concept of ‘land quality’, which synthesizes the cartography and associated operational actions undertaken concern-
of the Land Quality/Land Degradation Index (LDI) developed ing the Mediterranean region, and particularly the Iberian
for continental Portugal for 2000-2010.1 This map shows that: Peninsula, which is one of the regions most threatened by
• LDI classes are distributed heterogeneously between the climate change. Therefore, special responses are requested
various regions of Portugal regarding mitigation and adaptation, while also aiming to
• with respect to soil conditions the residual frequency generate global benefits and enhance synergies with the
pattern suggests that the northern region comprises the processes of nature conservation and biodiversity.
most important part of the degraded lands Specific actions for soil protection and conservation, especially
• regarding the regressive trends in the land quality those resulting of the national implementation of the Thematic
Alentejo is the region most affected. Strategy on Soil Protection for the European Union, include:
• implementation of support measures to increase
For the period 2000-2010 the set of results also shows the resilience of ecosystems in areas susceptible to
geographic variation of the conditions and trends of land desertification through specific interventions aiming
quality, with settings that can be associated with ‘hotspots’ at the conservation of vegetation, soil and water, and
and ‘green spots’ of desertification in the Portuguese conti- particularly in the headwaters of watersheds more prone
nent. A synthetic analysis found that: to erosion slopes or the surroundings of water lines of
• in terms of the land conditions 32.6 per cent of the torrential regimes
continental territory is in a degraded situation and 60.3 • p romotion of soil drainage, when appropriate
per cent is in reasonable/good condition • c ultural interventions aiming at increasing carbon
• in 67.8 per cent of the territory the vegetation is resilient sequestration in agricultural soils and forests
to inter-annual climate variations or accumulates biomass • m onitoring of the physical and chemical characteristics of
over time soils with adequate periodicity
• the lands with static trends where primary productivity • p romotion of a cartography (reference types and soil
remains without evolution represents 30.8 per cent of quality) at national and regional scale
the territory, thus corresponding to a high frequency of • a ssessment of the situation and evolution of national
occurrence agricultural reserve and erosion issues and others related
• processes with a regressive trend in the land quality only to the soil conservation of the National Ecological
persist in 1.5 per cent of the total area of the continent. Reserve, at local level (municipal).

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 Living Land

Encouragement and support for environmental restoration

and landscape rehabilitation in land affected by desertifi- The Land Degradation Index for continental
cation and/or with degraded soils focuses on several areas. Portugal, 2000-2010
These include areas that are affected by uncontrolled rural
fires including forest fires; land where soil has been degraded
by overexploitation, particularly areas with misfit herds of
cattle; land with woody invasive alien formations; land with
inert extraction areas; and all other land affected by erosion,
saline influence or that is degraded overall.
The promotion and development of sustainable production
methods and certified management takes into account soil
conservation. This includes:
• efforts to promote the application of best practices in land
use and soil conservation (such as minimal mobilizations,
direct sowing, minimum anchor between rows and cover,
and crop rotation)
• integration of production, organic farming and extensive
grazing
• application of cross-compliance standards, specific
environment commitments for agriculture and forest,
and restrictions in vulnerable areas (such as nitrates-
vulnerable zones)
• maintenance or increase of organic matter levels and soil
biodiversity.

Other interventions that promote climate change mitigation

include activities that help to reduce emissions and increase
sinks (such as the management of livestock effluents through
energy recovery; increased carbon sequestration in agricultural
soils by direct sowing and installation of permanent improved
and biodiverse pasture; increase in forest carbon sequestration
through improved forest management and afforestation of new Source: Gabriel del Barrio et al, 2011

areas). These interventions also include getting to know, recog-

nize and develop other technologies, practices and processes to
reduce emissions or increase carbon sinks in a rural context.
Interventions aimed at adaptation to climate change include the relieve projects, initiatives and activities of individuals and/
development of activities that improve the resilience of agricultural or organizations that promote or develop, at national or local
and forestry systems. These focus on the knowledge of species level, useful contributions for sustainable management in arid
and adapted crops; the relationship between activities and their regions and systems.
exposure to climatic effects; technologies, practices and processes As a result, every year since 2013 Portugal has submitted to
that increase resilience and their respective application; recovery of the UNCCD Secretariat a list of the organizations and individuals
native species for priority use, including xerophytics for the estab- awarded as Dryland Champions. So far it has distinguished 27
lishment of improved pastures and trees and/or shrubs formations; entities with interventions not only in different regions affected by
and the adaptation and fitting test of non-autochthones xerophyt- desertification in the country, but also with cooperation projects
ics Mediterranean species where and when suitable. in arid areas of other Portuguese-speaking countries. Among the
On the other hand, PANCD 2014 considers two networks as distinguished Portuguese Dryland Champions are representatives
basic structures for the monitoring and evaluation of the differ- of different organizations working for local or cooperative develop-
ent action lines. The Pilot Areas to Combat Desertification ment of the environment, farmers, forestry and indigenous breed
network should include administrative units defined as priori- producers’ associations, scientists, technologists, public adminis-
ties for interventions. The Thematic Reference Centres in tration, companies and financial institutions.
Combating Desertification network will encompass manage- The establishment of local pilot areas to combat desertifica-
ment units for the study, development, demonstration and tion in the affected regions was considered essential for the
expanse of actions and good practices to combat desertifica- systematization of effective solutions to mitigate and combat
tion, land degradation and drought, and must be in possession this phenomenon by sharing experiences and informa-
of a specific measurement infrastructure for the subjects to be tion. However all the entities named as Dryland Champions
evaluated. These networks should eventually be integrated in in Portugal represent, individually and as a whole, a very
other equivalent Iberian and Mediterranean networks. important component of the National Reference Network for
It is also important to consider the Dryland Champions combating desertification, because they have been selected as
Programme created by the UNCCD in 2013 to recognize and an example for national or global relief.

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 Living Land

Seizing opportunities for sustainable land

management through targeted policies
and strategies — German engagement
Christina Seeberg-Elverfeldt, German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ)

W
hen addressing environmental challenges, Therefore, with Germany’s commitment towards imple-
three conventions at the global and inter- menting UNCCD, we contribute to overcoming a silo
national level must be considered: the approach and seize opportunities to promote sustain-
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate able land management at different levels, in synergy with
Change addressing climate change, the Convention on different multilateral agreements. Germany’s support to
Biological Diversity addressing biodiversity, and the the implementation of UNCCD has been very pronounced
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification from the early days of the convention. During the bien-
(UNCCD) addressing sustainable land management. nium 2012/2013, the Federal Government invested €425
These too often work in separate ways; however there million into combating desertification, which went to over
is also a need to look at cross-cutting themes. When 800 projects worldwide. Most of these projects operate at
it comes to the national level, an array of policies and national and local level, many within regional frameworks
initiatives exist which need to consider overlaps, syner- and some at international level. Generally, sustainable
gies and trade-offs between the challenges. Especially land management is an integral part of German develop-
at the local level when implementing programmes and ment cooperation (DC) projects and programmes in the
projects, local realities usually need an integrative fields of food security and rural development, watershed
approach, considering several challenges. management and biodiversity conservation, preservation
Image: Klaus Ackermann

Image: Klaus Ackermann

The initiative ‘One World — No Hunger’ aims to overcome hunger today and Reforestation of degraded land for sustainable wood energy production is
secure the conditions for future generations to feed themselves among the measures enabled by German DC

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Image: Michael Martin

Increasing the productivity of agricultural lands is one key element for achieving food security

of ecosystem services, and climate change mitigation and and necessary actions required for the LDN implementa-
adaptation. The majority of these projects (267) are imple- tion. Furthermore, within our support of the SDG process
mented in Africa, 162 in Asia, 132 in Latin America and we want to firmly establish soil protection as a vital part of
the Caribbean, 13 in the Middle East and seven in Europe. the future agenda for sustainable development.
Approximately 20 per cent of the funding has gone to 52 In 2014, the German Federal Ministry for Economic
supra-regional projects. Cooperation and Development (BMZ) launched the special
As a signatory to UNCCD and as the host country of the initiative ‘One World — No Hunger’, which aims to address
convention’s Secretariat, Germany is committed to support some of the greatest challenges facing humankind. The two
the achievement of UNCCD’s objectives. We work closely key goals are to overcome hunger and malnutrition among
with the Secretariat on technical and political matters and today‘s population and to create and secure the conditions
support the implementation of the 10-year strategy. for future generations of a growing world population to
The inspirational target of land degradation neutrality feed themselves. The initiative’s multisectoral approach
(LDN) was born out of the United Nations Conference on addresses six fields of action, expanding its activities
Sustainable Development (Rio+20) and guides the formula- in food security, resilience, food security in crises and
tion of a target under the Sustainable Development Goals conflicts, agricultural innovation, structural change in rural
(SDGs) and the post-2015 development agenda. The idea areas, sustainable use of natural resources and responsible
behind this is to motivate all countries concerned by land use. We have provided additional funds of around
the loss of ecosystem services through land degradation €300 billion in 2014 and 2015 and further funds will prob-
to invest in maintenance and improvement of their land ably be provided in the next two years.
resources. UNCCD has started preliminary work on imple- Under the initiative, various global programmes have
menting LDN in a pilot project with 15 countries. Their been initiated. The Global Programme on Soil Protection
national action plans will be oriented towards the LDN and Soil Rehabilitation for Food Security is among these. It
objectives. Germany is actively supporting this process in supports five partner countries with the broad-scale imple-
two countries to assess at an early stage the implications mentation of field tested approaches for soil conservation

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Image: Klaus Ackermann

Access to land rights for women is often difficult. Promoting gender equality is important for food security

and rehabilitation of degraded soils. At the same time, the often taken without taking into account the services
aim is to improve the policymaking framework with a view provided by healthy soils and sustainable land manage-
to establishing incentives for sustainable soil use. To support ment. Therefore, together with the European Commission,
capacity-building, active exchange of lessons learned UNCCD and other international partners, BMZ launched
between partner countries will systematically be enriched the Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) Initiative in
by state-of-the-art science. The programme includes six 2011. It cooperates with the scientific community, the
measures in Benin, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, India and Kenya private sector and policymakers to analyse the economic
and specifically addresses smallholders who are affected costs associated with non-sustainable land use. The results
by soil degradation and food insecurity. Experts and deci- of sound economic arguments can then be used to demon-
sion makers in ministries, private sector associations, local strate to the public and the private sector, the costs of
government, service providers and education bodies will be inaction versus action on sustainable land management.
exposed to innovative approaches and technologies. This approach is especially important in the case of actors
The legal environment is also important for encouraging who are not directly involved with land use and soil issues,
investment in land. In Burkina Faso, we contribute to the such as decision makers from finance departments who are
implementation of a land reform process. In many contexts responsible for allocating funds from a limited budget. The
farmers are willing to invest in preserving soil fertility, but initiative aims to ensure these decision makers are aware
cannot afford to do so unless property rights are settled. of the strong economic arguments in favour of investment
As gender equality is one of the most effective innovations in measures to combat land degradation. It should be made
against hunger, we particularly support women, who often clear that avoiding land and soil degradation is generally
have no access to land rights. much less expensive than the damage and losses incurred
The programme will be accompanied in the partner by allowing it to continue. Providing information on the
countries by research from the Institute of Advanced economic impacts of land degradation and desertification
Sustainability Studies, which will identify entry points for thus enables politicians to reach informed decisions.
processes through which the known challenges to sustain- The initiative is attracting widespread interest and
able land management may be overcome in the respective expanding its human capacity development activities.
local contexts. In this regard, processes of social learning, Apart from providing workshops and training courses for
dialogue and collective action will play a central role. interested parties in various countries, along with substan-
The costs of land degradation are largely ignored by tive and strategic support for the Soil Leadership Academy
governments and private businesses, and decisions are established by UNCCD and the private sector, a sequence

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Image: GIZ/ECO
Sustainable land management and the rehabilitation of degraded land are an integral part of German DC projects and programmes around the world

of Massive Open Online Courses (ELD-MOOC) has been

carried out. Soil protection in concrete terms: promoting
Raising awareness on soil conservation and food security soil fertility in Ethiopia
and promoting action also in Germany is a central element
of Germany’s commitment to combating soil and land In the country’s upland areas, the Government is promoting a national
programme geared to sustainable land management. Success is
degradation. Within the earmark of the International Year being achieved here in combating erosion and making more effective
of the Soil in 2015, BMZ has funded a media campaign in use of rainwater for agriculture. The Global Programme on Soil
Germany entitled ‘Soil. Sustains life.’. Different formats of Protection and Soil Rehabilitation for Food Security will complement
this approach. Utilizing integrated fertility management measures, soil
communication such as a web page, thematic newsletters,
fertility will be increased in land areas which have been protected but
an exhibition and media outreach are used to raise aware- remain low in nutrients. A key factor in this is the improved biomass
ness among the general public on the importance of soil, management, use of organic fertilizers and crop husbandry measures,
its functions and interrelations with many facets of our life. complemented by the targeted use of mineral fertilizers.
Within the Global Soil Week 2015, we also supported the
‘One Hectare’ installation to illustrate the topics of soil and
land on one hectare in a central park in Berlin.
Soil protection in concrete terms: sustainable
Some practical examples land management in Benin
Most people in sub-Saharan Africa cook and heat with
wood. During the decades to come, charcoal will continue Two-thirds of arable land in Benin is now affected by soil
degradation. This poses a threat in terms of food and livelihood to
to be the key source of energy in the ever-growing cities. the population of predominantly small crop and livestock farmers.
As charcoal is almost always produced illegally, the conse- To combat this, the Beninese Government promotes tried-and-
quences are forest degradation and land degradation. tested practices of sustainable land management at local, regional
and national level. The Global Programme on Soil Protection and
In northern Madagascar, therefore, German DC has Soil Rehabilitation for Food Security supports the use of site-
developed an approach which combines the large-scale adapted and mainly organic fertilizers on smallholdings as well as
reforestation of degraded land for sustainable wood energy the safeguarding of access to land. Curricula are being prepared
production with improved property rights, innovations for farmer field school services with a view to training personnel.
At national level, the programme supports integration of the soil
in transformation technologies and economic benefits for conservation issue into national strategies and exchange with
the population. Some 9,000 hectares of plantation already international knowledge networks.
supply a quarter of the charcoal used by the regional city

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Image: Michael Martin

Cooperation projects help to enable food security, rural development, watershed management, preservation of ecosystem services, and climate change
mitigation and adaptation

of Antsiranana. This project is an impressive example of reserves. Reclaiming degraded arable land and improving
how combating desertification also contributes to climate irrigation enables higher crop yields to be achieved and thus
protection, biodiversity preservation — among other improves food security and the general economic situation
things, by reducing the pressure on natural forests — and of the local population.
rural development. To ensure that the impact of such inno- In the Piura region of northern Peru the local popula-
vative approaches is as widespread as possible, German DC tion, associations and the regional government decided to
is also carrying them over to other countries. collectively tackle the problem of desertification which was
Desertification, climate variability and population growth severely affecting the area. In the context of an Economics
are drivers of poverty and resource degradation in Niger. of Land Degradation initiative study, the partners received
Competition for shrinking areas of fertile land is leading advice on integrating strategies of sustainable land manage-
to conflict and forcing local people to migrate. Through its ment and desertification control in development and public
‘Promotion of productive agriculture’ programme, German budget plans. The results of the study showed that the
DC is providing support in reclaiming degraded land for agri- economic cost of soil loss amounts to approximately 14
culture, forestry and pasture farming. This involves retaining per cent of agricultural gross domestic product, with a
and harnessing the fertility of floodplains threatened by soil total loss of around US$100 million. This strong argument
erosion through the construction of water-spreading weirs. convinced all stakeholders to jointly develop innovative
During the rainy season these constructions, similar to dams, approaches for the sustainable use and reforestation of
act to slow and spread the flow of rainwater through the dry forests. This was the significant motivation behind the
valleys and allow it to be used to irrigate a larger area of agri- Peruvian Government’s decision to introduce a mechanism
cultural land. Having greater control over the floodwaters for payments for ecosystem services into national legisla-
also helps to prevent soil erosion and replenish groundwater tion in 2014.

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Combating desertification and

land degradation in the forestry sector
Mexico’s National Forestry Commission

M
exico has a unique biodiversity; this is why the Degradation processes of forest ecosystems have major conse-
Government of Mexico is promoting the protec- quences. These include reducing ecosystem services such as
tion and conservation of its natural resources, those related to regulation of the hydrological cycle (for example
which are the basis for a healthy economy and a decent the quantity and quality of water provision; flood and landslide
life for a large number of people. control) as well as loss of fertile agricultural land and increased
desertification by the presence of erosion, increasing greenhouse
Mexico has 138 million hectares of forest vegetation, equiva- gas (GHG) emissions through the loss of forest biomass and the
lent to 70 per cent of the national territory. More than 64 decreased capacity of forest ecosystems to adapt to the effects of
million hectares are covered by forests, rainforests and other climate change, besides the loss of biodiversity.
ecosystems dominated by arboreal life forms. Among the most visible causes of degradation of forest
In addition to its important role for biodiversity conserva- ecosystems in Mexico are overgrazing, illegal logging, land use
tion, forest vegetation is extremely important in the provision change of forest lands, wildfires, presence of forest pests and
of ecosystem services. It is related to the regulation of the diseases and unsustainable exploitation of forest resources,
hydrological cycle, biodiversity conservation, soil formation whether for domestic or commercial purposes.
and protection, and climate change mitigation and adaptation. As part of Mexico’s strategy to combat desertification and
The social relevance of forest ecosystems in Mexico is land degradation, since 2001, when the National Forestry
significant. It is estimated that over 11 million people live in Commission (CONAFOR) was created, national forest policy
forest areas, which heavily rely on these ecosystems to meet and programmes have aimed to promote good land manage-
their daily subsistence needs. ment practices through sustainable forest management,
Image: National Forestry Commission archive

Image: Fabricas de Agua del Centro de Sinaloa (FACES)

CONAFOR provides direct support to landowners to carry out activities such

as soil conservation, and restoration The PES programme helps to finance soil restoration measures

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Cutzamala and La Marquesa priority watersheds

Image: National Forestry Commission archive

Landowners in the Cutzamala and La Marquesa watersheds participate in forest restoration activities

The Cutzamala system stores, conveys, treats and distributes fresh integrate soil conservation and restoration practices and reforestation
water, benefiting 5 million of the nearly 20 million people in Mexico activities under a granting scheme of economic incentives and
City. It has been working for 20 years and is the most important technical assistance to participating landowners. Implementation
external source of water supply to Mexico Valley. Water comes mainly focuses on priority areas to improve the provision of hydrological
from seven reservoirs located in rivers in the states of Mexico and environmental services.
Michoacan and is channelled through pipelines, and treatment and Forest restoration actions are intended to increase the catchment
pumping plants. and infiltration of rainwater, reduce soil erosion and decrease risks
Current problems in the watershed largely originated with a decline of of floods and landslides, in order to reduce maintenance costs and
vegetation cover. In the last 40 years, 13 per cent of forest cover has extend the lifespan of the hydraulic infrastructure. The programme
been lost, mainly by land use change for agricultural purposes. This also focuses on promoting employment and income generation in local
has caused increased erosion, decreased infiltration and groundwater communities, contributing to diversification of productive activities
recharge, gradual loss of soil fertility and increased sedimentation in through collaboration with other government institutions working in the
reservoirs that reduces their lifespan. rural sector in order to create synergies between programmes.
A restoration programme for Cutzamala and La Marquesa watersheds From 2009 to 2015 soil restoration and reforestation activities
was launched in 2009 as a pilot programme aimed at changing the in degraded land were carried out in 105,556 hectares with an
traditional restoration model for forest ecosystems. It was the first to investment of almost US$160 million.

restoration of degraded ecosystems and the conservation and The observed reduction in the rate of forest loss has also
protection of forest from disturbance factors such as forest fires, been reflected in a lower contribution to national GHG emis-
pests and diseases. In order to revitalize the economy of the sions. According to Mexico’s National Communications
forest sector and improve the quality of life of inhabitants of to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
forest areas, CONAFOR provides direct technical and financial Change, GHG emissions from the land use, land use change
support to forest landowners to carry out actions for sustainable and forestry sector have substantially declined, reducing its
use, conservation and restoration of forest ecosystems. contribution to Mexico’s total GHG emissions from 14 per
Results to date are encouraging; in Mexico’s report for the cent in 1990-2002 to only 6.3 per cent in 2010.
Food and Agriculture Organization’s Global Forest Resources CONAFOR is conducting actions to restore 1 million
Assessment 2010, a reduction of 34 per cent in the annual hectares in the period 2014-2018, under a scheme focused on
net deforestation rate was registered, decreasing from 235,000 priority microwatersheds. Through the Priority-Watershed
hectares per year in the period 2000-2005 to 155,000 hectares Restoration Programme, CONAFOR provides direct support
per year in 2005-2010. to landowners to convert agriculture and grazing lands to

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Community involvement in Santiago de Anaya

Image: National Forestry Commission archive

The local community in Santiago de Anaya were involved in planning and carrying out conservation and improvement measures

Santiago de Anaya is located 140 kilometres north of Mexico City in the were identified. Soil was prepared in contour lines using machinery, and
Mezquital Valley, which is characterized by its semi-desert climate. individual terraces, trenches, dikes, stone dams, gabion retaining walls
This was once an important mining region, but today the population or other land structures for water storage were constructed, allowing an
is engaged in rain-fed agriculture and extensive livestock farming. High increase in the survival of planted trees to 80 per cent.
levels of desertification have been caused by overexploitation of its Thanks to various institutional programmes over the past three
timber resources to supply the mining industry and by overgrazing. decades, a semi-compact area above 1,800 hectares was restored with
The community has ‘Otomi’ origins, a native indigenous group organized the plantation of introduced and native forest species. Currently, pine
through ‘mayordomias’ (stewardships) and ‘faenas’ (tasks) to perform trees reach up to 8 metres high. The soil has been stabilized from erosion
welfare duties, including those related to protection and conservation. and at least three water springs are maintained in the restored areas.
Reforestation and soil conservation activities in the region started The conservation of wild flora and fauna, increased infiltration of
in the 1980s. In 1998 a community development programme was water, soil conservation, use of non-timber forest products, lower
launched to strengthen organization, training, technical assistance and consumption of wood through the use of efficient stoves, improved
inter-agency support, in order to create a transferrable model for the landscape and wildlife management areas are some of the benefits
protection, conservation and improvement of the natural environment. obtained by the community.
Through a model of participatory planning, areas were defined for The achievements and organizational model for community
reforestation; plant species, planting methods, soil and water conservation involvement provide an example for replication on a larger scale, and
activities were determined; and projects to diversify productive activities the community was awarded the National Forestry Merit Prize in 2005.

forest lands, as well as for carrying out activities for soil (both forms of collective ownership) own 62.6 million
conservation and restoration, reforestation and fertilization, hectares of forests, rainforest and arid forest vegetation,
and protection and maintenance of reforested areas within a equivalent to 45 per cent of the total forest area of the
three-year implementation period. country. Management of common-use forest resources
An innovative element of this programme is the payment in Mexico has been analysed in various studies, which
granted to landowners as compensation for the land opportu- concluded that in many cases these have been managed in
nity cost. This ensures landowners will have no reduction in a sustainable way providing various social, economic and
income while reforested areas are established, and encourages environmental benefits to the population, especially for the
actions for protection and maintenance in order to ensure a most vulnerable (indigenous people, women and the poor).
greater survival of planted trees. CONAFOR strengthens forest governance and promotes
An important aspect of forest resources in Mexico is the mechanisms for social engagement to support planning,
collective nature of land tenure. Ejidos and communities consultation and dialogue, ensuring representation of the

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Image: National Forestry Commission archive

CONAFOR strengthens forest governance and promotes mechanisms for social engagement to support planning, consultation and dialogue

owners of forest lands, including rural communities and

indigenous peoples, in order to improve the effectiveness Protecting water infrastructure through local
of forest programmes in general. mechanisms of payment for environmental services
Since 2003, CONAFOR has successfully implemented
Sanalona reservoir, located in the Tamazula river 24 kilometres
a national Payment for Environmental Services (PES) from the city of Culiacan, began operation in 1948 to irrigate
programme to compensate the owners of forest lands for the 95,000 hectares in the Culiacan Valley. In 1963, a hydroelectric
actions taken for conservation, restoration and protection plant was established with a capacity to generate 14 megawatts of
of their forests that allow maintenance or improvements power. The reservoir supplies drinking water to 675,000 people in
the Culiacan Valley and is a place of recreation and relaxation.
to the provision of ecosystem services related to regulation Concerned by the siltation of the dam due to erosion in the
of the hydrological cycle, biodiversity conservation and recharge zone of the reservoir basin, in 2009 a group of citizens,
climate change mitigation. PES is financially supported by farmers, entrepreneurs, industrialists and water users formed an
organization called Fabricas del Agua Centro Sinaloa (FACES), to
resources collected through fees for water use (provided by promote actions for the hydrological restoration of watersheds in
the National Water Commission), fiscal resources annually central Sinaloa.
allocated by the Congress and voluntary contributions by FACES signed a five-year collaboration agreement with CONAFOR
direct beneficiaries of environmental services. for the provision of matching funds to develop a local mechanism
of payment for environmental services, which would allow it to
Since its beginning, PES has shifted from a passive conser- finance forest restoration actions in the catchment basin of the
vation scheme to one in which integrated land management Sanalona reservoir.
is promoted for its conservation in a compatible manner with Between 2009 and 2014, financial contributions to the project
were over US$940,000, of which over US$510,000 came
productive activities. from farmer contributions, US$330,000 from CONAFOR and
From 2003-2015, CONAFOR has invested over US$660 US$100,000 from the Monsanto Foundation. The project generated
million to enrol over 5 million hectares in this innovative 2,500 wages per year; 740,000 trees were planted; 500,000 cubic
protection scheme in order to maintain forests’ soil and metres of filter dams (stone and gabions) were built; and a nursery
with a capacity production of 200,000 plants was installed.
water protective functions and biodiversity conservation, This project has directly benefited 120 people of the Imala
benefiting more than 7,652 ejidos, communities and small ejido and 200 temporal workers involved in fieldwork activities. It
landowners across the country. indirectly benefited 314 ejido inhabitants. Social benefits include
construction of a multipurpose hall and a doctor’s room in the
In order to increase the flow of financial funds and health centre and the installation of roofing, libraries and air
thus extend the area under PES, CONAFOR promotes the conditioning in basic education centres. Environmental education
matching-funds mechanism to involve the direct users of activities were conducted, aimed primarily at children to promote
environmental services in local schemes for compensa- improved solid waste management in order to prevent it from
reaching the reservoir.
tion of forest landowners where the services are produced. FACES obtained the National Forestry Merit Award in 2014,
Currently, over 118 matching-funds agreements are signed awarded by the Government of Mexico through the National
by CONAFOR and direct users of environmental services, Forestry Commission in the category of Civil Society Organizations.
committing joint contributions of almost US$67 million.

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Synergies in the fight against desertification for

mitigation and adaptation to climate change
Angelo Sartori, Chief & Wilfredo Alfaro, Forestry Engineer, M.Sc., Climate Change and Environmental Services Unit,
Forest Development and Support Management Office, National Forestry Commission, Chile

C
hile is severely affected by the impacts of climate restriction or depleted to new water rights.5 Land use change in
change on desertification, land degradation and the country is close to land degradation neutrality (LDN); never-
drought. Rainfall has decreased by 20-50 per cent theless, the area of land with no vegetation cover has expanded
in the Central Zone during the last century1 and a reduc- from 24.7 million hectares to 48,587 hectares during the period
tion in precipitation in this zone is very likely during the 2000-2010.6 The extent of forest cover is 16.7 million hectares;
present century.2 Chile has an area of 75 million hectares, nonetheless, there is a significant area under forest degradation,
with 47.3 million hectares affected by desertification, land mainly from forest fires and firewood production.
degradation and drought3 from which 36.9 million hectares The National Action Programme to Combat Desertification
are affected by land degradation.4 Moreover, Chile has 341 (PANCCD-Chile) was implemented in 1997. As a result, since
counties in total, with 290 counties affected by desertifica- the year 2000 a total area of 4.2 million hectares has come
tion, land degradation and drought, 26 per cent of them to under sustainable land management plans and a public invest-
a severe degree and 37 per cent to a moderate degree. ment of US$1,578 million has benefitted an average of 50,000
people per year by supporting Ministry of Agriculture incen-
Since 2007, the longest drought period on record has affected the tives for afforestation, soil reclamation and irrigation.7 To foster
whole country with a water crisis that is without precedent. The implementation, priority on synergies led to the integration of
Ministry of Agriculture has declared 268 counties to be in a state PANCCD-Chile into the National Strategy on Climate Change
of ‘agriculture emergency due to drought’; 32 counties have been and Vegetation Resources (ENCCRV). This national strategy
declared as ‘water shortage areas’ by the Ministry of Public Works, is led by the National Forestry Commission (CONAF) of the
and 20 counties have been declared as affected by ‘catastrophe Ministry of Agriculture of Chile, as the national focal point for
of constant drought’ by the Ministry of the Interior. Most of the both the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
Central Zone has been declared as an area under prohibition, (UNCCD) and the mechanism for Reduction of Emissions

Images: CONAF

Andean camelids face displacement from some wetlands like these in the arid ecoregion of the Andean High Plateau, due to activities such as
intensive agriculture and mining

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Image: CONAF

Image: CONAF
The ‘Tambillo’ Prosopis forest is an example of the high biological diversity Rain may be absent for centuries in the Atacama Desert (semi-arid
in the Atacama Desert (arid ecoregion) providing local people with animal ecoregion), but when it occurs plants such as this Bomarea ovallei (Phil.)
fodder and charcoal create the ‘Flowered Desert’ phenomenon

from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) of the Likan-Antai or ‘Atacameños’ that built up the landscape to set
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in production this extremely fragile land through an outstand-
(UNFCCC). The purpose of this national strategy is to design ing irrigation system and extensive terrace system known as
and apply public incentives that may provide landowners of ‘andenes’, which gave its name to the Andean high mountains.
xerophytic vegetation and forests with access to benefits from In 2003-2005, this initiative assessed the provision of ecosys-
the ecosystem services they provide. tem services from drylands for human well-being through a
Strategic activities of the ENCCRV emerge as priorities participative process in a Linkan-Antai (Atacameños) ethnic
from local and indigenous communities, and they are imple- community. The process related to water resources, tourism,
mented as pilot projects and as part of the commitments to minerals, biodiversity, Likan-Antai cultural heritage and
the UNFCCC and UNCCD. Strategic activities are also inte- desert air as a window for astronomy. As a result, CONAF
grated into a proposal for Intended Nationally Determined developed a typology of projects and a joint administration
Contributions to the UNFCCC, as well as the process for agreement with the Likan-Antai people for co-management of
aligning PANCCD-Chile to the 10-year strategic plan of the the national parks within the Likan-Antai territory.
UNCCD funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and In the semi-arid ecoregion, the ‘Peñablanca’ Fog Catchment
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and to Project is the flagship project on innovative systems for fog
the Global Land Degradation Neutrality Project where Chile harvesting. The agriculture community has a special legal
participates in a voluntary modality. Pilot projects have been regime of common property unique to this region. Peñablanca
funded by international cooperation such as the United Nations is one of these communities that until the early twentieth
Development Programme (UNDP), the European Union, GEF, century provided wheat and livestock for the whole region
the World Bank, UN-REDD, the Government of Switzerland, and exported its products to the northern part of the country
the Chilean Government, the Forest Carbon Partnership during the golden age of nitrate production. Intensive use
Facility (FCPF) and private companies, with a total invest- fully exhausted the land, and since 1993 wheat has not been
ment of US$13 million. A system for the distribution of benefits sowed in this community because it had become impossi-
and safeguard systems has been fully developed with funding ble to obtain a good yield. In 2004, the community received
from FCPF. Strategic activities are implemented in six major funding from GEF, UNDP and European Union through the
ecoregions in Chile: arid, semi-arid, Mediterranean, temperate, Small Grant Programme to Combat Desertification to install
austral and island oceanic territories. a set of fog collectors to provide water for afforestation and
In the arid ecoregion, the United Nations’ Millennium tourism activities. The commitment of the community during
Ecosystem Assessment initiative in ‘Salar de Atacama’ the mega-drought, which began in 2002 in this region, made
developed a unique sub-global assessment for desertifica- it possible to use water collected in many innovative ways,
tion located at the heart of the Atacama Desert, the oldest including production of a local beer named ‘Atrapaniebla’
and driest desert in the world. The Atacama Desert in Chile (‘Fog Collector’). Other demonstrative initiatives in the
includes part of the American Puna High Plateau, the living region include the ‘El Sauce’ Soil and Water Conservation
scenario for the Andean cultures Aymara, Quechua and Project implemented by CONAF and the Coquimbo Regional

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Image: CONAF
The O’Higgins Glacier in the Bernardo O´Higgins National Park (austral ecoregion) has retreated 16 km during the last century, affecting ecosystems that depend on it

Government. The project was located in the centre of the water install rainwater harvesting systems, roof water collectors and
crisis in a town that fully depends on groundwater for water cisterns to benefit from scarce rainfall for drinking water, the
supply. CONAF established different soil and water conserva- production of vegetables under greenhouses, fodder for cattle
tion and rainwater harvesting works in a nearby catchment and trees for firewood. To address another relevant issue, the
to improve the water regime and the level of groundwater ‘Peñuelas’ Preventive Forestry for Forest Fires Project funded
in surrounding wells. These works included infiltration by the international cooperation agency of the Government of
trenches, check-dams and afforestation with appropriate Switzerland addressed the burden of forest fires occurring in
species, among other interventions. In this scenario, CONAF the city-forest interface in 2014, which devastated 76 hectares
also implemented the Sustainable Land Management in Chile of urban area near Valparaiso city, the greatest forest fire in an
initiative to determine best practices based on territorial plan- urban area ever recorded in Chile. CONAF deployed demon-
ning, in particular tree species appropriate for afforestation. strative activities to explore forestry treatments for carbon
The typology of projects developed for this ecoregion aims sequestration, management of distribution of combustible
to improve carbon stocks and to restore degraded land, as a material and control of fire dispersion, such as firewalls,
strategy to foster the role of forests in rainfall processes such density management and mixed forests of species containing
as the provision of nuclei for cloud formation, air humidity extractable organic compounds with a lower fusion point.
and change in albedo and local energy balance. The temperate ecoregion concentrated on application of
In the Mediterranean ecoregion, the Small Grant Programme the supporting mechanisms of the Ministry of Agriculture
to Combat Desertification provided funding to the ‘La Aguada’ contained in PANCCD-Chile. Since 1931 Chile has enacted
water harvesting project, located 100 km south-west of several laws to establish incentives for afforestation as a
Santiago city. In this area water also became very scarce to mechanism to restore degraded land. Examples of this are:
people and ‘Navidad’ county administration had to provide Decree No. 4363/1931 known as ‘The Forest Law’; Decree
water by tank trucks. This community received funds to Law No. 701/1974 on forest support; Law No. 20.283/2008 on

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Image: CONAF

Image: CONAF
Protected areas, like the Torres del Paine National Park in the austral Rapa Nui, in the island oceanic territories ecoregion, is both a wonder of the
ecoregion, help to address land degradation world and an example of the threat from land degradation

native forest restoration, and especially Law No. 19.561/1998 tion in Chile. Firewood has been a subsistence productive
on forest support for the restoration of degraded land and activity performed by small producers, normally in an
land under desertification processes, which was included as a informal scheme of production and trade. Forests subject to
goal in PANCCD-Chile. These legislations have provided ‘net firewood production barely have an authorized management
zero deforestation’ in Chile. In other important matters, forest plan, so the project provided access for small landowners
fires are also a first class driver for degradation in this ecore- to technical assistance assuring forest sustainability, as well
gion. During 2015, forest fires in the Araucanía region, 900 as gathering points and drying systems for firewood and
km south of Santiago city, affected two national parks of the support on trade chains. In addition CONAF, through the
National System of Protected Areas of the State administrated Sustainable Land Management in Chile project, developed a
by CONAF, causing public commotion. The area affected pilot project on an Early Warning System for Illegal Logging
contained significant stands of Araucaria araucana, a symbolic to demonstrate strategic activities aimed at the conservation
tree for Chilean, Mapuche and Pehuenche ethnic people. of existing stocks of carbon and improving the sustainability
CONAF carried out a participative process with representa- of forests subject to inappropriate management practices,
tives of the community, especially Mapuche and Pehuenche especially illegal logging.
people, to elaborate a restoration plan for the China Muerta In the island oceanic territories ecoregion, Rapa Nui
National Reserve. The strategic activities included afforesta- (Easter Island) located in Polynesia 4,000 km west of the
tion with seedlings from local genetic material, soil and water continent, has a unique world culture heritage. The ‘Moais’,
conservation works and management of remaining vegetation. sculptures of paramount dimensions, have captured the
Another project in the entire temperate ecoregion is the Forest imagination of people through the ages and their meaning
Water Catchment Restoration Project. Within this ecoregion remains hidden. Rapa Nui has also been a global example
Valdivia city was one of the rainiest places in Chile, but since of what land degradation can provide for mankind, setting
the 1960s rainfall has decreased by 30 per cent in this region. the stage for extinction. It is supposed that the popula-
During the severe drought which began in 2007, sources of tion reached 12,000 people at its maximum. They depleted
drinking water were severely affected so counties in the region natural resources to provide food for such an enormous
had to deliver water to people in tank trucks, something fully population in such a tiny space. The Easter Island Palm
unexpected for this region. This project was funded by the disappeared along with many other symbolic forest species
targeted support of UN-REDD and UNDP, and its strategic like ‘Toromiro’ (Sophora toromiro), the tree that provided
activities aimed to increase carbon sequestration and improve wood for another mystery yet not solved, the ‘speaking
the water regime in catchments for drinking water supply. tables’ containing the written language of Rapa Nui. CONAF
In the austral ecoregion, CONAF developed a Sustainable developed a project typology for Rapa Nui to determine best
Firewood Production Pilot Project funded by FCPF. Almost management practices appropriate for afforestation on the
20 per cent of national energy consumption is provided by island, to improve carbon stocks and to restore degraded
the country’s forests, accounting for almost 15 million tons land, as a strategy to foster the role of forests for the provi-
per year. Firewood production is a huge driver for degrada- sion of ecosystem services for human well-being.

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The continuing fight for the rights of

Pachamama — Mother Earth — in Bolivia
Ole Thonke, Ambassador and Camilla Lodberg Holck Madsen, Royal Danish Embassy in La Paz, Bolivia

I
n 2012 the Bolivian Government passed a new law enous groups in Bolivia with politics that respect their
that gave special rights to Mother Earth. The law is lifestyle, culture and traditions, among them respect for
considered the first of its kind, and gives all nature nature. However, Morales and the Bolivian Government
equal rights to humans. With the law, the Bolivian face a major dilemma between the desire to expand extrac-
Government and society hoped to embrace the tradi- tive industries in order to fund social programmes and
tional indigenous respect for Mother Earth, also known provide employment, and the desire to protect the coun-
in Bolivia as Pachamama, and the law was considered try’s environment and nature from pollution caused by
vital to prevent ongoing climate changes, which have these industries. Therefore, it is a challenge for vision and
already caused drastic consequences in the country. One practice to go hand in hand in Bolivia.
of the most severe is the melting of glaciers in the high For the people living in Bolivia’s forests, the choice
Andes, which has caused both droughts and floods in between clearing the forest to make way for their agricul-
Bolivia in recent years. ture or making use of the resources of the existing forest
has not been difficult to make. The former option has
The passing of the law marks a new direction in Bolivian traditionally been by far the most profitable one — and
politics towards the environment, which began when Evo the fastest way to earn a living. Therefore, deforestation
Morales won the election in 2005 and entered the presi- in Bolivia has been increasing since the 1990s and is one
dency. As the first Bolivian president from the indigenous of the country’s biggest threats to the environment, to the
population, Morales’ politics have focused especially on climate and to the local people, who experience the direct
improving the rights and living conditions of the indig- consequences of the deforestation.
Image: Carlos Pinto/FAN

Image: Edmond Sanchez/FAN

One of the sad consequences of deforestation in Amazonas — the increasing

spreading of forest fires Clear evidence of deforestation in Bolivia

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Image: Kathrine Dalsgaard

Local communities are the prime beneficiaries of the different development programmes in Bolivia

Bolivia is the fifteenth richest country in the world in A new way to support local capacity building are the
forest cover, and the eighth richest in biodiversity. In 2010, programmes financed by Danida to strengthen the civil society
the estimates for surface covered by different types of forest in order to promote sustainable forest management. The Civil
in Bolivia reached 46 million hectares. However, recent Society Fund for sustainable forest management (FOSC, its
studies by the Bolivian non-governmental organization acronym in Spanish for the Fund Manager in Bolivia), finances
(NGO) Fundación Amigos de la Naturaleza (the Union of three Civil Society Organizations in three prioritized regions
Friends of the Nature), show that between 2000 and 2010 of Bolivia: Northern La Paz, Pando/Riberalta and Chiquitanía.
1.8 million hectares of wood was cleared in Bolivia. Even It aims at strengthen the civil society to adapt to and mitigate
though deforestation has decreased since the 1990s, when climate change in the 3 regions and to improve their liveli-
250-300 million hectares were lost each year especially due hoods and incomes. The purpose is to develop local capacities
to the expansion of agriculture, the yearly rate between 2000 for sustainable forest management to reduce deforestation.
and 2010 was still as high as 200 million hectares per year. The three programmes began in May 2015 and will last 30
Bolivia has a wide system of protected areas, which covers months until October 2017.
around 15 per cent of the country. The national parks and areas The programme in Northern La Paz takes place in the middle
cover the full range of the different terrains and ecosystems to of the national park Madidi, where the Wildlife Conservation
be found in Bolivia, but unfortunately most of the country’s Society (WCS) has been working since the late 1990s. The park
valuable resources are hidden in their grounds. Therefore, the is over 15,000 square miles, and covers the tropical Andes in
protected areas are also exposed to deforestation. Bolivia. The landscape and ecosystems in the park vary from
The Bolivian Government has taken different approaches moist tropical rainforest to grasslands and montane forests. The
to reducing deforestation and helping the local people to biodiversity also shows the vast diversity of the park: here reside
obtain a sustainable way of living in harmony with the 1,100 bird species and 300 mammal species, among them jaguars
country’s forests. The Royal Embassy of Denmark in Bolivia and Andean bears. WCS finds that the biggest challenges in the
has assisted in the Government’s focus on reforestation park in regard to deforestation are the building of roads, hydro-
through the Danish development cooperation, Danida. electric projects, illegal logging, mining and agriculture.

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Image: Helle Ager Henriksen

Image: Helle Ager Henriksen

The sustainable production of different agroforest fruits in Amazonas keeps
deforestation at bay The important citrus fruits of the San Juan community

The programme is carried out by WCS in cooperation which is why an essential part of the programme is for the
with different regional institutions and corporations and is NGOs to help the local communities find interested buyers
especially focused on different indigenous territories, which and markets for their goods.
are particularly threatened by the different consequences of Since the programme is still in its early stages, the final results
climate change and deforestation. The logging already done of the efforts are not yet known. However, the expected results
in this area has giving rise to the threat of severe forest fires are that 540 families, which include approximately 3,000
and flooding of the indigenous lands, which is why the people, will benefit directly from the programme. The families’
project seeks to help the local community in the continued incomes are expected to increase by at least 30 per cent due to
fight against deforestation. To do this, the different organi- the better, more efficient production techniques they will gain
zations seek to help the locals in getting knowledge about knowledge of. In addition, 12,000 inhabitants in the indigenous
the possibilities to exploit the forests’ own resources in a lands are expected to benefit indirectly. Thanks to the sustain-
sustainable way, for instance by producing agroforest fruits able agroforestry implemented by the project, a total loss of
such as coffee and cacao, by using better farming practices 10,000 hectares of forest in Madidi is expected to be avoided
in already cleared areas, and by improving the practice of by 2017. The programme derives from earlier experiences of
collecting wild-growing products such as incense and palm similar programmes, but with a bigger focus on the develop-
trees for building rooftops. The forests in Madidi offer good ment of products and the participation of the local community.
possibilities for different productions in a sustainable way, Therefore, the experiences behind the programme are old, but
but it is necessary for the local communities to get a code the programme itself is new, and that is also the reason why
of practice to make sure they do not overexploit nature. the organizations behind the programme are certain that the
Therefore, the programme seeks to make sure local socie- expected results will be achieved.
ties get a sustainable platform for production — and all the Another project in Bolivia to reduce the deforestation is in
work is carried out in close cooperation with local people the Amazon jungle, which is particularly exposed to logging
to make sure their knowledge of the forests does not get as a result of the expansion of agriculture and cattle farming.
lost in the process. An important part of the production of Here, the forest is cleared constantly to make way for crops
agroforest fruit is the commercial potential of the products, like rice and yucca. However, the soil of the Amazon is not

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Image: Helle Ager Henriksen

Bolivia’s rich biodiversity is threatened by deforestation and climate change — luckily, the Bolivian Government has taken measures to stop both

made for agriculture and this creates a continuous need (June to October). The burning of grass easily and frequently
to expand the area, therefore also increasing deforesta- leads to uncontrollable forest fires which result in bigger
tion. Luckily various projects are addressing the issues and areas of deforestation and the burning down of villages.
promoting sustainable solutions. One of these projects is Furthermore, in order to reduce the risks of forest and field
fruit production in San Juan, supported by Danida, where fires, the local communities are working on constructing
already cleared land and degraded soil is used for growing firebreaks consisting of areas of less flammable vegetation
citrus fruits, pineapples and beans. This project has various in between the fields and the forest. This work is undertaken
advantages. Firstly, already cleared land, unfit for further in cooperation with local universities putting the research of
production of e.g. yucca, is used for production purposes the students into practice in combination with the year long
instead of being left unfertile. Secondly, the combination experience of the local farmers. Hence, alternative produc-
of growing beans, pineapples and citrus fruits provides a tion of citrus fruits and pineapples in San Juan is a way to
continuous income to the local community both on a short- reduce the risks, secure economic stability for the local
term and a long-term basis. The citrus fruits need 5-10 years community and contribute to the reduction in deforestation.
to produce a profit, and therefore the local society needs In Bolivia, the fight against deforestation and other
the income of the yearly harvest of pineapples to make a threats to the environment goes on. With the juridi-
living. Additionally, the leguminous plant like beans helps cal acknowledgement of the rights of Mother Earth, the
produce ammonium-ion that brings nutrition to the other- Bolivian Government has taken a big step against the
wise unfertile soil. Altogether, the combination of beans, exploitation of nature. However, with about 45 per cent of
citrus fruits and pineapples make sure that the community the country’s population still living in poverty according
does not need to expand its areas of agriculture and thereby to the World Bank, the dilemma between respecting nature
does not contribute to further deforestation. And thirdly, if and make use of it in a sustainable way, or making fast
left fallow, the soil will rapidly be covered with grass increas- and easy income using nature’s resources unsustainably,
ing the risks of uncontrollable fires during the dry season continues both on a national and a private level.

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Controlling shifting sands in Kuwait:

an approach for sustainable development
Professor Doctor Raafat Misak, Environment and Life Sciences Research Center, Kuwait Institute of Scientific Research;
Member of the National Committee for Combating Desertification at the Kuwait Environment Public Authority

K
uwait covers about 17,800 km2 and consists of • s etting up sustainable land use plans considering
two main ecosystems: the terrestrial (about 85 environmentally sensitive areas
per cent) and the coastal and marine ecosystem • establishment and implementation of the National
(15 per cent). The harsh environmental conditions of Action Plan for combating land degradation (Article 10
Kuwait (including prolonged drought), as well as land of UCCD).
degradation, are major impediments for the real devel-
opment of its terrestrial ecosystem. These two major The rainfall in Kuwait is scanty and irregular and the
elements represent serious threat to national economy rainy season extends between October and April. The
and quality of life. average annual rainfall is about 110 mm. During the last
40 years, Kuwait experienced a number of dry seasons
The main challenges facing sustainable land management with below-average rainfall. These include: 1963/1964
(SLM) in Kuwait are: (28.mm total rainfall); 1972/1973 (39.7 mm total rain-
• reversing the various processes of land degradation and fall), 1988/1989 (31.6 mm total rainfall) and 1993/1994
land misuse through serious and sustainable measures (28.3 mm total rainfall). In addition to dry seasons, Kuwait
• managing drought through long-term monitoring, experienced drought periods lasting more than three
forecasting and preparedness seasons, for example 1962-1967 (28.1-87.7 mm of rainfall)
• managing the hazards of shifting sands and 1987-1990 (31.6-84 mm of rainfall). During the last
• modification of the national Greenery Plan (1995-2015) eight years (2007-2015), Kuwait has experienced a long
to cover desert areas period of drought.

A map showing highways under threat from shifting An image of Kuwait showing the locations of the
sands: red arrows indicate prevailing winds, dotted proposed mobile sand control system
lines indicate proposed mobile sand control systems

Source: National Committee for Combating Desertification in Source: National Committee for Combating Desertification in
Kuwait (Kuwait National Focal Point, KEPA, 2015) Kuwait (Kuwait National Focal Point, KEPA, 2015)

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A satellite image showing facilities influenced by shifting sands (1-25) in the Kabd area

Hot spots
(Severe sand encroachment)

Source: National Committee for Combating Desertification in Kuwait (Kuwait National Focal Point, KEPA, 2015)

Classes of drought are: tion, vegetation degradation and loss of biodiversity. In the
• v ery severe: total annual rainfall less than 25 mm (seasons open desert areas (close to 51 per cent of Kuwait), where
1963/1964 and 1993/1994) livestock grazing is the major land use type, indicators of
• severe: 25-50 mm total annual rainfall (seasons soil, vegetation and hydrological degradation as well as loss
1972/1973, 1976/1977 and 2007/2008) of biodiversity are prevailing. In the agricultural areas (about
• moderate: 50-75 mm total annual rainfall (seasons 2.7 per cent of Kuwait), depletion of soil productivity, water
1966/1967, 1991/1992 and, 2008/2009) logging and soil salinization are recorded.
• slight: 75-100 mm total annual rainfall (very common The terrestrial environment of Kuwait, especially its central
seasons 1964/1965, 1996/1997). part (about 60 per cent of the total area), is an open theatre for
In Kuwait, current land use is environmentally classified into extremely active aeolian processes. Wind erosion (soil drift-
three categories. Extremely destructive land use covers 10-12 ing) is very common in the areas of fragile sandy soils which
per cent of Kuwait with damage extending 1-5 m from the cover more than 50 per cent of the land. Soil drifting is a
ground surface. Destructive ground use affects about 75 per major cause of land degradation and field measurements indi-
cent of the country with damage restricted to 50-75 cm of the cate that the 2007/2008 dry season (less than 40 mm rainfall)
soil. Non-destructive land use, where damage is not observed resulted in severe soil losses through wind erosion. In wide
and natural recovery prevails, affects 12-15 per cent of Kuwait. stretches, winds removed 10-15 cm of topsoil (around 1,000
Land degradation processes prevail in the majority of the m3 per hectare).
terrestrial environment of Kuwait. Three classes of land degra- In the Kabd area (about 35 km south-west of Kuwait
dation are identified: almost non-degraded (12-15 per cent), City), hotspots (sites severely attacked by shifting sands)
moderately degraded (75 per cent) and severely degraded were recently recorded. These include segments of roads,
(10-12 per cent). Land degradation processes include soil water wells, industrial facilities, farms and other infrastruc-
salinization and water logging, loss of topsoil (through both tures. Drifting sands from deflated substrates encroach on
wind and water erosion), soil crusting, sealing and compac- existing facilities.

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Images: National Committee for Combating Desertification in Kuwait (EPA Kuwait,2015)

Two field photos showing severe sand encroachment along Sabiyah Road

In the last few years, several types of eco-friendly and Tamarix aphyllae trees along the Huwaimiliyah-Al
materials have been successfully used to control shifting Wafra corridor. The areas proposed for afforestation cover
sands, such as ecomat and coir mats. Ecomat is envi- about 615 km2. Treated sewage water has the potential to
ronmentally friendly mulching mat, fully biodegradable be used to irrigate these plantations for at least one year.
and made from 100 per cent natural oil palm residues. The scenario also includes the revegetation of native shrubs
These residues supply nutrients to both the soil and the such as Haloxylon salicornicum and Rhanterium epapposum
plants. The ecomat contains elements such as Potassium, which are very effective in trapping shifting sands, and the
Magnesium and Nitrogen which enhance soil quality and stabilization of active sandy bodies along segments of the
plant growth. Ecomat was tested in Kuwait in the Burgan Huwaimiliyah-Al Wafra corridor using greenery residues of
oil field, Kabd and at sites in Al-Liyah.Coir mats are 100 Abdaly, Kabd, Wafra and urban areas in Kuwait (recycling
per cent biodegradable mulching blankets made up of coir of greenery residues).
products. These mats are fast binders of soil. They provide In the third scenario, green belts will be established in the
an excellent medium for quick vegetation, holding seeds northern and central parts of Kuwait. In southern parts, there
and saplings in place. The mats are excellent for air and will be revegetation of native plants such as Rhanterium epap-
water permeability. This product was tested at the Burgan posum. There will also be immediate stabilization of active
oil field. sandy bodies and local sources of dust using greenery residues
Three scenarios are proposed to manage the hazards of and mulching sheets such as ecomat and other environmen-
shifting sands in the terrestrial environment of Kuwait.1 tally friendly mulching materials
The first scenario is the establishment of two green belts, The cost, efficiency and environmental sustainability of the
each with at least 10 rows of Prosopis juliflora, Ziziphus proposed scenarios should be assessed by a multidisciplinary
spina christi and Tamarix aphyllae trees. The first belt (25 team of experts. For the final design of the green belt, wind
km length) is in the Al Huwaimiliyah area and the second tunnel experiments will be conducted and the most cost effec-
(130 km length) is at Ras As Sabiyah-Al Salmi. The selec- tive and environmentally sound scenario will be selected.
tion of sites for the two belts is based on information gained
through field surveys and remote sensing imagery inter- Case study: Kuwait’s highways
pretation of the area. The aim is to stabilize active sandy The main threat facing most of the development facilities and
bodies between the two belts as well as some active bodies public utilities in the Kuwaiti desert is the sand encroachment
in the south, using environmentally friendly materials such problem. Military camps, air bases, oil fields, agricultural
as ecomat, coir and plant residues. areas, animal production facilities and desert highways are
The second scenario involves afforestation, specifically severely influenced by shifting sand. Managing the sand
the plantation of Prosopis juliflora, Zizpiphus spina christi encroachment problem along highways will secure safe and

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Characteristics and cost of the proposed mobile sand control system

Components Sustainability Cost per 1,000 m length * Durability

Integrated mechanical- biological: double Very high (integration KD60,000:40,0000 (2,000 m of chain- 25-30 years4
impounding fences (about 100 m apart and between mechanical and link fence)KD20,000 (cost of 600 trees
2 m high) with three rows of drought-resistant biological) and irrigation for one year)
trees in the middle
* Cost includes labour and materials. 1KD = US$3.5

Source: EPA Kuwait

high-speed transportation as well as sustainable control meas- degradation monitoring, mapping and assessment (ground
ures in the country. and remote sensing investigations); GIS-based knowledge
Active aeolian processes including abrasion, transportation support system; restoration/rehabilitation (for soil, vege-
and accumulation are prevailing in wide areas of Kuwait’s tation, wildlife and water supplies); sustainable land use;
terrestrial ecosystem. These areas constitute 40-50 per cent and public awareness and human development. Managing
of the country. Assessment and monitoring programmes the hazards of shifting sands falls under the umbrella of
for aeolian processes through ground stations and remote programme number four, sustainable land use.
sensing are basic requirements for designing action plans In Kuwait the network of roads consists of six high-
for controlling encroaching sands. In addition, deep under- ways: the Sabiyah, Salmi, Abdaly, Wafra-Mina Abdullah,
standing of the mechanisms of sand transport and their Wafra-Azour and Kabd highways. The magnitude of sand
relation to current land use are essential for identifying the encroachment along the highways is remarkably variable.
magnitude and general trends of sand encroachment prob- It is controlled by both local and regional conditions. In
lems. Based on that, the best approach and techniques for general the most significant controlling factors are:
mitigating sand encroachment problems is selected. • r oad extension in relation to the main natural NW-SE
The National Committee for Combating Desertification corridors of shifting sands (Huwamiliyah-Wafra and
in Kuwait2 discussed the feasibility of reducing land degra- Umm Qaser-Ras As Sabiyah)
dation from about 72 per cent in 2015 to 0-5 per cent in • land use types in the upwind side of the roads (such
2030. For this purpose, a 20-year land degradation neutral- as open desert areas, protected areas, farms, buildings,
ity scheme is proposed. It consists of five programmes: land bundwall and green belts)
• availability of local sources of drift sands (dry wadis,
dissected hills, sabkhas, playas, sand sheets and
sand dunes)
Proposed mobile sand control for the Wafra area: red • local geomorphologic and topographic conditions
arrows indicate the direction of sand transport • v egetation cover (density and types).

Based on recent field measurements, three degrees of sand

encroachment are identified along highways. Very severe
encroachment, where close to 50 per cent of the road is
vulnerable to sand encroachment, is represented by the
Al Salmi and Sabiyah roads. Severe encroachment means
that close to 30 per cent of the road is vulnerable, and
this category is represented by the Wafra-Mina Abdallah,
Wafra-Azour and Kabd roads. Moderate encroachment,
where close to 10 per cent of the road is vulnerable to
encroachment, is represented by the Abdaly Road.
An action plan has been proposed to manage the sand
encroachment problem along highways in Kuwait. It
consists of an integrated system of mobile sand control.
This system was successfully tested by the Kuwait Institute
for Scientific Research in the Kabd Experimental Station
in 2004. It comprises two impounding fences (2 m high,
chain-link type with slats) situated 100 m apart. Three rows
of drought-resistant trees will be planted in the middle
Source: National Committee for Combating Desertification in
Kuwait (Kuwait National Focal Point, KEPA, 2015) distance between the two fences. The total effectiveness of
this system is estimated to be around 28 years.3

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Combating desertification under climate

variability, climate change and reduction
of water resources in India
L. S. Rathore, N. Chattopadhyay and S. D. Attri, India Meteorological Department

A
big part of the world’s area is arid and prone to the total land area is undergoing desertification while 32 per
desertification. Over the past few years, it has cent is facing degradation for various reasons such as climate
become increasingly clear that desertification variability, leading to extreme weather like drought, floods
is one of the most pressing global environmental chal- and heatwaves, and the trend of different climatic parameters,
lenges threatening to reverse the gains in sustainable leading to reduction of water resources. This has affected the
development in different parts of the world. productivity of crops and ultimately the livelihood and food
security of millions across the country. Thus the dryland areas
Various assessments by United Nations Environmental are more prone to desertification in India. Desertification and
Programme have continued to show that desertification loss of biological potential restricts the transformation of
results from complex interactions among physical, chemi- drylands into productive ecosystems.
cal, biological, socioeconomic and political problems that are Dryland areas in India comprise annual rainfall between
local, national and global in nature. In India, 25 per cent of 40-100 cm and practically no irrigation facilities. They

India’s dry farming tract (left) and regions of land degradation (right)

Source: India Meteorological Department (left), NCC report, India Meteorological Department (right)

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cover 87 districts spread over Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan,

Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Climate variability in India, 2000-2014
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamilnadu. Agriculture
in this region is largely dependent on rainfall. In arid Southwest monsoon rainfall departure
regions of India, more than 90 per cent of annual rainfall
occurs during the monsoon season, and any changes in Year % Year %
monsoon rainfall will strongly impact agriculture. Climate 2000 -8 2008 -2
variability has had an adverse effect on the production of
major crops such as pulses, oilseeds, coarse grain crops 2001 -8 2009 -23
and cotton along with wheat and rice in dryland tracts. 2002 -19 2010 +2
About 228 million hectares (mha) or 69 per cent of the
total geographical area (about 328 mha) is under drylands 2003 +2 2011 +1
in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas of the country. 2004 -13 2012 -8
Rajasthan accounts for the most desertified land (23 mha),
followed by Gujarat, Maharashtra, Jammu and Kashmir (13 2005 -1 2013 +6
mha each) and Orissa and Andhra Pradesh (5 mha each). 2006 -1 2014 -12
According to reports, 68 per cent of the country is prone
to drought and this will be further heightened because of 2007 +5
the impact of climate change, particularly in drylands. Land
degradation caused by multiple forces including extreme Extreme events in India
weather conditions (particularly drought) and human • 2 002 drought
• 2 0-day heatwave during May 2003 in Andhra Pradesh
activities are also affecting food production, livelihoods, • E xtreme cold winter in 2002/03
and the production and provision of other ecosystem goods • D rought-like situation in India in July 2004
and services. • A bnormal temperatures during March 2004 and Jan 2005
Desertification in India is projected to be severely • F loods in 2005
• C old wave 2005/06
compromised by climate variability and change. Monsoonal • F loods in arid Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh and drought in
and other weather conditions are unstable, causing major northeast regions in 2006
droughts, floods, cyclones and other natural disasters. • Abnormal temperatures during third week of Jan to first week
of Feb 2007
Recently, the years 2002, 2005 and 2009 proved to be • All India, severe drought 2009
drought years, 2010 was the warmest year and 2002/03 • 2010 — One of warmest years
was an extremely cold winter. In addition, 2014 and 2015 • 2011 — Failure of September rains in Andhra Pradesh
have brought hailstorms in Maharashtra, north and central • 2012 — Early season drought
• 2013 — Floods and landslides in Uttarakhand
India. Hailstorms in 2015 caused crop loss in states such • 2014 — Hailstorms in Maharashtra
as Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Madhya Pradesh,
Chattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Thunder squalls Source: India Meteorological Department

over southern states have affected standing crops. In 2014

Cyclone Hudhud affected states including Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, East
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while Cyclone Nilofar become more intense, with higher annual average rainfall
affected Gujarat. In spite of a general increase in temper- as well as increased drought.1 An annual mean area-aver-
ature over recent decades, extreme rainfall events also aged surface warming over the Indian subcontinent is
increased over the west coast of India. predicted to range between 3.5 and 5.6 degrees Celsius over
Desertification, along with climate change and loss of the region by 2080.2 These projections show more warming
biodiversity, were identified as the greatest challenges in the winter season over the summer monsoon. The spatial
to sustainable development during the 1992 Rio Earth distribution of surface warming suggests a mean annual
Summit. In addition to climatic variability, climate change rise in surface temperatures in north India by 3 degrees
will further challenge the livelihoods of those living in Celsius or more by 2050. A marginal increase of 7-10 per
this sensitive ecosystem and may result in higher levels cent in annual rainfall is projected over the subcontinent
of resource scarcity. Using a number of climate models, by the year 2080. However, the study suggests a fall in
different scenarios have been generated for future climate rainfall by 5-25 per cent in winter with a 10-15 per cent
change in India. It has been projected that average surface increase in summer monsoon rainfall over the country.
temperature will increase by 2-4 degrees Celsius during the Because of these projections of future climate change, there
2050s, with marginal changes in monsoon rain during the will be increased land degradation owing to droughts, and
monsoon months (June, July, August and September) and increased soil erosion caused by heavy rainfall events. In
large changes in rainfall during non-monsoon months. The addition, climate change may exacerbate desertification
number of rainy days is set to decrease by more than 15 days through the alteration of spatial and temporal patterns in
and the intensity of rains is likely to increase by 1-4 mm/ temperature, rainfall, solar radiation and winds.
day. An increase in the frequency and intensity of cyclonic Although the effects of climate change from anthropogenic
storms is projected. The hydrological cycle is predicted to forcing on the use of water resources in the world remain

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Calculated change (per cent) in mean seasonal PE for for 10C of global warming: (left) the Canadian Climate Centre
experiment and (right) the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory experiment

Source: Chattopadhyay & Hulme, 1997

difficult to project, anticipated climate change combined mapping the number of global climate model (GCM) exper-
with other drivers of change is likely to intensify current iments which yield increased P/PE ratio for the monsoon
agricultural water management challenges in India. Higher season. A number of GCMs agree that the P/PE ratio
temperatures and more frequent droughts are expected to becomes more favourable over north-eastern India and
reduce water availability, hydropower potential and crop that changes in this ratio are less favourable in the post-
productivity in general. The effects of population growth monsoon season and in the extreme south in the country.3
and increasing water demand, which are often, but not Presently, the India Meteorological Department has taken
always, coupled, are likely to be a more significant source of up an extensive modernization programme to enhance
water stress than climate change when considering changes weather services in the country and for combating deser-
to mean precipitation and run-off. Increasing temperatures tification through the induction of advanced technology
in all regions are expected to intensify evaporative demand, for observational systems (including automatic weather
which would tend to increase the amount of water required stations, Doppler weather radars, advanced satellites and
to achieve a given level of plant production if crop phenol- upper air observations network), installation of a central-
ogy and management are to be held constant. However, if ized information processing system and its link with the
cultivars and planting dates were to remain unchanged, national meteorological centres. The outcomes of these
accelerated crop development in response to temperature modernization programmes are district-level forecast
increases would tend to have the opposite effect on water services, nowcasting of severe weather events, extended
requirements. Rising temperatures are also expected to range (10-20 days or a month) forecasting, increased
increase evaporative losses of surface water resources. accuracy of short, medium and long-range forecasts, multi-
Future changes in potential evapotranspiration (PE) hazard early warning, real-time data availability, improved
over India and adjoining countries project an increase in spatial and temporal coverage and better service delivery.
all the global climate models. In the monsoon season the Thus, it is advisable to focus on prevention of desertifi-
maximum increase in PE is over north-western India. The cation in dry farming tracts of India along with the other
interrelationship between PE and rainfall was assessed by regions. The following adaptation strategies are being

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Rainfall projections for different seasons in India

Source: Bhattacharya, 2006

prepared in a systematic and planned manner, based on resistant varieties of trees. Knowledge of water requirements
climatic and water resource information: for various crops and planting dates is integrated systematically
• nationwide climate monitoring programme with water supply probabilities to develop planting strategies.
• improved methods for accounting of climate-related The selection of cropping patterns according to the availability
uncertainty for decision-making processes of water will reduce the adverse impacts of drought on potential
• reassessment in the new climate scenario of water water-consuming crops. Plants suitable for water-scarce areas
availability and demands in all regions, particularly in could be those with a shorter growth period, high-yielding
water-scarce regions plants requiring no increase in water supply, plants that can
• re-examination of water allocation policies and tolerate saline irrigation water, plants with low transpiration
operating rules rates, and plants with deep and well-branched roots.
• proper coordination among concerned organizations so India became a signatory to the United Nations Convention
as to freely share the data, technology and experience to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) on 14 October 1994 and
for capacity-building. ratified it on 17 December 1996. The Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change is the nodal ministry in the
In addition, strategies such as the planning of land use, especially Government of India for UNCCD and the Desertification Cell
in new land developments, are being considered. Areas where is the nodal point within the ministry to coordinate all issues
water supply priorities are low can be planted with drought- pertaining to the convention.

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Functional rehabilitation of desertified

ecosystems in Israel: ecological
and socioecological perspectives
David Brand, Chief Forester, Head of the Forest Department, Keren Kayemeth LeIsrael — Jewish National Fund;
Itshack Moshe, Deputy Director Southern Region, Keren Kayemeth LeIsrael — Jewish National Fund;
and Moshe Shachak, Ben Gurion University of the Negev

T
he multifunctional cultural landscape in the increased flood intensity and soil erosion, degradation of
southern arid and semi-arid region in Israel (the water resources, and harm to native flora and fauna.
Northern Negev), has been shaped by human activ- Keren Kayemeth LeIsrael — Jewish National Fund (KKL-
ity over the millennia. These anthropogenic ecosystems, JNF), a national organization responsible for afforestation and
common to the Northern Negev, are degraded systems land reclamation in Israel, has accumulated rich experience
that regularly lose soil and water resources necessary to and advanced knowledge through years of research and day-
support the ecosystem in its entirety. to-day field management, and can offer a unique set of tools
for confronting these desertification processes.
Desertification processes in Israel are caused by uncontrolled KKL-JNF rehabilitates desertified areas in Israel based on
land-use such as grazing, vegetation removal, cultivation and long-term research that combines, measures and quantifies
the neglect of ancient agricultural sites. The results include ecosystem processes and feedbacks which have changed due
decreased landscape diversity and primary productivity, to desertification. This knowledge base enables KKL-JNF to

Image: David Brand

A typical view of degraded areas in the arid zone of Northern Negev

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Image: Itshack Moshe

Water harvesting plays a major role in sustainable afforestation in Northern Negev’s arid zone

develop theoretical and practical frameworks for restoring ‘resource sinks’ and create resource-enriched patches. These
ecosystem functions in highly depredated areas in order to patches, enriched with water and soil resources, exhibit rela-
improve ecosystem services. tively high biological productivity and diversity.
This framework views desertification and rehabilitation as Desertification drivers, such as grazing and drought, cause a
part of a complex socioecological system in which human significant reduction in run-off ‘sinks’ made of woody vegeta-
activities shape the cultural landscape and create desertified tion, resulting in reduced water conservation and increased
and rehabilitated novel ecosystems. The framework includes water leakage. As a consequence of changes in the water flow
an ecological perspective that identifies the drivers of deser- and its spatial distribution, soil erosion increases and biologi-
tification and rehabilitation processes in the Northern Negev cal productivity and diversity decreases. This trajectory in
and a sociological-landscape perspective that integrates deser- ecosystem dynamics — the transition from conservation to
tification and rehabilitation concepts with cultural landscape loss of resources — leads to a state of ecosystem degradation.
and ecosystem services concepts. The degradation state affects landscape functions which
Desertification processes, in the past and present, are provide ecosystem services in the Northern Negev by creating
caused by human activities and overexploitation of natural a novel set of ecosystems in which the dominant component is
resources in conjunction with climatic extreme events such a biotic soil crust that replaced the woody plants. This compo-
as prolonged drought. The results of these processes are nent prevents water conservation in the form of soil moisture
desertified ecosystems, seen in Israel in the Northern Negev and leads to increased water loss as surface run-off. The
region, characterized by a high level of system degradation novels ecosystems differ in form and function from the woody
as determined by indicators for soil erosion, water loss and dominated ecosystems that existed prior to human habita-
primary productivity. tion in the Northern Negev. The current degraded ecosystems
Research in earth and ecological sciences discovered the key were formed over thousands of years, and were affected by
processes that shift water-limited ecosystems from the state the physical and biological changes that resulted from diverse
of desertification to rehabilitation. In a healthy and functional and wide-ranging human activities. These novel desertified
state, the main mechanism by which water-limited ecosys- ecosystems function, but human history has shaped them to
tems conserve and use water, soil and biological resources is a low functional level as expressed by their reduced ability
through redistribution of rainfall via changes to surface run-off to store system resources and transport them to the biotic
absorbed in woody plants patches. The woody plant patches, elements for ecosystem production. Presently, desertified
which capture and retain surface run-off, function as localized ecosystems in the Northern Negev are characterized by a high

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Image: ‘Albatross’ — KKL Archive

Desertified area

Area rehabilitated by trees

Area rehabilitated by shrubs

Hiran forest after rehabilitation activities

level of system degradation as determined by indicators for patches that conserve resources and enhance biological
soil erosion, water loss and primary productivity. productivity. In reshaping landscape structure, the human-
Ecological models describing the functional attrib- made rehabilitated ecosystems regain the ability to preserve
ute of ecosystems in the Northern Negev reveal that an their scarce resources while renewing their ability to supply
increased rate of system degradation can be expected due ecosystem services for human welfare.
to the following trends: increased urban development and System rehabilitation and the reversing of degradation
its associated demographic pressures (increased built-up processes by management intervention by KKL-JNF is based
areas); high-intensity cultivation of agricultural lands; lack on a scientific understanding of the connections between
of maintenance of ancient agriculture sites, and increased hydrological processes and ecosystem structure and func-
grazing pressure. In addition, predicted trends in global tion in water-limited zones. This includes understanding the
climate change may result in more extreme weather events rainfall/run-off/soil moisture relationship on the slope and
(incidences of unusual droughts and storms), thus exacer- watershed scales, as well as the connection of water flow to
bating degradation processes. ecological processes such as productivity and diversity on the
Identification of the pathways and trajectories of deser- landscape level.
tification processes enables formulation of the pathways Viewing rehabilitation as a management intervention to
and trajectories for functional rehabilitation of the ecosys- regulate ecosystem functions is the road map that directs
tems, where functional rehabilitation implies restoring the KKL-JNF management actions and is translated into specific
ecological functions of the system prior to desertification. activities, such as:
This necessitates reversing the system functioning from • a lteration of the ecosystem’s physical infrastructure —
a system that loses water and soil to one that conserve constructing various measures for run-off harvesting on
these resources. When the system conserves resources its slopes and valleys as well as measures to stabilize erosion
cascading functional responses are an increase in biological processes such as gully heads; facilitating in-situ storage
productivity and diversity. of scarce water and soil resources, and encouraging the
KKL-JNF acts to functionally rehabilitate the desertified regeneration of biotic components on site
ecosystems in the Northern Negev by landscape modula- • a fforestation — tree plantation to supply ecosystem
tion through the construction of a mosaic of ‘mini run-off services for human welfare.
catchments’ for harvesting the surface run-off generated
by the soil crust. This rehabilitation framework restores The functional rehabilitation of an ecosystem restores the
the pre-desertification functions of rainfall water redistri- integrity of fundamental hydrologic, edaphic and ecologic
bution and creates a landscape of soil moisture enriched processes, which are directed towards creating a novel,

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Images: Itshack Moshe

Bicycle trails, native flowering sites, parks and community forests are just some of the cultural services which improve the life quality of inhabitants

highly functional and sustainable ecosystem. The integ- land surface which can be considered a mosaic of cultural
rity of the ecosystem is restored because the following key landscapes, in which different stages of anthropogenic
processes are regulated by management: influences have been overlaid and refined, resulting in
• redistribution of on-site rainfall through changes to alternating periods in which desertification and of reha-
surface run-off harvesting patterns bilitation prevail. Therefore, the mosaic of ecosystems
• enhancement of natural soil patches and the creation of that form the cultural landscapes can be understood as
artificial ones which capture and retain surface run-off, the result of the dynamics of social-ecological systems, in
thus functioning as localized resource sinks. which social, economic and environmental components are
closely interwoven.
These patches, enriched with water and soil resources, exhibit Cultural landscapes imply landscapes that are deliberately
increases in primary productivity. managed by humans and that their ecosystem services have
In sum, the aforementioned approach towards system been sustained through a long and complex history of human
rehabilitation to restore landscape heterogeneity involves settlement, land use and misuse.
the creation of artificial sinks on slopes and valleys, which KKL-JNF adopted a cultural landscape framework that
collect and store run-off rainwater, thus producing patches provides a new perspective on desertification and reha-
enriched with water and nutrients. The infiltration of bilitation as interactions between man and nature, by
captured surface run-off into the soil creates water-rich understanding of the role of humans in landscapes and
microhabitats and improved soil quality, enabling the ecosystems transformation in the Northern Negev. In this
possibility to plant trees to create a novel ecosystem. The view, landscape management means integrating natural
human-made novel ecosystem reinforces the system’s processes and human engineering in a functional way,
ability to supply benefits to humans and other organisms as described in the previous section, in order to provide
living there. The choice of which tree species to plant and ecosystem services. Functional rehabilitation is therefore a
the configuration of the planting are adapted to landscape comprehensive framework that connects the cultural land-
and soil moisture spatial heterogeneity, soil, site-specific scape with its ecosystem services.
topographic, and edaphic factors. The use of a diverse set Through its years of varied activities, KKL-JNF has found
of tree species guarantees resilience and durability of the that integrating cultural landscape and ecosystem services
novel ecosystems to the stresses of drought, grazing and approaches is a powerful tool in order to guide manage-
human activity. ment activities of functional rehabilitation, such as water
The historic long-lasting, widespread and large-scale redistribution in a specific landscape unit. The ability to
human land use in the Northern Negev has result in a display ecosystem services for different land use within a

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Images: Moti Kaplan (left); ‘Albatross’ — KKL Archive(right)

Green belts planted around cities and villages and along dry streams provide recreation and leisure sites for inhabitants

cultural landscape perspective is an important advantage of villages and along dry streams supply recreation and
the integrated approach. The integrated approach provides leisure sites, native flowering sites, bicycle trails, parks
a useful understanding of the cultural inputs, outputs and and community forests. Rehabilitation of the ancient
services in the context of ecosystem and landscape func- agriculture sites enables the preservation of historical
tion. We suggest that this approach is particularly useful for and cultural heritage assets and supports forest-based
environments heavily influenced by humans, for example tourism, thus encouraging visitors to use guest facilities
in heavily grazed drylands. at neighbouring communities and making an economic
Linking both ecosystem services and cultural landscape contribution to rural livelihoods.
frameworks enables concentration on the human dimension • P
 rovisioning services, which supply biomass and shade
of ecosystems and landscapes management, thus enabling for sheep, goat and cattle herds owned by the local
the integration of rehabilitation interventions within a population, and supply firewood to the local population
multifunctional landscape, including agricultural and for cooking and home heating.
urban ecosystems. The two frameworks are complementary
in providing guidelines for combating desertification and In conclusion, KKL-JNF’s work in the functional rehabilita-
together have proven successful in adding unique ecosystem tion of Northern Negev ecosystems provides an important
services to the cultural landscape of the Northern Negev. contribution to the world’s understanding of desertification
An evaluation of results from the functional rehabilitation and rehabilitation processes and the importance of an active
of Northern Negev ecosystems, from the perspective of the multi-use approach to land management.
cultural landscape-ecosystem services approach, indicates KKL-JNF’s methods for the functional rehabilitation of
an increase in the diversity and level of ecosystem services Northern Negev ecosystems can be used as efficient and
supplied to humans. These ecosystem services comprise all applied tools to rehabilitate desertified areas outside Israel,
types of services including: as well as for adapting to the expected influences of global
• Regulating services, which regulate the water cycle climate change in water-limited regions.
to prevent resource loss and mitigate flood damages; KKL-JNF shares with other countries the scientific
regulate and prevent soil erosion; protect arable basis, applications and adaptations of its methodology for
land, grazing land and urban areas from flooding and the return of functionality to degraded ecosystems, which
erosion; increase primary productivity as a driver in are supported by long-term monitoring and research
the ecosystem’s energy and nutrient cycles; support programmes. Results of the rehabilitative actions and
populations of natural enemies of agricultural pests; management of rehabilitated areas are evaluated by their
regulate pollination services; and regulate carbon cycling long-term effects and influences. Recent studies assessing
through increased rates of carbon sequestration. the effects of decades-old rehabilitation works show that
• Cultural services, which improve the life quality of rehabilitation processes contribute to increased ecosystem
inhabitants: the green belts planted around cities and integrity and functionality.

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Rethinking the sustainability of Israel’s

irrigation practices in the drylands
Professor Alon Tal, Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben Gurion University

I
srael’s strategy to combat desertification includes to the root zone of plants and trees in a steady flow. The
a determined effort to expand agricultural produc- new technology immediately produced significantly “more
tion in the drylands. Two central components of this crop for the drop” and offered farmers myriad operational
effort are the wide utilization of drip irrigation technol- and environmental benefits: reduced diseases, weeds, labour
ogies and a complete commitment to ‘marginal’ water costs and nonpoint source pollution discharges. At the same
sources, in particular recycled wastewater. Initial results time, nutrients and chemicals were more efficiently delivered
have been hailed as extraordinarily impressive, with directly to the root zones of plants.
dramatic growth in yields with practically no increased The technical capabilities of drip irrigation quickly
freshwater allocations. Yet, a growing scientific consen- improved. Drip systems became more robust and durable,
sus suggests that Israel’s approach to irrigation may be with emitters able to process lower quality waters without
fundamentally unsustainable. clogging. Subsurface irrigation systems were eventually devel-
oped to solve environmental problems, especially for systems
Israel began developing drip irrigation some 50 years ago. The utilizing treated effluents. Keeping wastewater underground
technology was soon hailed as a breakthrough in agricultural adds an additional level of safety, preventing the likelihood
efficiency. In the country’s early years, furrow and gravity of contact with produce or exposure among workers. It also
based flooding systems had been normative. By contrast, drip allows for drippers to release water precisely where it is
systems delivered tiny amounts of water and fertilizer directly needed, in the root zones, 20 cm underground. Today, some

Image: Naty Barak

Israeli drip irrigation technology applied in Africa

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Image: Alon Tal

Ben Gurion University researchers evaluate the efficacy of irrigation waters with different salinity levels

75 per cent of Israeli irrigation relies on drip systems, roughly Health’s effluent irrigation standards, which stipulated increas-
half of which involve subsurface systems. Paradoxically, as ingly high water quality standards for irrigating different crop
the systems’ sophistication increased, prices began to drop. types, also contributed to substantially reduced risk.
While Israeli agriculture was embracing drip irrigation, a Not all contaminants are easily removed through treatment.
parallel process took place in terms of irrigation water: treated For instance, boron is a critical element for plants but is toxic
sewage effluents became the predominant source of water for when concentrations are excessive. As conventional sewage
Israel’s agriculture sector. Standards were set for reuse of treatment does not eliminate boron, its presence in effluents
effluents and in 1956 a national masterplan was adopted that began to affect crop yields in the 1980s. Israel quickly moved
envisioned the ultimate utilization of 150 million cubic metres to ban boron in laundry detergents and immediately improve
by Israel’s agricultural sector. Today, three times that amount the recycled wastewater quality provided to farmers.
of treated wastewater is recycled. As of 2015, the country Other ‘microcontaminants’ such as pharmaceutical resi-
recycles 86 per cent (400 million m3) received at its treatment dues, remain a problem. Hebrew University’s Benny Chefetz’s
plants. This is a far greater commitment than other countries. laboratory has identified high concentrations of pharmaceu-
For instance, Spain, the European leader in the field, report- tical compounds such as lamotrigine (an anticonvulsant
edly recycles 12-17 per cent of its sewage; Italy and Australia drug) in crops irrigated with secondary treated wastewater
roughly 10 per cent. Over half the irrigation water used by that cross the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) level
farmers in Israel today is recycled effluents (50 per cent at for a child (25 kg) who consumes half a carrot a day (60 g
secondary treatment levels and 50 per cent tertiary), allowing carrot/day). Consumption of sweet potato leaves and carrot
for the cultivation of 130,000 hectares of agricultural lands. leaves by a child (25 kg) would also surpass the TTC level for
Reuse of treated sewage can substantially expand water epoxy-carbamazepine (an epilepsy drug) at 90 g leaves/day
resources but is not without environmental and public health and 25 g leaves/day, respectively. The risks associated with
ramifications. Recycling sewage initially raised concerns these ‘contaminants of emerging concern’ are only now being
about microorganisms: beyond affecting farmers deleteriously characterized, but they are probably of less concern than the
through direct contact, irrigated effluent can leave consumers oldest water pollutant of them all: salinity.
exposed to produce with a range of harmful bacteria. Over the Salts, almost without exception are not removed during
years, upgraded Israeli wastewater treatment levels largely elim- sewage treatment from wastewater streams. Wastewater by defi-
inated this hazard. Improved compliance with the Ministry of nition has higher salinity relative to its contributing background

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Image: Alon Tal

Image: Alon Tal

Lysemeters measure the response of pepper plants to salinity at the Wyler Lysimeters measure the response of olive trees to different irrigation regimes
Department of Dryland Agriculture, Ben Gurion University at the Ministry of Agriculture’s Gilat research station

sources. (Some treated effluents may actually have lower salin- Traditionally, Israeli farmers have overcome salinity prob-
ity than alternative freshwater sources with salinity levels. For lems by applying high irrigation rates to crops, leaching excess
example: wastewater in Israel that is derived from desalinated salts out of the root zone to protect plant health. In an arid
seawater has lower salt levels than fresh water removed from region, farmers may use an additional 30-40 per cent more
the Kinneret — Sea of Galilee.) Given the seasonal demand in water simply to manage salt levels in cultivated soils. This can
Israel’s Mediterranean climate, Israel stores effluents in reser- solve the plant’s problems but can contribute to contamina-
voirs during the rainy months. The evaporation that takes place tion of the underlying aquifers. Recent experience in large
during storage invariably leads to higher salinity levels. olive tree plantations in Israel’s Negev desert constitutes a
Some 15 years ago, there were already Israeli experts who cautionary tale.
questioned the wisdom of the country’s aggressive promo- The olive trees relied on drip irrigation with water from
tion of effluent reuse. They argued that over time, using relatively saline, underlying aquifers. The salts were managed
wastewater for irrigation would lead to the accumulation of by applying water for leaching. During the rare winter storm
sodium compounds in soils. While chloride is required in of 30 mm or more, salts accumulating on the surface could
very small quantities for photosynthesis and enzymatic reac- dissolve and be delivered directly into the root zone. Facing
tions, sodium, the other component of salt, makes little if any perennially high evapotranspiration levels, the trees took in
contribution to plant health or yields. Even modest quantities large quantities of the salty water and immediately showed
can be toxic to plants and cause damage to soil structure, signs of distress. Recently, when olive oil prices dropped, the
making it unproductive for agriculture. Indeed, conventional cost of such massive leaching became prohibitive and the
fresh water used in irrigation can contain sodium at levels two farmers reduced the magnitude of irrigation dramatically. It
orders of magnitude higher than the plant needs to develop. did not take long before the tree production began to signifi-
With time, signs of salinity damage from long-term effluent cantly decline due to exposure to the salts.
usage in Israel were ubiquitous. A study in Israel by research- The lesson is clear: in arid and semi-arid regions where
ers in the Ministry of Agriculture’s Volcani Institute compared there is not sufficient precipitation to flush salts out of soils,
yields in orchards on that been utilizing effluents via drip deficit irrigation will not work. This makes leaching impera-
irrigation for 10 years: avocado and citrus yields were 20-30 tive but economically and environmentally problematic.
per cent lower than trees in the same orchards that had been In a recent article, two leading Israeli agricultural research-
using fresh water. Soil damage from wastewater tends to be ers with Alon Ben-Gal and Eran Raveh wrote: “Israel’s policy
concentrated in the upper soil layers. But again, the plants of lower prices for salty water and absolute utilization of
themselves are affected: another recent analysis by leading wastewater for irrigation without addressing salinity may
expert Alon Ben-Gal and Eran Raveh shows clearly that as have been reckless. Leaching, necessary in agricultural water
wastewater reuse in Israel has increased over the last 20 years management when using water containing salts, is of itself
so have sodium concentrations in soil and crops. unsustainable, as the water leaving the root zone contains not

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Image: Naty Barak

A Jojoba plantation at Hatzerim Kibbutz — 12 years of subsurface irrigation and going strong

only the salts that must be leached, but also various other The question is: Can farmers afford to pay for such high
contaminants, contained in the water, added in agricultural quality water? Many agricultural experts argue that conven-
processes (fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides), or mobilized tional crops will not be profitable if they rely on desalinated
from soil and subsoil.” water, which in Israel ranges between 55 and 65 cents per
Other leading Israeli irrigation researchers, (such as Shmuel cubic metre (1,000 litres). Onions, carrots and potatoes would
Assouline, David Russo, Avner Silber and Dani Or) also began be losing propositions; for tomatoes and peppers the economic
to speak up about the issue, citing mounting evidence that calculous is tenuous. Surely orchards in the drylands cannot
various aspects of soil hydrology are negatively affected by compete with groves that enjoy rain-fed conditions.
wastewater reuse. Damage is the result of increased loadings Based on Israel’s experience, certain implications for other
of organic matter, surfactants, nutrients, and subsequent water-scarce countries are already clear: drip irrigation should
interactions with the soil. be a central component in any agricultural production strat-
Cognizant of the dangers, Israel continues to make signifi- egy. It is simply irresponsible to continue to use flood, furrow
cant efforts to reduce salinity in its drinking water sources. and sprinkler irrigation when drip irrigation systems offer
Regulations prevent the release of the salts used by kosher such clear agronomic and environmental advantages. At the
slaughter houses from reaching municipal waste streams; same time, if a country with croplands in arid or semi-arid
desalination provides an increasing fraction of drinking water, regions wishes to sustain irrigated agriculture over the long
reducing the salinity in the resulting sewage. But wastewater is term, it must ensure an extremely high quality of water and
still a relatively saline source for irrigation, requiring copious ultimately seek to utilize desalinated water sources. Sooner or
amounts of water for leaching out residues. When Avner later, massive utilization of effluents will lead to salinization
Silber and his colleagues compared irrigation with conven- and eventually force such a transition.
tional water sources to irrigation with water where salts were Farmers using desalinated water may not be able to compete
removed via desalination prior to delivering to banana crops, on world markets, so countries will need to consider subsi-
the results were compelling: not only did desalination obviate dizing water produced for irrigation. Moreover, if expansion
salt leaching and the risk of salinization of underlying water of dryland agriculture is not to compromise climate change
resources — it also improved yields and fruit quality. mitigation efforts, renewable energy should be integrated
Based on this research, academic and government research- in desalination processes. Finally, the Israeli experience
ers are openly recommending that desalinated water be suggests that extensive wastewater reuse should only be seen
considered as a viable water source for irrigation. Given the as a temporary exigency and a transition stage in a country’s
high energy demands and greenhouse gas emissions associ- agricultural evolution. The well-documented, deleterious
ated with desalination, a truly sustainable irrigation policy environmental impacts are clear and disturbing, sending a
may require solar energy systems to provide the electricity for clear message that effluent recycling in the drylands is funda-
desalination processes. mentally unsustainable.

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Restoring lands and livelihoods in rain-fed areas

through community watershed management
Suhas P Wani and Kaushal K Garg, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, India

E
nsuring food security and reducing poverty for holistic integrated genetic and natural resource management
a global population that will grow to 9 billion strategy to increase productivity, production and profitability
by 2050 is a challenging task.1 Increased food through building partnerships. ICRISAT later expanded and
production has to come from available, limited water strengthened the Inclusive Market Oriented Development strat-
and land resources.2 Water scarcity is acute, particularly egy to link smallholder farmers to markets and ensure profits
in developing countries like India, China and Thailand through innovative collective action using new information and
where population pressure is high, physical scarcity of communication technologies.
water is expected and countries are struggling to eradi- ICRISAT and its partners have established sites of learning
cate poverty and improve quality of life. (500-2,000 ha scale) in different rainfall and ecological regions,
demonstrating the potential of rain-fed system through an
Blue water availability in most of the river basins is declin- integrated watershed management approach. The following
ing as available water resources are already allocated among case studies from India, China and Thailand represent differ-
various sectors and no scope exists to harvest it further.3,4 ent ecosystems, demonstrating the suitability of the integrated
Moreover, significant uncertainty is arising on future water watershed management approach to minimize land degrada-
and food availability due to increased vulnerability of drylands. tion, overcome water scarcity and harness the potential of
Extreme events like flash floods or longer dry spells; more dry rain-fed agriculture in Asia.
or wet years; temperature change and pest/disease infestation
are among the characteristics driven by climate change.5 Use Adarsha Watershed, southern India
efficiency of land and water resources must be enhanced, espe- The Adarsha watershed in Kothapally is located in the
cially in rain-fed systems which hold huge untapped potential Shankarpally mandal of the Ranga Reddy district of
to address present and future food security.6,7,8,9,10 Telangana (previously Andhra Pradesh). Before 1999, this
A large percentage of rural families in Asia (60 per cent) village suffered acute water shortage, land degradation and
and Africa (70-80 per cent) is largely dependent on agricul- poor agricultural and livestock productivity. Eighty per
ture and allied sectors. There are a number of challenges such cent of its 462 ha of agricultural land was rain-fed with a
as fragmentation of farmlands, low crop yields, water scarcity, monocropping system. The main crops were cotton, maize,
land degradation and inability to access credit and markets.11 sorghum and pigeonpea with productivity of 1,000-1,500
However, crop productivity of these farms is two to five times kg ha-1 of sorghum/maize and 200 kg ha-1 of pigeonpea.
lower than the achievable potential. Per capita availability of There were 62 open wells. Most of these dried up soon after
land is declining continually with the growing population.12 monsoon and the women walked 2-3 km to fetch drinking
Further, most of the cultivated lands as well as common prop- water from February until the monsoon arrived.
erty resource lands are degraded and continue to degrade At the request of the district administrator and the government
further, particularly in Asia and Africa. The International Drought Prone Area Programme, ICRISAT and its consortium
Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) partners (the Government of Andhra Pradesh; MV Foundation,
and its partners have been working to develop various natural a non-governmental organization; the Central Research Institute
resources management technologies to bridge the yield gaps for Dryland Agriculture; and the National Remote Sensing Agency)
and to harvest the potential of rain-fed areas since 1976. For started implementing watershed technologies between 1999 and
example, various in-situ and ex-situ soil and water conservation 2004. Various soil and water conservation practices, productivity
technologies to enhance/maintain land capability and green and enhancement, crop diversification and intensification work along
blue water availability were developed at farm and commu- with knowledge-based entry point activities were introduced.
nity scale; their suitability was evaluated for different soil types Groundwater availability increased from 3.5 m to 6.0 m due to
and cropping systems; and they were demonstrated through various soil and water conservation interventions. Due to increased
on-station research experiments at ICRISAT and on-farm availability of water resources, the entire watershed transformed
farmers’ participatory trials along with consortium partners.8,9,10 from degraded to more productive. Cropping intensity increased
Based on the lessons learned from different evaluation studies, from 85 per cent to 150 per cent and large numbers of farmers
an ICRISAT-led consortium has developed a farmer participa- shifted from low-value crops to high-value crops (Bt. Cotton and
tory integrated watershed management approach adopting a vegetables). Average crop yields of sole maize increased by 2.2

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Images: ICRISAT
Top: Post-monsoon water levels in one of the wells of Adarsha watershed, (left) before and (right) after the watershed intervention
Bottom: Farmers in the Adarsha watershed adopted intercropping as an improved management practice and many moved to high-value crops such as cotton

to 2.5 times (3,800 kg ha-1 compared to 1,500 kg ha-1); inter- monsoon and communities suffer from water scarcity especially
cropped maize pigeonpea with improved management produced in summer. Women and girls were spending significant time
6,000 kg ha-1 compared to 2,900 kg ha-1; and pigeonpea yields and energy collecting water for domestic use, while men would
increased to 900 kg ha-1 against 200 kg ha-1 in 1998. Moreover migrate to nearby cities in search of livelihood during and after
implementing such interventions has strengthened a number of the monsoon. This left women and livestock further exposed to
regulating and supporting ecosystem services such as reduced soil a number of socio-economic stresses and exploitation.
loss (10 t ha-1 to 2 t ha-1), reduced surface run-off (30-40 per cent), From 2012 onwards, ICRISAT along with national part-
increased base flow, improved water quality (pesticide residue- ners, Central Agro-Forestry Research Institute (CAFRI),
free), increased green cover and carbon sequestration. district administration, government of Uttar Pradesh and local
community started implementing watershed interventions in
Parasai-Sindh, central India Parasai-Sindh watershed. Regular interactions with the commu-
The Parasai-Sindh watershed, comprising three villages cover- nity contributed to a strong trust resulting in effective planning
ing 1,250 ha, was developed as a benchmark site in Jhansi and implementation of watershed activities. The village and
district of Bundelkhand, being a hot spot of water scarcity, land the watershed committees identified potential locations where
degradation, poverty and vulnerability to the impacts of climate different soil and water conservation practices such as check
change. This watershed receives nearly 850 mm of rainfall with dams and gully control structures could be made. Ex-situ
about 85 per cent from June to September. Agriculture and water harvesting structures together developed 125,000 m3
allied sectors are the main sources of livelihood for the rural of storage capacity by the end of June 2015. Through state-
people in this region who are largely dependent on groundwater of-the-art monitoring, it was estimated that these structures
resources for domestic and agricultural use. Due to hard-rock harvested around 250,000 m3 of surface runoff and facilitated
geology, groundwater recharge mainly takes place in shallow groundwater recharge in every monsoon season with the
and unconfined aquifer which is characterized by poor specific groundwater table increasing on average by 2.5 m compared to
yield. Water level in open/dug wells depletes very fast after the non-intervention stage. This has increased cropping intensity

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Images: ICRISAT
Parasai-Sindh watershed, Bundelkhand region, central India: (left) over and base flow from a check-dam indicates increased groundwater and surface water
availability; (right) farmer cultivating vegetable as cash crop

by 50 per cent especially during post-monsoon season (rabi sought other livelihood options and men were largely engaged
season). Productivity of post-monsoon crop especially wheat for labour work in the construction sector. In 2003, based on
has doubled after the watershed interventions. Wheat yield discussions with the village communities, two drinking water
before the watershed interventions ranged from 1,500 to 1,800 schemes were undertaken as an entry point activity with project
Kg ha-1. Despite the good establishment of crop, there was high funds and partial contributions from villagers. Spring water from
chance of crop failure due to depleted water resources between the hilltop was tapped and brought down to the village through a
January and February and supplemental irrigation was not pipeline system. Further watershed interventions such as soil and
possible due to drying wells. After implementing the watershed water management, improved cropping systems, crop diversifica-
programme, farmers began harvesting wheat yield ranging from tion, integrated nutrient and pest management practices, along
3,000 to 4,000 kg ha-1 resulting in significant improvement in with other income-generating activities such as poultry and pig
their income and livelihood. Farmers have shifted cropping rearing, were introduced. Altogether 151 rainwater harvesting/
pattern from low-income crops (chickpea and mustard) to irrigation water storage tanks of 5 m3 capacity were constructed;
high-income crops (vegetables and wheat) and fodder availabil- nearly 133,000 trees were planted on 100 ha of wasteland, and a
ity has increased significantly. Agro-forestry has strengthened 4.8 km village approach road was built from the main road. Later
by promoting tree plantation on farm bunds and wasteland a 6 km-long field road was also constructed with government
with community participation. Improved varieties of chickpea support. Crop diversification was undertaken with high-value
and wheat were introduced and crop yields increased from vegetable crops. More than 260 biogas plants were set up in
by 30 to 50 per cent. In addition, various income-generating village households to reduce pressure on fuelwood and protect
activities such as vermicomposting, nursery raising and other the forests. Micro-enterprises for women were promoted along
micro-enterprises helped farmers to earn additional income. with forage production on bunds.
Watershed interventions enhanced average annual family Watershed interventions completely transformed the liveli-
income from 50,000 INR (US$830) to 125,000 INR (US$2,080) hood of the people. Average annual income from agriculture
in a period of three to four years clearly indicating the potential has increased threefolds (from US$500 to US$1,650). The
of science-led interventions to address the food security and benchmark crops (rice, corn, rape, soybean, sunflower and
rural livelihood issues in drylands. kidney bean) were replaced with high-value crops like water-
melon and vegetables like tomato, pumpkin, cabbage, chilli
Lucheba, China and eggplant using hybrid seeds and improved agronomical
Lucheba village in Pingba County, Guizhou province in southern practices. Lucheba now boasts two animal health centres, an
China comprises a cluster of six villages with 340 households Internet-enabled farmers’ training centre and one Vegetable
and 1,373 people. It was selected in 2003 for integrated water- Growers’ Association. The whole village currently has biogas-
shed interventions by ICRISAT and its partners. Before this, the powered street lighting. The migration level has been drastically
cropping system was largely maize, rice, soybean, sunflower and reduced and those who had migrated to cities have returned to
rapeseed. There was high pressure on women as they had to villages as the quality of life is better than the city with more
travel long distances to fetch drinking water due to water scar- opportunity to work in the village itself. The village’s average
city even for domestic use. Migration levels were high as people per capita income is twice that of the province.

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Images: ICRISAT
Lucheba watershed, China: (left) the landscape shows a large area under vegetable and cash crops; (right) Scientist observing staked tomato plants

Tad Fa, Thailand ity of green water resources. Surface run-off (60 per cent
Tad Fa watershed is located in Phu Pa Man district in the Khon reduction) and soil loss (40 t ha-1 to 8 t ha-1) were reduced
Kaen province of Thailand. It was developed as benchmark site drastically and crop productivity increased. Areas under fruit
to address the issues of land degradation and poor agricultural tree cultivation increased in and around Tad Fa watershed
productivity in 2003. The Department of Agriculture, the Land within three years of the project implementation. This has
Development Department, Khon Kaen University and ICRISAT, helped in controlling soil erosion and provided better and
along with the rural community, formed the consortium for more sustainable income to farmers which significantly
implementing the programme. The watershed receives a good contributed to enhancing rural livelihood.
amount of rainfall (1,300 mm) but due to uneven distribution
and lack of water harvesting structures, the village was suffering The way forward
water scarcity even during the monsoon period. Nearly 80 per Integrated watershed management is an important strategy
cent of the total agricultural area was rain-fed, having one crop for strengthening resilience to drought, especially in uplands
per year. Farmers in upland areas with high to medium slopes which are hotspots of poverty, water scarcity and land degra-
were cultivating maize along the slope (up and down cultiva- dation. Soil and water conservation practices have resulted in
tion), triggering heavy soil erosion, as well as cash crops and higher groundwater recharge which enables supplementary
rice on the lower lands for domestic use. The watershed faced irrigation of the monsoon, bridging of dry spells and scope for
severe soil erosion and crop productivity was declining year by irrigation of a second dry-season crop. Moreover, in-situ water
year due to land degradation. harvesting has resulted in enhanced green water use efficiency
Several soil, water, nutrient and integrated crop management in rain-fed agriculture. Productivity enhancement, crop inten-
interventions were introduced in 2003. In consultation with the sification and diversification further helped farmers to utilize
farmers, the Land Development Department constructed 17 farm available resources effectively and earn more. Watershed
ponds each of 1,260 m3 storage capacity to facilitate supplemen- interventions are also helpful in strengthening various ecosys-
tal irrigation to crops, fruit trees and vegetables, particularly in tem services such as reduced nutrient and soil loss, which is
the post-rainy season. Field bunds were constructed along with expected to have positive impacts on in-stream river ecology
vetiver grass largely in uplands. Sowing through hand dibbling and run-off generation for other downstream water uses.
was promoted on steep slopes; and cultivation using tractor- Under the changing climatic scenario with reduced annual
mounted implements was promoted in farms with moderate to rainfall and higher rainfall intensities, watershed development
mild slopes. About 70 per cent of the area was promoted under programmes are increasingly important for securing agri-
contour cultivation. Relay and sequential cropping systems were cultural yields in upland areas to achieve food security and
promoted to use green water efficiently and improved varieties of improve the livelihoods of small and marginal farmers and,
seeds were introduced. Fruit tree cultivation was promoted and most importantly, for building the resilience of systems to the
improved plantation methods were introduced to enhance the changing climate. Scaling-up of these initiatives is urgently
land and water use efficiency. needed to achieve the desired level of impacts and outcomes
Maize yields increased by 30-40 per cent compared to for food, nutrition and water security for the growing popula-
the conventional system due to the increased availabil- tion through sustainable development.

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The Uttarakhand Sustainable Land

and Ecosystem Management project —
applying integrated approaches
Mohamed Imam Bakarr, Jean-Marc Sinnassamy, Ulrich Apel,
and Andrew Chilombo, The Global Environment Facility

T
he Global Environment Facility (GEF) funded The GEF project aimed at the comprehensive treatment of
Uttarakhand Sustainable Land and Ecosystem watersheds to restore and sustain ecosystem functions and
Management (SLEM) project was linked to a biodiversity while simultaneously enhancing income and
US$70 million World Bank aided decentralized watershed livelihoods. GEF resources were specifically targeted on 20
management (UDWDP) with an additional government micro-watersheds, all of which were selected based on severity
contribution of almost US$17million. of erosion, extent of poverty, and lack of infrastructure facili-
ties. The project generated valuable lessons learned on how
The UDWDP was designed to improve the productive potential the environment and natural resource issues can be effectively
of natural resources and increase incomes of rural inhabitants integrated across watersheds and how demonstrated success
in selected watersheds through socially inclusive, institution- can be scaled up and mainstreamed at state and national levels.
ally and environmentally sustainable practices. This foundation The Uttarakhand SLEM project used various approaches
for integrated management of natural resources in the water- and participatory processes toward building ownership at
sheds served as a basis for the Uttarakhand SLEM project. multiple levels — from development and management of

Image: 0 Patrizia Cocca/GEF

A resource map in Katna, India: community participation is knowledge-sharing and is key to SLEM project interventions

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Image: 0 Patrizia Cocca/GEF

Village motivators like Tulsi Devi have been key in encouraging women’s participation in the project design and decision-making in Uttarakhand

watershed plans, to creating options for enhancing liveli- mobilization, empowerment of women in decision-making
hoods and institutional strengthening. The project was based processes, improvement of participation of women in various
on a participatory and community-driven approach for the committees and institutions, greater emphasis on women-led
planning, implementation and monitoring of activities. At income-generating activities, and promoting drudgery-reduc-
the micro-watershed level, the Gram Panchayats (GP) were ing interventions.
reinforced as local governance authorities and better armed to The village communities actively participated in the entire
endorse their responsibility for administration, management project activities from planning and implementation to moni-
and development of village resources. Building on economic toring and evaluation. Various participatory mechanisms and
activities that addressed individual needs, GEF resources tools, such as focus groups, were used to select and imple-
helped to catalyse integration of the notion of ecosystem ment interventions, covering the aspects of community-level
services at watershed scale to: development based on natural resources (such as water
• mainstream sustainable watershed management management, land management to increase fodder, liveli-
approaches into GP watershed development plans hoods, agribusiness). The interventions financed by GEF
• enhance biodiversity richness at watershed level through were an opportunity to add specific activities related to the
domestication and cultivation of threatened medicinal protection and management of ecosystem services (including
and aromatic plants surface water protection, underground recharge, mainstream-
• enhance the understanding of the impact of variability ing biodiversity in forest restoration and management, and
and climate change impacts on the mountain ecosystems agrobiodiversity). Particular attention was given to equity and
and help devise adaptation and mitigation strategies. vulnerable groups through self-help activities that generate
income and promote their empowerment.
The project approach also took into account the crucial link The Uttarakhand SLEM project was designed to embody
between ecosystem services and livelihoods of women and multidisciplinary perspectives covering ecological, social,
vulnerable groups in the fragile watersheds. As often, women economic and institutional priorities across multiple scales.
play a significant role in social and economic aspects, notably This was essential to ensure flexibility in applying the wide
around the use and management of forests and other natural range of interventions to treat the watersheds and restore
resources. The project focused on inclusion of women in ecosystem functions based on demand-driven needs of the
decision-making processes, using various tools and mecha- communities. Interventions were defined through partici-
nisms: ‘women motivating women’ for awareness and social patory processes with communities, and drawing on local

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Image: Patrizia Cocca/GEF

Terraces in the Nainital district of the Himalayas are helping farmers to keep the topsoil and increase water penetration

knowledge of the resource base and tools for decision support rainwater harvesting in village ponds, dry stone check-dams,
(for example resource mapping). As a result, the priority inter- irrigation channels and river bank protection.
ventions reflected strong links between livelihood needs and The Uttarakhand SLEM project was a unique opportunity
drivers of ecosystem degradation in the watersheds, which to implement the watershed guidelines of the Government
created opportunities for a GEF catalytic effect through the of India approved a few times before the beginning of the
integrated ecosystem management (IEM) approach. project. The Watershed Management Directorate (WMD)
The priorities included interventions for controlling land serves as a state-level agency to manage all the watershed
degradation at watershed level; reducing pressure and depend- projects in the state. Multidisciplinary teams of four to six
ence on the natural resource base through fostering markets specialists seconded from line departments (horticulture,
for non-timber forest products; biodiversity conservation and agriculture, animal husbandry, minor irrigation, forestry and
management through watershed planning and community community mobilization) played a key role in providing tech-
participation; and increasing adaptation to climate change nical support across the watersheds. In addition to expertise
in natural resource-based production systems. The interven- from line departments, the WMD also mobilized a wide range
tions were based on good practices for integrated management of national institutions and civil society organizations (CSOs)
of land, soil, water and forest vegetation to ensure improve- to harness technical support for delivering interventions.
ments and maintenance of critical ecosystem services in the The institutions contributed training and capacity needs,
watersheds. For example, ponds and recharge pits on upper demonstration of new technologies, microfinance, and devel-
levels of slopes were used to reduce erosion, capture water for opment of market value chains for communities across the
recharge, enhance rejuvenation of traditional water sources targeted watersheds. These efforts further increased the poten-
and increase moisture for plant regeneration in the water- tial for communities to take advantage of improvements in
sheds, including high value perennial grasses for livestock land and water resources for income generation, such as
feeding. Other best practices with regards to soil conservation through use of high-value crops (ginger and turmeric) and
include terrace repairs with the help of vegetative boundary, adaptive livestock breeds (goats and buffalo). These oppor-

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Images: Patrizia Cocca/GEF

Pine briquetting reduces dependency on fuelwood collection by women as well as reducing deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions

tunities were further enhanced through support to Farmer half-yearly and annual intervals, and periodic field visits were
Interest Groups (FIGs) as a means of increasing access to undertaken by senior government and project officers.
production and marketing services. The FIGs now operate as Participatory monitoring and evaluation with community
a federation, with technical support provided through a CSO members was introduced to ensure stakeholder participation,
known as the Central Himalayan Environment Association. with full involvement of GP-level teams, which include repre-
The project also engaged scientific institutions to address sentatives from all stakeholder groups at GP level. The project
specific needs for knowledge-generation, monitoring and placed special emphasis on ‘social auditing’, which ensured
assessment of interventions, and quantification of environ- transparency, accountability and openness with full involve-
ment and development benefits. A key example is the Energy ment of the communities. In keeping with these principles
and Resource Institute (TERI), which served as a partner for there was widespread disclosure of information through wall
baseline and final impact assessment for the project. TERI writings, awareness-generation campaigns, radio programmes
was involved in developing a sampling framework, designing and publications. Finally, the use of information technology
questionnaires, field testing, pilot surveys, refining question- (IT) was an integral part of the project from formulation, plan-
naires, field surveys, data cleaning and entry and, finally, data ning and database management to monitoring of the project’s
compilation and aggregation. physical and financial progress and impact assessments.
As part of internal monitoring, the progress of the annual Management information system software was developed as
works programme was monitored on a monthly basis through an endeavour to use IT for management of information.
a Monthly Progress Report generated at the divisional level and The global environment benefits (GEBs) of SLEM in
consolidated at WMD level. Monitoring teams were consti- Uttarakhand are largely associated with the following inter-
tuted with members drawn from various technical wings of ventions at watershed, sub-watershed and micro-watershed
the directorate who regularly visited the project area. Random scale: improving soil and water conservation, reducing erosion
field visits, monthly meetings, checklists, brainstorming, amid and siltation, sustainable use of forest resources (non-timber
all stakeholders at district level at monthly intervals and at forest products), and introducing alternative energy sources.
regional level on a half-yearly basis, was an integral part of the The GEBs from the interventions include forest protection
internal monitoring. At the district level there was a District (contributing to biodiversity conservation and sustainable
Level Governing Committee for monitoring and supervision flow of water resources), improvements in soil carbon and
of the project and at the state level there was a State Steering reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation.
Committee with representatives from concerned line depart- The participatory approach for planning and implementation
ments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The of interventions with communities ensures that GEBs are
State Steering Committee reviewed the project progress at generated in the context of addressing drivers of degradation.

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Image: Patrizia Cocca/GEF

Improvements in land and water resources provide opportunities for income generation through high-value crops such as turmeric

As a result, overall functioning of the watershed ecosystem is the dissemination of information and knowledge about new
at the heart of the SLEM in Uttarakhand, which also ensures techniques and methodologies to harness and preserve water
long-term sustainability of the project outcomes. resources, increase and diversify agricultural productivity and
The project also demonstrates how GEBs are linked directly create alternative livelihoods. A Farmer Field School was also
to interventions for improving livelihoods and creating options established with the cooperation of one of the farmers as a hub
at local level. For example, pine briquetting reduces depend- for training and knowledge-sharing.
ency on fuelwood collection by women, which in turn reduces Lessons learned and best practices applied within the
deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, project were shared with other government agencies, part-
the reduced felling of trees for fuelwood protects the fragile ners and donors as a means of facilitating up-scaling beyond
slopes, contributes to biodiversity conservation and helps to the project areas. The manuals, methodologies, community
increase flow of water. Therefore, socially and economically resource maps, watershed work plans, video documentaries
empowering communities by putting them at the centre of and documentation of lessons learned from the project will be
soil conservation has also led to the creation of global envi- invaluable for informing the design of other IEM projects and
ronmental benefits. With respect to the monitoring of GEBs, for informing policy transformations to support the integrated
the focus was mainly on silt loading in drainage lines in repre- approach at state and national level.
sentative streams using a turbidity meter and discharge and By mobilizing technical experts from various line depart-
durability of flow for water sources based on time series meas- ments in the state, the project presented opportunities for
ures, and climate change mitigation (carbon benefits were also the alignment of interventions and outcomes with the invest-
determined from estimating emissions avoided through alter- ment priorities of those departments. This will ensure that the
native energy intervention such as biogas, water mill and pine project outcomes are integrated into future plans of the line
briquetting). Biodiversity benefits were much less established ministries, and that links between environment and develop-
and derived only from vegetation surveys in the watershed ment needs in the watersheds are maintained in the long term.
and areas of forest protected by communities. A state government order introduced at end of the project
Knowledge activities were implemented at different levels reinforced this convergence, in addition to oversight of the
and reflect the importance of linking scientific and traditional project assets created during implementation. At the level
sources. Traditional knowledge was taken into account during of individual micro-watersheds, the communities assumed
the planning phase and fully harnessed by the implementation full ownership of all assets created to improve ecosystem
team through consultations with communities and surveys. functions. The communities also signed memoranda of under-
Knowledge-sharing also flowed from the implementing team standing with the WMD for operation and maintenance of
and NGOs involved in the project to the beneficiaries, with the assets.

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Ancient soils reborn

Noel Oettlé, Environmental Monitoring Group, South Africa

T
he Bokkeveld Plateau is a remarkable heritage Rooibos was first used by the first people of South Africa,
site that for many millennia was home to the San the KhoiSan. In the twentieth century its remarkable health-
peoples of southern Africa, who left their timeless giving properties led to its becoming more widely known, both
art on the walls of caves in the sandstone cliffs of the within and beyond the borders of South Africa. Equipped with
area. At the meeting point of the Fynbos and Succulent a combination of strategies, rooibos is well adapted to the hot,
Karoo biomes, the vegetation and the soils of the plateau dry summers of the area: its tap roots can reach groundwater
are remarkably diverse, reflecting evolutionary processes metres deep in the sandy soils, nodules on the roots provide
that are still ongoing. Some of the soils are sands first nitrogen and cluster roots use the water from far down in the
deposited in a rift valley that existed here over 300 million soil profile to utilize plant nutrients in the topsoil. These abili-
years ago, transformed into monumental rock formations ties enable rooibos to thrive in conditions that do not favour
over time. Others are shales deposited in ancient seas and any other commercial agricultural crop. While rooibos prom-
by Gondwanan ice sheets. ised a way out of poverty for the small-scale farmers of the
Bokkeveld, discrimination and isolation meant that they were
The diverse soils of the Bokkeveld support the equally not able to benefit from their knowledge of the plant.
diverse crops of the communities that live here today: wheat Following the end of Apartheid in 1994, the small-scale
on the loam soils derived from the shales, and rye, oats and farmers of the Bokkeveld were able to access global markets
rooibos tea on the infertile sandy soils amidst the sandstone for organic and Fairtrade products and thereby improve their
massifs. Retaining a tenacious grip on the land in the more livelihoods. In 2001 they formed the Heiveld Cooperative
marginal parts of the area, where average rainfall may be to process and market their rooibos products. The Heiveld
as low as 150 mm per annum, a community of small-scale has been certified organic since 2001, and in 2004 became
farmers cultivates rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and also the first rooibos producer in the world to become Fairtrade
harvests the wild-growing plant to produce a remarkable certified, illustrating the determination of its members to
tea, exported to many parts of the world. create a more equitable society.

Image: N Oettlé
Image: N Oettlé

Wild rooibos plants are only harvested every second year, and the biodiversity
The Bokkeveld landscape, with cultivated rooibos tea in the foreground of the environment is maintained

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Image: N Oettlé
Heiveld rooibos is available in markets on four continents

Certification and direct market access have enabled the ensures not only the sustainable production, but also the
members of the Heiveld Cooperative to improve their live- conservation of the rich biodiversity of the Fynbos vege-
lihoods on the basis of their unique agricultural products. tation with which the wild rooibos cohabits. Soil carbon
However, on reflection they realized that much of the more remains undisturbed.
fertile soil of the area had been washed and blown away in The shale-derived soils of the Bokkeveld Plateau are highly
previous decades, and that the practice of clearing large lands vulnerable to water erosion, and because they are also the
was leaving them vulnerable to rapid erosion. Their vision of more fertile soils, large areas have been cleared of vegetation
a sustainable future without poverty was under threat. to sow wheat and other winter cereals and legumes. Since
Inspired by their shared vision of a sustainable community European settlement of the area in the mid-1700s, soils have
using its resources wisely, farmers in the Suid Bokkeveld set been ploughed over, gradually reducing their organic matter,
their minds to using their knowledge effectively to prevent breaking down their structure and decimating populations
excessive soil erosion, and learning from others where of soil-dwelling organisms such as earthworms. In extensive
appropriate. An inspiring visit to the degraded sands of the areas denuded topsoil has been washed away, leaving only
Kalahari Desert in 2004 contributed to the evolution of new inhospitable, crusted subsoils exposed.
techniques to combat erosion. The wealth of all communities dwelling on the Bokkeveld
The farmers learned from one another, with the support Plateau has always depended on the soil. The nomadic Khoi
of mentor farmers appointed by the cooperative. The most communities who herded extensive flocks of sheep and
effective practices became incorporated in the Organic herds of cattle did no harm to the soils, but after settle-
Management Plan of the cooperative, and have become ment European-style cultivation was introduced. As soils
standard practice among the farmers. These include retain- were exhausted, communities became impoverished. In
ing or establishing buffer strips of natural vegetation in the twentieth century the introduction of artificial fertiliz-
the rooibos lands, contour ploughing, retaining all organic ers enabled farmers to produce crops on soils that were
matter in the lands, not burning plant material, and making otherwise depleted, but the trend towards degradation
contour bunds to prevent soil erosion and promote infiltra- continued. Soils once loose and friable became increasingly
tion of run-off water. unyielding when dry, and treacherously unstable when wet.
On the basis of the findings of participatory research, the The Avontuur farm in the wetter northern part of the
members of the cooperative also follow strict guidelines Bokkeveld Plateau is a typical example of a piece of land
for the sustainable harvesting of wild populations. This that was overexploited for the production of dryland crops.

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Image: N Oettlé
Hartwig Oktober demonstrates how a contour bund spreads the run-off water from rocky cliffs adjoining his rooibos lands

Injudicious ploughing of slopes and bottomlands in ways basis of this a five-year programme of low-cost, replicable
that contributed to excessive run-off and soil erosion rehabilitation has been undertaken on the property.
removed thousands of tons of topsoil from relatively small More than 90 per cent of the land surface of the property
areas. Once it had lost productivity, the land was abandoned is now stable and well conserved, and earthworm popula-
and erosion carried on unchecked. tions have rebounded on old plough lands. Nevertheless,
In 2008 the Avontuur property was purchased by the some areas have been deeply scarred by injudicious land
World Wide Fund for Nature to conserve its unique biodi- use, with erosion gullies up to 3 metres deep. The princi-
versity. The property is home to more than 500 plant ples followed in restoring the land have been to keep as
species, of which 34 are species of conservation concern much rainwater as possible in the landscape (preferably in
and eight are not conserved anywhere else. Since 2009 the the soil), disperse and weaken the impact of raindrops and
property has been leased to and managed by not-for-profit run-off water, establish or retain vegetative cover, create
company Avontuur Sustainable Agriculture, which manages favourable conditions for earthworms and soil organisms,
the property as a living landscape that is both productive prevent the loss of topsoil by water and wind erosion and
yet conserved. The approach has been to restore the hydro- use ground cover to protect the soil and create favourable
logical and ecological systems, particularly on the degraded conditions for the germination of seed.
lands; actively rehabilitate the most degraded areas; facilitate The approach has been to provide opportunities for vegeta-
the gradual restoration of the indigenous flora on the old tion to re-establish in degraded areas. Run-off water has been
lands and enable the farm to produce sustainably. filtered so as to retain soil, seed and organic matter, and seed
Independent researchers identified the causes and extent collected on the property has been reintroduced to bare areas.
of the degradation of the property, and recommended The unique nature of the soil/climate/vegetation nexus
actions that could be taken to rectify the situation. On the on Avontuur is such that it was necessary to innovate and

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Images: N Oettlé
The impact of gully rehabilitation over three years (left to right)

observe which approaches would prove to be most effective and designed and implemented measures to address these,
and economically feasible. Repeat photography has been using materials supplied to them. The results of these train-
used to visually record the impacts over time, and to enable ing interventions can be seen elsewhere on the Bokkeveld
comparison of the different interventions. Plateau, where farmers have applied them in practice on
In practice the approach followed on Avontuur has been degraded soils derived from shale.
to first analyse the problem and differentiate between the Apart from the farming community, the results on
causes and effects of disturbances and degradation. The Avontuur have been shared with scholars from the local
focus is then on the causes: addressing the effects without school, and with staff of conservation agencies and non-
remediating the causes will absorb resources without lasting governmental organizations. All have left their mark on the
impact. Wherever possible interventions are designed to landscape, and are able to return and see how their efforts
start at the top of the affected catchment and work progres- and the work of others have affected the landscape. In a
sively downslope. We have sought to work with the forces rapidly changing world Avontuur offers the opportunity to
of nature so that recovery becomes self-sustaining, and as witness the slower processes of regeneration and recreation
far as possible to use only biodegradable materials. These of nature’s self-sustaining ecosystems.
have primarily been inexpensive local materials such as
wood harvested from alien invasive trees, abundant shrubs

Image: N Oettlé
(the toxic and invasive Galenia africana and the unpalatable
Elytropappus rhinocerotis) and sawdust from local sawmills.
In addition use has been made of jute geotextile. These
materials have been used in various combinations for filter-
ing run-off water in gullies, and for re-establishing cover
on denuded soil surfaces.
A number of approaches have been tested to determine
cost-effective ways of re-establishing vegetation on denuded
surfaces. These have included trials in which the soil surface
was broken and fertile topsoil, sawdust and manure were
mixed in. In some cases seeds collected on the property were
sown into the matrix. Geotextile was used to stabilize soil
surfaces and hold moisture and wind-blown soil particles.
Encouraging results have been achieved.
The work on Avontuur has generated much interest among
the small-scale farming community from the southern part
of the Bokkeveld Plateau, some of whom were employed
in the off-season to undertake rehabilitation work on the
property. A number of interactive workshops have been
held, in the course of which participants were introduced
to the approach followed on Avontuur, and then asked to
apply the approach in practice in a small catchment that had
not previously been rehabilitated. Working in small teams, Succulent seedlings establish on previously bare surfaces covered
the participants analysed the problem, identified the causes with geotextile

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Environmental education and awareness

programmes in the United Arab Emirates
Habiba Al Marashi, Chairperson, Emirates Environmental Group

T
he United Arab Emirates (UAE) is situated in the While there are many environmental challenges to over-
arid west continent desert belt of the south-east come, some of the most important issues facing UAE today
region of the Arabian Peninsula in South-West are desertification and land degradation and the basic lack
Asia.1 Its environmental conditions are highly sensitive of fresh natural water sources which is compensated for by
due to the delicate balance between various factors of an desalinated water which comes at great costs. According to
arid ecosystem such as water, soil, climate, vegetation, MICAD (2015), “Desertification includes land degradation
natural resources and biodiversity.2 To add to this, UAE in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from
has a population close to 9 million.3 In order to sustain various factors, including climatic variations and human
such a large population in a desert environment, large activities.” The United Nations Environment Programme
amounts of energy, water and land are required. Ever (UNEP)4 states that about 6 million hectares are irretriev-
since the discovery of oil, UAE has invested in large-scale ably lost or degraded by desertification each year and about
developments and has attracted many investors, which 135 million people are severely affected by this process. This
is one of the main reasons for its rising population. To will invariably result in less productive land and in turn will
satisfy the needs of the increasing resident population and lead to poverty and unsustainable development.
tourists, millions of Dirhams have been invested in build- To further highlight the importance of this issue the
ing houses, power plants, desalination plants, shopping United Nations started the United Nations Convention to
malls, recreational facilities and so on. This has led to Combat Desertification in 1994 and declared 17 June as the
the release of large amounts of greenhouse gases, loss and World day to Combat Desertification. While this has alerted
degradation of land and an exponential increase in the the world’s governments to the importance of combating
amount of CO2 emissions among others. desertification, it is essential to inform and involve the

Images: EEG

For Our Emirates — We Plant is a unique campaign that combines waste recycling with tree planting initiatives

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The total number of trees planted per year under ‘For Our Emirates — We Plant’

Year Number of trees planted per year Total number of trees planted

2007 1,608,777 1,608,777

2008 5,444 1,614,221

2009 316 1,614,537

2010 476,703 2,091,240

2011 419 2,091,659

2012 468 2,092,127

2013 365 2,092,492

2014 685 2,093,177

Source: EEG

Annual CO2 mitigation for the various campaigns under ‘For Our Emirates — We Plant’

Year Project Participants Trees Million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent

2010 OROC 350 250 2,063,845

2011 NRP 28 29 7,370,875

OROC 97 131

2012 YCFT 69 15 14,682,783

NRP 104 124

OROC 76 134

2013 YCFT 43 27 13,031,707

NRP 125 184

OROC 53 104

2014 YCFT 49 18 17,789,314

NRP 177 255

OROC 90 157

Source: EEG

public and work at the grass-roots level. UAE has organized tive to change the mind-set and attitude of the community
many events in trying to combat desertification, involving towards the environment.
activities for the integrated development of land in the arid, The Emirates Environmental Group (EEG) is a profes-
semi-arid and sub-humid areas for sustainable development. sional working group, dedicated to working towards the
The focus is to reduce further land degradation, rehabilitate preservation of the environment. Its work primarily focuses
the areas and reclaim these lands. on sustainability and mobilizing the masses in the country,
Many government and non-government organizations are region and beyond. EEG offers a wide range of programmes
working around the clock to combat the pressing environ- which are divided into broad sectors such as education,
mental issues that face the nation. To achieve this, the best waste management and corporate activities.
solutions are to create awareness and educate the public to As interest in preserving and protecting the environment
manage their resource consumption and the resultant waste becomes more apparent, the number of organizations and
production, energy and water consumption. It is impera- educational institutions willing to get involved is growing.

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Images: EEG
Organizations, institutions and families collect aluminium cans to win an opportunity to plant an indigenous tree under their names

In line with EEG’s core objectives, and to tackle the institutions and families. There follow some examples of
grave environmental issues of desertification and encour- EEG’s prime waste management activities which were
age community participation, EEG started various waste introduced with tree planting initiatives in mind.
management initiatives which were cleverly combined For Our Emirates — We Plant is a unique, first-of-its-kind
with initiatives to plant indigenous trees across UAE and project that combines EEG’s diverse waste management
create sustainable green spaces. The idea of the projects is to programmes with its simple, practical yet innovative tree
provide a platform for the community to recycle their waste planting initiatives. Under this banner, EEG planted 685
and reward their efforts by planting a tree under the entity’s indigenous trees across UAE in 2014 with participation
(company, academic institution or family) name in one of from public and private organizations, academic institu-
the Emirates, thus giving back to the environment. tions and families. These trees on maturity (5-7 years) will
Due to seamless methodology of outreach, collection save 2.57 metric tons of CO2.
and disposal, EEG hosts eight recycling campaigns which There are four innovative channels through which partici-
have been running for the last two decades. These include pants can plant trees in their names, the first three of which
aluminium cans, glass, paper, plastic, toners and cartridges, form part of EEG’s waste management activities:
batteries, mobiles, e-waste and beverage carton containers. • Y our Can for a Tree (YCFT) initiative (April-June)
EEG’s waste management programme has been success- • N eighbourhood Recycling Project (NRP)
ful due to the combined support of the community, the (June-September)
Government and various recycling factories across UAE. • O ne Root One Communi-Tree (OROC) initiative
With its aim to achieve zero recyclable waste going to (July-November)
landfills, EEG reaches out to the community — public and • Together We Plant (January-May and September-December).
private sectors, educational institutions and families —
to encourage them and instil the culture of recycling in The YCFT initiative has been hosted during April to June each
their daily lives. It is no easy task to educate, motivate and year since 2012. Public and private organizations, academic
engage people in the act of recycling as a continuous and institutions and families across UAE are encouraged to collect
long-term practice, but since inception in 1991, EEG has aluminium cans to win an opportunity to plant an indigenous
made considerable progress towards that end. tree under their names during EEG’s Tree Planting Ceremony
EEG realizes that planting trees is key to protecting held in December each year. The initiative creates awareness
and preserving the fragile ecological balance. Under the among the adult population while emphasizing the impor-
aegis of UNEP’s Billion Tree Campaign, EEG has planted tance of recycling aluminium cans. It also helps combat
over 2,093,177 trees across the Emirates with the active desertification and degradation of land by planting more trees
participation of public and private organizations, academic and deviating waste from landfills.

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Images: EEG
Under the Planting a Greener Future initiative, tree planting events were held in government schools across UAE

NRP is one of EEG’s most sought-after summer programmes Since inception EEG has managed to mitigate 2,532
and is specifically targeted towards the student community. The metric tons of CO2 emissions, saved 18,472 million BTU
programme runs from June to September and gives students of energy, saved 3,396 m3 of landfill space and saved 12,724
an opportunity to involve the residents of their communities trees from being felled. On accomplishing the goals, EEG
to start their own recycling initiative under EEG’s guidance. has planted a total of 1,430 trees over five years. The trees
Participants are required to involve 20 other families in the act as a carbon sink and prevent land degradation, which
project. Through this activity, students collect one or all of the in turn helps combat desertification.
eight main recyclable materials within a span of two weeks. EEG believes that corporations have a moral obligation
Since its inception in 2011, NRP has attracted an increas- and duty to protect and preserve the forests of the globe.
ing number of participants. From just 28 participants in The actions of a company have vast effects, whether posi-
2011, the summer programme has steeply risen to 177 tive or negative, on the environment. Education and action
participants in 2014 with a total outreach of over 10,000 are the most proficient ways to achieve this. Towards that
individuals. The increase in participants has also enabled end, in 2008 EEG started the Together We Plant campaign.
EEG to collect more recyclables over the years. Since incep- Hosted under the umbrella of the For Our Emirates —
tion EEG has managed to mitigate 722 metric tonnes of We Plant initiative, Together We Plant targets two spokes:
CO2 emissions, save 4,622 million BTU of energy and 815 spreading awareness and acting on the gained knowledge.
m3 of landfill space, and save 5,114 trees from being felled. The campaign aims at hosting tree planting initiatives by
As well as reducing the amount of waste going into corporations across schools in UAE. In that way, compa-
landfill, the collecting and recycling activities create aware- nies add to the sustainable green patch by planting trees in
ness among the students and residential communities. schools, helping to educate the youth about their impor-
Furthermore, recycling prevents unsustainable use of land tance and how a simple act can have a lasting impression
by landfilling these otherwise useful items. on the environment.
The OROC programme, which began in 2010, takes 2014 saw a number of tree planting initiatives under
place in September, October and November each year and the Together We Plant campaign. With the cooperation
is another endeavour to increase sustainable green urban of organizations and educational institutions across UAE,
spaces through tree planting initiatives that are interlinked EEG planted a total of 245 indigenous trees which will help
with waste management. Participating organizations are mitigate 1.45 metric tons of CO2 upon maturity.
requested to send in recyclable items to EEG. Through this Such tree planting initiatives are of vital significance in
campaign EEG has planted trees across five Emirates over educating the youth about the importance of trees and the
the course of five years and aims to plant in the remaining various benefits which trees provide. The total number of trees
two Emirates in the years to come. planted to date through EEG’s various waste management and

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Image: EEG
Participants at the Clean Up UAE event

tree planting initiatives is 2,093,177, which contributes to social growth, economic growth and environmental growth.
accumulative CO2 mitigation of 17,789 metric tons. It educates the youth on these three fronts and inspires them
For the corporations involved, these activities are an to work towards a means to achieve sustainable development.
opportunity to move towards sustainability and set an Under this initiative seven government schools were
example to the mass of organizations in this country. Bonds selected across the Emirates and 50 indigenous trees were
are made between generations of participants as they come planted in each school. A total of 350 trees were plants by
together towards this goal. This activity not only promotes the end of this initiative in April 2015. The initiative created
volunteerism, but it also promotes civic responsibility. awareness among students and schools staff, contributed to
EEG’s efforts have been aimed at helping the regional mitigating UAE’s carbon footprint and furthermore helped
environment as a whole. The Arab region is one of the combat desertification in UAE.
harshest terrains in the world and the injection of durable The advantages and benefits of recycling are simply
indigenous trees in the environment goes a long way in too many to ignore which is why EEG dedicates so much
maintaining and sustaining an ecological balance. As a of its time and workforce in advocating the practice and
result of such initiatives, the quality of air improves and asking the UAE community to join in this needful act. This
the planted trees contribute to creating healthier outdoor programme keeps striding forward, expanding its outreach
spaces and restoring urban habitats for wildlife, thus with every year and urging all members of society to join
advancing global reforestation and intercultural awareness. hands in making recycling a part of their cultural fabric,
Believing that public-private partnerships shape the future not something viewed as a luxury.
of the country towards a more sustainable path, in 2014 EEG It is a well understood fact that the global community
signed a contract with McDonald’s UAE to host several tree should take all the measures they can to prevent desertifica-
planting events across UAE in various government schools. tion and land degradation. Arid ecosystems within UAE are
The initiative was named Planting a Greener Future and was suffering serious desertification processes.5 In order to combat
planned to be hosted between April 2014 and April 2015. these, more waste management and tree planting activities
The initiative was created to develop three major areas — through community engagement need to be carried out.

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 Living Land

Disaster risk and two

recent episodes in Japan
Kaoru Takara, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan

T
he following equation is often used to conceptually society or living land to natural hazards, or reduce exposure
explain disaster risk: DR = H x E x V. In this equation by adopting a policy of land use restriction.
DR stands for disaster risk, H is hazard, E is expo- Figure 1 explains disaster risk in living land, in which the
sure and V is vulnerability. Hazard is a natural phenomenon safer place is coloured green and the vulnerable place is indi-
such as earthquake, volcano eruption, landslide, storm, cated by a yellow portion. The blue portion indicates exposure;
flood and heatwave. Exposure is defined as something to be people and properties are located in both the safer and vulner-
affected by natural disasters, such as people and property. able places. When a hazard attacks this living land, there will
Vulnerability is defined as a condition resulting from physi- be different disaster risk situations as indicated in the diagram:
cal, environmental, social or economic factors or processes, (a) s erious disaster damage is possible because people and
which increases the susceptibility of people or a community properties are exposed by the hazard in the vulnerable place
to the impact of a hazard. (b) people and properties are affected by the hazard but there
is no damage because they are located in the safer place
Imagine a rock island in an ocean with a tsunami approaching (c) the hazard hits the vulnerable place but there is no damage
it. If the rock island has no population and property, there will because there are no people or properties there
be no disaster risk, because exposure (people and property) is (d) no damage because there is no exposures in the safer place
zero. In general, disaster risk is defined as an expectation value (e) risky but no damage; exposures in the vulnerable place are
of losses (such as deaths, injuries and property) that would about to be hit by the hazard, but it does not reach them.
be caused by a hazard. Growing exposure and vulnerability
increases the number of natural disasters and the levels of loss. Readers may easily recognize that if vulnerability becomes
Living land is a place where people and properties are bigger then disaster risk becomes bigger. Likewise, the more
exposed to natural hazards. It should be protected from exposures, the more disaster risk. Countermeasures should
hazards by countermeasures such as infrastructures, specifi- make the area (a) smaller, namely reducing vulnerability by
cally flood control facilities and anti-earthquake buildings. protecting the vulnerable place and decreasing exposures by
The countermeasures can reduce the vulnerability of the relocating people and properties to the safer place.

Earthquake and tsunami in Sendai

Sendai is the largest city in the Tohoku region of Japan and
Figure 1: A conceptual explanation of disaster risk, the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture. A tsunami hazard map
hazard, exposure and vulnerability in the Sendai city area (786 km2 with 1.04 million popula-
tion), as seen in Figure 2, shows the areas where tsunami
waves had been assumed to come up (the purple coloured
Hazard portion). Caused by the Great East Japan Earthquake on 11
(d) March 2011, the actual tsunami waves came up to the orange
(b) (c) coloured portion and killed many people there. This suggests
a danger of hazard maps. People who lived in the orange
(a) coloured areas may have misunderstood that there was no risk
of tsunami. Usually hazard maps for floods and tsunamis are
based on simulation results obtained from assumed 100-year
Exposu

(e)
events. In March 2011, however, the tsunami event was much
larger than the envisioned tsunami. The tsunami hazard map
re
(p

op c was not useful for such a tremendous tsunami event.

e
e

le ,
p ro p e r t y ) pl a
Vu l n e r a b l e
Sendai city revised the tsunami hazard map (Figure 3), which
Safer place shows the Level 1 tsunami area (orange portion) and Level 2
tsunami area (yellow portion). Two major roads have been
Source: Kaoru Takara reconstructed in order to protect against tsunamis: one is called
the Shiogama-Watari Line (the 42.1 km long Prefectural Road

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 Living Land

No. 10, between Shiogama city and Watari town), managed by

Figure 2: The tsunami hazard map for Sendai Miyagi Prefecture. The other is the Sendai-Tobu Road (the 24.8
before 11 March 2011 km long highway, a part of National Road No. 6), managed by
the Japanese central Government. It is interesting to know that
these two roads are located on the borders of assumed tsunami
events. The Shiogama-Watari Line (thick orange coloured solid
line) forms a border between the Level 1 and Level 2 areas, on a
6 m bank, which can be a tsunami barrier for Level 2 areas. The
Sendai-Tobu highway (thick blue coloured solid line) forms a part
of the upper border of the Level 2 area. Combined with these two
roads, Sendai city has newly revised its tsunami hazard map. These
road banks can also be used for evacuation during tsunami events.
The conceptual diagram in Figure 1 can be recognized in
Figure 4 for the 2011 tsunami hazard, which was too big for
people to escape from it:
(a) almost all exposures (people and properties) in the
vulnerable place were completely damaged
(b) exposures were assumed to be safe from the tsunami
because they were in safer places
(c) vulnerable places were damaged by liquefaction or land
subsidence, which affected agricultural lands (mainly
rice paddy fields) through salt water from the sea
(d) safer places were also damaged because the tsunami
Source: Geographical Survey Institute of Japan run-up height at some locations in the middle and
upstream of rivers was 40 m high.

Figure 3: The tsunami hazard map for Sendai after 11 March 2011

Source: Sendai City home page

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 Living Land

Figure 4: A conceptual explanation of disaster risk, Figure 5: Landslide occurrence around

hazard, exposure and vulnerability (interpretation Hiroshima city in June 1999
for a huge tsunami in Sendai)
100 Landslide occurred
No landslide
The critical line
Huge tsunami (Hazard) 80
(d)

Hourly rainfall (mm)

(b) (c) 60

40

(a)
Exposu

20
re
(p

op c
e
e

le , pl a 0
p ro p e r t y ) Vu l n e r a b l e 0 50 100 150 200 250
Safer place Effective cumulative rainfall (mm)

Source: Kaoru Takara Source: Ushiyama, Ohido and Takara, 2001

Figure 6: Part of the flood hazard map of the Yagi District in Hiroshima

Source: Hiroshima City home page. Note: The red arrow indicates the location of the second photo overleaf

Landslide and debris flow in Hiroshima using effective cumulative rainfall and hourly rainfall that
Hiroshima city was damaged by two landslide and debris triggered landslides (Figure 5).
flow events in 1999 and 2014. On 29 June 1999, a severe Immediately after this event, the Japanese central
storm event (50-200 mm during five days before the event) Government established the Act on Promotion of Sediment
caused a landslide and debris flow disaster that killed 32 Disaster Countermeasures for Sediment Disaster Prone Areas,
people and destroyed 101 houses mainly in Hiroshima which encouraged local governments to disseminate infor-
Prefecture. At that time we investigated how landslide and mation about possible sediment disasters caused by heavy
debris flow events took place in terms of rainfall character- rainfall-induced landslides and debris flows. Figure 6 is a part
istics and estimated the critical line for the Hiroshima area, of the flood hazard map of the Yagi District in Hiroshima.

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Asa-Minami-Ku, Hiroshima city. They show that residen-

Figure 7: A conceptual explanation of disaster risk, tial areas were still in vulnerable places and many houses
hazard, exposure and vulnerability (interpretation were seriously damaged. The flood hazard map in Figure
for landslide and debris flow in Hiroshima) 6 indicates the danger of sediment disaster. Readers can
easily identify the location of the second photo (below),
indicated by a red arrow.
Landslide and
debris flow (Hazard) The conceptual diagram in Figure 1 can be recognized in
Figure 7 for the 2015 landslide and debris flow hazard, which
was caused by very localized intensive rainstorm. Almost all
exposures (people and properties) were in vulnerable places.
Thus, two circles (exposures and vulnerable place) are very
Exp

(a) much overlapped as shown in part (a) in Figure 7.

o s u re ( p e o p

In addition to such a situation, it should be noted that

rainstorms hit the area after midnight when all the people
lac e were sleeping. The timing of the event also makes the disas-
ep
le,

ro
ter more serious. Holidays (Saturdays and Sundays) are also
bl

ra
p

pe
r ty) ne
Vu l weak points in terms of public services for emergency disas-
Safer place ter management.

Source: Kaoru Takara Lessons learned

Living land should be considered from the viewpoints of
disaster prevention and mitigation. Hazard maps give us
useful information about disaster risk in our society; but we
Note that this flood hazard map also indicates sediment disas- should also be careful of the conditions in which hazard maps
ter prone areas delineated by brown coloured lines. Note also are made. Disaster risk, depending on hazard, exposure and
that the areas include many houses. Residential areas have vulnerability, also depends on physiographical conditions:
been developed even in such vulnerable places. location, geology, meteorology and hydrology, as well as the
Fifteen years later, on 19-20 August 2014, a similar time of day or of the week and the season of the year.
event took place again in Hiroshima, killing 74 people In the discussion above, the author has denoted vulner-
and destroying 133 houses. Geological and meteorologi- ability mainly in terms of vulnerable place; however,
cal conditions in this area are characterized as weathered vulnerability also can be applied to people and societies.
granite that can easily become landslides and flow down as People and societies who are well educated regarding
debris, and more than 200 mm rainfall during three hours. hazards and disasters are less vulnerable and can adapt to
The photos are typical snapshots of sediment disasters in emergency situations in their daily life.

Images: Masahiro Chigira, Professor, DPRI, Kyoto University

Sediment disasters in Hiroshima; residential areas were in vulnerable places and many houses were seriously damaged (NB. location of right hand picture can
be identified by the red arrow within Figure 6)

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Australia prepares for a

cycle of extreme droughts
Professor Craig Simmons, Director, National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training, Australia

C
limate change projections do not augur well for Victoria and northern Tasmania was described by the
Australia, with forecasts of more severe droughts Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) as without historical prec-
for a sun-baked nation where water is already a edent. Temperatures were about 1 degree Celsius hotter
precious commodity. than previously recorded droughts and the duration —
from 1995 until 2012 in some areas — was the longest
The oldest continental landmass on Earth is also the driest ever known.
after Antarctica. It is characterized by a cycle of droughts Drought in Australia coincides with the cyclical weather
which parch the heavily weathered landscape eroded over pattern El Niño when a band of warm ocean water rises off
millions of years. About a third of the continent has so little the coast of South America and expands westward across
rain that it is effectively desert. Just over two-thirds of main- the Pacific Ocean to displace colder waters. This is associ-
land Australia receives less than 500 millimetres of rain a ated with decreased rainfall for Australia, very hot daytime
year and is classified as arid or semi-arid. As the planet temperatures and earlier, more extreme fire seasons.
warms, weather records across Australia are tumbling, with Nine of the ten driest winter-spring periods on record for
hotter, drier conditions over much of central and southern eastern Australia have occurred during El Niño years. In the
Australia. Climate scientists are worried that even less rain Murray-Darling basin — the so-called food bowl of Australia
will fall in future in the areas where it is needed most. — winter-spring rainfall during El Niño events since 1900
The so-called millennium drought which gripped averaged 28 per cent lower than the long-term average.
south-west Western Australia, south-east South Australia, The opposite phase of El Niño is La Niña when Australia
faces a higher risk of flooding, lower temperatures and
more tropical cyclones. Successive La Niña events during
Image: istock.com/BenGoode

2010-12 were associated with record rainfall over much of

Australia and some of the biggest floods in living memory.
As climate change takes hold, more extreme versions of
the El Niño Southern Oscillation cyclical weather pattern are
expected to result in more frequent flooding and drought.
Modelling of weather data by scientists at BoM and the
national science agency CSIRO shows that under projected
global warming scenarios Australia can expect ‘super’ El
Niños that are more intense, and that they are likely to occur
twice as often.
Their fears are already being realized. Just three years
after the official end of the millennium drought in 2012,
BoM declared a major new El Niño event. By mid-2015
Queensland was in the grip of an unprecedented drought
covering a record 80 per cent of the state. Rainfall was
also lower across large tracts of southern Australia
and western Tasmania.
Such extreme weather behaviour is in line with the latest
dire predictions from the United Nations Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). In its 2014 report, IPCC
said Australia could expect more frequent flooding in some
areas and severe drying in the Murray-Darling basin and in
south-western and south-eastern Australia. These are key
agricultural regions in arid and semi-arid areas and, if the
Various initiatives have been instigated to gauge Australia’s current and worst-case scenario is realized, production could fall by a
future water use and inform sustainable planning and management disturbing 40 per cent.

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Australia’s climate zones: just over two-thirds of mainland Australia is classified as arid or semi-arid

DARWIN
Major classification groups
Weipa Equatorial
Kalumburu Tropical
Katherine Subtropical
Kowanyama
Desert
Cairns Grassland
Halls Creek Temperate
Broome Normanton
Tennant
Creek Townsville
Port
Hedland Mount Isa

Telfer Mackay

Longreach
Newman Alice Springs Rockhampton
Giles
Birdsville
Carnarvon Charleville
Wiluna
Oodnadatta
BRISBANE
Marree
Geraldton Cook Bourke
Kalgoorlie-
Boulder Coffs
Port Harbour
Ceduna Augusta Dubbo
PERTH
Mildura
ADELAIDE SYDNEY
Esperance Port
Lincoln CANBERRA
Albany
Horsham

MELBOURNE
Orbost
Warrnambool

Cape Grim
Projection: Lambert conformal with standard parallels 10oS, 40oS.
St. Helens
Based on a modified Koeppen classification system
Strahan
Based on a standard 30-year climatology (1961-1990)
c Commonwealth of Australia, 2005
HOBART

Source: BoM

As the land dries and these regions become vulnerable to used in manufacturing. About 13 per cent is used for water
increased desertification, salinity becomes an even greater supplies in regional and metropolitan communities.
issue. Since European settlement, native land clearance, Pressure on Australia’s groundwater reserves is also inten-
farming and irrigation have created an imbalance in the sifying as the population increases. Australia has the fastest
hydrological cycle in many agricultural areas, with rising population growth of any major developed country due to
groundwater resulting in severe dryland salinity. immigration — and it shows no signs of slowing. Currently
In 2000, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) esti- standing at 24 million, ABS says Australia’s population could
mated that 5.7 million hectares of Australia was at high risk double to 48 million people by 2061.
of developing salinity. This could triple to about 17 million The key question that needs answering now is how such
hectares by 2050, seriously impacting agriculture, ecosys- rapid growth, combined with the uncertainty of climate
tems and infrastructure. change, will impact on our water systems and the countless
The vital role of groundwater in the Australian economy industrial, agricultural, community and environmental users
will become more critical as surface water becomes scarcer that rely on them. There are no large water sources still to be
in arid and semi-arid regions. Its importance was high- found in Australia, yet water use is expected to at least double
lighted in a 2014 report commissioned by the National by the middle of this century.
Centre for Groundwater Research and Training (NCGRT) Managing the cumulative environmental impact of multiple
in the first attempt to quantify its value. actions on the baseflow of rivers, springs, wetlands and other
The report, by Deloitte Access Economics, found that groundwater-dependent ecosystems is a huge challenge. The
groundwater helps earn the nation a conservatively estimated task becomes even more complex when a growing population
$A34 billion every year. It estimated annual groundwater and extreme weather patterns are added to the equation.
extraction at approximately 3,500 gigalitres, with 58 per cent An estimate widely accepted by scientists and policy-
used to grow food, 12 per cent for mining and 17 per cent makers is that groundwater directly supplies more than

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Image: istock.com/muchemistry
Managing the Murray-Darling basin

The Murray-Darling basin is the agricultural jewel in Australia’s vast,

mostly nutrient-poor land mass. Stretching over 1.06 million square
kilometres — 14 per cent of Australia — it delivers 40 per cent of the
nation’s total agricultural value worth about $A15 billion a year.
While it covers a wide range of climatic and natural environments,
most of the basin is classified as arid or semi-arid. Since the 1900s
extraction and diversion of water has fuelled industrial growth, but
at a cost. Considerable pressure has been placed on the natural
environment resulting in a deterioration in the health of the river
system. As such, it is extremely vulnerable to climate change.
As concern over its future mounted at the height of the millennium
drought, CSIRO was commissioned to oversee the largest ever
technical study of the basin. The 2007/08 Murray-Darling Basin
Sustainable Yields Project found that total flow at the Murray mouth
had been reduced by 61 per cent, causing it to cease flowing into the
sea 40 per cent of the time, compared to just 1 per cent before water
resource development. Heavy groundwater use in the basin was also
found to be unsustainable in seven out of 20 irrigated areas.
The Murray-Darling Basin Authority set out to address these
concerns in its historic national basin plan which was signed into
law in 2012. The plan aims to return a minimum 2,750 gigalitres a
year back to the river system and for the first time introduces a limit
on groundwater use across the basin with consistent management
arrangements for all groundwater resources.
Total groundwater sustainable diversion limits have been set at
3,334 gigalitres a year, which includes a potential 984-gigalitre
increase in the annual extraction limit from areas with relatively low
levels of development. There is no room for complacency if Australia is to protect its water
resources and resist further desertification

30 per cent of Australia’s consumptive use — and more Various other important initiatives have been instigated
than double this in Western Australia. But as surface water over the past decade, including the national Groundwater
supplies run critically low during drought, groundwater Action Plan to help explore knowledge gaps through
use increases significantly. extensive hydrogeological investigations, and groundwa-
While groundwater has vast potential and is recognized ter capacity-building through the establishment of the
as a major strategic asset, nobody has a clear idea of its NCGRT. The development of national modelling guidelines
exact size, how much recharge is occurring or how long it was another key part of a coordinated effort to help better
takes to recharge. The timescales involved in both recharge understand our groundwater systems.
and groundwater flow can be extremely long, stretching It is no coincidence that all these initiatives were put into
over hundreds of years to hundreds of thousands of years. place during the brutal millennium drought. This was a time
For Australia’s desert and arid regions, underground when floodplains dried and cracked and farmers watched
resources such as the Great Artesian Basin (GAB) provide their land transformed into dustbowls. The Murray-Darling
the only reliable source of fresh water. GAB is one of basin dropped to just 25 per cent of capacity, placing huge
the largest and deepest artesian basins in the world and stress on ecosystems and killing entire forests.
stretches over 1.7 million square kilometres. But as the Major cities faced the unthinkable prospect of water
demand for water grows, the worry is that drawdowns on supplies running out. This prompted massive capital
GAB and other essential water resources across Australia investment in large-scale desalination plants around the
may be irreversible. nation — plants that were soon idle as the drought broke
To help inform sustainable planning and management, to be replaced by floods.
the Australian Government directed CSIRO to undertake As the crisis eased so did the urgency for greater
robust scientific estimates of current and future water use knowledge and more effective management systems for
in most of the country’s major water systems. Between sustainable water use in future droughts. Policy impera-
2007 and 2010 sustainable yields projects were conducted tives and funding mirrored the peaks, ebbs and flows of
in four key regions: the Murray-Darling basin, northern our extreme weather.
Australia, Tasmania and south-west Western Australia. The National Water Commission, established during the
CSIRO scientists examined the likely changes to surface millennium drought, closed in December 2014. But that same
and groundwater availability during climate change, includ- summer more than 150 long-standing weather records were
ing various drying and wetting climate scenarios. It was a broken across Australia with new higher temperatures and
comprehensive scientific assessment of water yields and longer dry spells. There is clearly no room for complacency
provided an important analytical framework for national in Australia if we are to protect our water resources and resist
water policy decisions. further desertification.

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Research and achievements in combating

land degradation and desertification for
sustainable rural development
Satoshi Tobita, Takeshi Matsumoto, Yukio Okuda, Kenta Ikazaki and Akinori Oshibe,
Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences

T
he Japan International Research Center for Pasture-use planning in Mongolia
Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS) is a national Nomadism thrives in Mongolia through the utilization of its
research and development agency of Japan which vast natural grasslands, which account for approximately
plays a role in international collaboration in the field of 72 per cent of its land area. Nomads usually graze their
agriculture, forestry and fisheries research. One of its livestock while moving from pasture to pasture seasonally
research directions is the development of agricultural several times a year. It is said that Mongolia’s transition
technologies based on sustainable management of the from planned economy to market economy in the early
environment and natural resources in developing regions. 1990s has led unemployed people to become nomads and
caused a rapid increase in livestock herd size due to the
Under this direction, several projects have been implemented privatization and liberalization of livestock ownership.
to fight land degradation and desertification. There follow Furthermore, grasslands continue to experience extensive
some examples of JIRCAS’s achievements in Mongolia, and localized overgrazing due to uneven distribution of
Uzbekistan and Niger, which are the highest priority sites in usable wells and the concentration of nomads in nearby
the world in terms of land management. cities or around the main roads.

Image: T. Matsumoto

A vegetation survey on the pasture by nomads, to evaluate and estimate the degree of degradation and grazing capacity

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Image: T. Matsumoto
A group of nomads discusses the plan for the pasture they use at BaroonBayn-Ulaan soum

These factors lead to the degradation of grassland vegeta- regarding grazing in this pasture, pasture-related conflicts
tion, which is considered a major trigger for sandstorm between nomads of these soums, as well as vegetation
occurrence. To solve these problems, it is necessary to degradation, have occurred. To remedy the situation, we
realize comprehensive management and utilization of included in the pasture-use plans a rule for this pasture,
grasslands through planned pasture use suitable to their indicating that no grazing throughout all seasons using
conditions. In this regard, JIRCAS conducted a case study the whole area is allowed. This plan was discussed and
aimed at creating pasture-use plans with the autonomous confirmed by nomads of both soums.
participation of local nomads residing in the Taragt and These plans cannot be expected to deliver the anticipated
BaroonBayn-Ulaan soums (districts) in Ovorkhangai prov- outcome unless the nomads adopt them. To ensure their
ince in mid-south Mongolia. implementation, necessary procedures to formalize them
In Taragt soum, the grasslands had been used by the were taken at the People’s Assembly of each soum and at
native nomads in a traditional way. Recently, however, the regional villages (Bag). In cases where a plan extended
the frequency of nomadic movement on these grasslands across an adjacent soum, an agreement between the govern-
had decreased, causing permanent use of these pastures ments of these soums would be concluded and the role of
throughout the year and progressive localized overgraz- each soum would be clarified to allow smooth implementa-
ing. Degradation of the pastures used by nomads during tion of the plan.
winter had been particularly pronounced, and the necessity The adoption of these pasture-use plans resulted in an
to reduce it was pointed out. In making the pasture-use increase in the movement of the nomad population from
plans, we first divided all the nomads into groups that use one pasture to another from winter to summer or autumn in
the same winter pasture and conducted vegetation surveys Taragt soum, from 31 per cent in the year prior to the creation
for pastures in collaboration with each group. Thereafter, of plans to 52 per cent the following year, and 74 per cent the
we prepared the plans based on the reduction of local year after. Also, at BaroonBayn-Ulaan soum, with the conclu-
pasture load by widely dispersing grazing livestock through sion of agreements between governments, which had not been
increased frequency of movement from winter to summer done before, pasture utilization extending across neighbour-
or autumn pastures. ing soums was carried out according to the plan.
On the other hand, BaroonBayn-Ulaan soum is located in The procedures for creating the pasture-use plans, consul-
the Gobi Steppe region where conditions for grass growth tations or agreements, monitoring and evaluation after
are more severe; thus, the amount of grasses produced implementation were summarized in the guideline1 for
there has been constantly insufficient, making it is neces- drawing up the plans. We hope that this guideline will benefit
sary to graze traditionally in the pasture of the adjacent not only our study site in the Ovorkhangai province but also
soum. However, since there are no existing rules or plans other areas in Mongolia.

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Image: JIRCAS
Accumulation of salt on a wheat field in Oq-oltin District, Syrdarya Province, Uzbekistan (December 2010)
Image: JIRCAS

Salinity mitigation in Uzbekistan

The river basins of Amu-darya and Syr-darya flowing into
the Aral Sea in Central Asia have been developed through
the large-scale irrigation projects implemented there since
the middle of the twentieth century. Agricultural produc-
tivity has increased with those developments. In Central
Asia, Uzbekistan has the largest irrigated land area, cover-
ing more than 4.2 million hectares. The expansion of
irrigated agriculture, which was focused on cotton, wheat
and paddy rice, required large amounts of water; and the
dissolved salts in the irrigation water have accumulated on
the ground surface. The development of farming systems
has therefore unwittingly caused the advancement of salini-
zation. Excessive irrigation, leakage from decrepit irrigation
canals, and malfunctioning drainage systems have driven
up the groundwater level over the past decades. This rising
groundwater increases the probability of salts moving up
towards the surface through capillary action.
In parallel with farming system development, the
Uzbekistan Government has dedicated efforts and resources
to improve irrigated land conditions. A number of salin-
ity mitigation measures have been implemented, such as
repairing irrigation canals, cleaning drainage and leading
farmers in leaching activity to wash out the accumulated
salts from the fields, but they have been less effective in
High groundwater level (70 cm from surface) was observed in Oq-oltin some areas so that almost half of Uzbekistan’s land area
District, Syrdarya Province, Uzbekistan, on 21 March 2010 is still affected by salinization. In 2008, the Government

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Image: Dr K. Ikazaki
Sandstorm, a cause of wind erosion

established the Irrigated Land Reclamation Fund and salinization. The second discusses the necessity of monitor-
started a state programme to allocate funds for the construc- ing groundwater, the farmers’ monitoring method and the
tion or reconstruction of related facilities, repair works, results of monitoring in the field. The third shows the modi-
purchase of machinery and equipment and water-saving fied furrow irrigation methods and their effects. The fourth
technologies. While these activities work well in reduc- explains the necessity of land levelling and the farmers’
ing salinization, the continued use of excessive amounts efforts in pre-levelling work. The fifth points out the impor-
of irrigation water in actual farmlands expose them to tance of drainage maintenance and the farmers’ role in the
greater risk of salinization and rising groundwater levels. maintenance of drainage facilities. The sixth enumerates the
This farming activity renders the desalinization measures summer crops to be cultivated to generate funds for the miti-
ineffective. Therefore, JIRCAS started a research project gation measures, as well as the green manure crops for soil
which was supported by the Government and the Farmers’ fertility improvement. The last topic presents a trial calcula-
Council (FC) of Uzbekistan. It was focused on farmers’ tion for the costs and benefits of introducing each measure.
understanding of salinization and what countermeasures The guideline has been disseminated by the FC in relevant
can be applied. Studies and experiments have been imple- seminars in Uzbekistan.
mented to improve the technical aspects and to verify the Currently, JIRCAS is working on the establishment of
effects of the measures on actual farmers’ fields in Syr-darya methodologies for efficient groundwater control, such as
province, where the salinity-affected area is large. improving of the management of surplus infiltration water
As a result of the project, a guideline2 titled ‘On-farm miti- and monitoring soil and groundwater levels to estimate the
gation measures against salinization under high groundwater introduced methodology.
level conditions’ was published in February 2013. The guide-
line was translated into Russian and Uzbek languages, with a Improving soil fertility in the Sahel
simplified popular version in addition to the original one. It The Sahel of West Africa, the southern periphery of the
explains intelligibly to farmers the following topics: under- Sahara desert, is the most marginal land for agricultural
standing salinization; monitoring salinization; water-saving production in the world. The soils are very sandy and
irrigation; low-cost land levelling; drainage maintenance; infertile and the land is frequently afflicted by devastat-
crop rotation; and trial calculation of financial conditions. ing droughts, pests and diseases. Indigenous systems, like
The first topic describes the mechanism and classification of corralling and fallowing, were for a long time sufficient

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Outline and features of the Fallow Band System

Source: Courtesy of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan4

to maintain soil fertility for regional crop production. can be easily created by skipping the usual seeding and
However, owing to the recent population increase (more weeding. Pearl millet plants, a staple food in the Sahel,
than 3 per cent annually), together with failure of the were cultivated in other areas of the field in a conven-
corralling system and shortened fallow period, soil fertil- tional way. The fallow bands were also maintained in the
ity cannot be well sustained by these local practices and the next dry season, so they are expected to catch wind-blown
degradation of land productivity has resulted. Aiming at the materials containing a lot of nutrients. In the next rainy
improvement of soil fertility and expansion of crop produc- season, new fallow bands were made aside from the former
tion in the region, JIRCAS commenced a project based at bands towards the direction of the wind. Crops were culti-
Niamey, Niger, in collaboration with the International vated on the previous fallow bands as well as in other
Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and the areas of continuous cultivation. The pearl millet yield was
National Agricultural Research Institute of Niger in 2003. estimated to be increased by 36 per cent to 81 per cent,
The goal was to develop technology options through inves- compared with the area where the fallow band system was
tigating more efficient use of plant resources, considering not applied. Also, wind erosion was reduced by about 70
the biological and physical functions of fallow plants and per cent on a whole-field basis. This ‘no labour, no cost’
lands, and incorporating well-adapted leguminous crops practice has been rapidly disseminated to farmers in the
into the cropping systems. The developed technology Sahel through local communities in follow-up activities by
options were evaluated for adoption by local farmers in the Japan International Cooperation Agency.
on-farm participatory trials. We have also studied ways to improve the quality of the
The project focused on wind-blown materials and their fallow band, by enhancing native fallow plants which can
fates, as wind erosion is a major cause of the loss of rela- fix more nitrogen from the air through biological nitrogen
tively fertile surface soils/sediments in the Sahel. A new fixation — for instance, a promising annual leguminous
agricultural practice, called the Fallow Band System, was Cassia mimosoides.
proposed and verified for the maintenance of soil fertility JIRCAS is also currently conducting research activities in
in the field.3 Five-metre wide fallow bands were arranged at the savannah of West Africa (Ghana and Burkina Faso), on
a right angle to the direction of erosive storms (east wind) applicable technology options of conservation agriculture to
in a cultivated field during the rainy season. Fallow bands minimize arable land degradation and to enhance soil fertility.

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Earth Observation approaches to

sustainable land management in drylands:
experiences from the European Space Agency
Marc Paganini, Anna Burzykowska and Frank Martin Seifert, European Space Agency;
Ute Gangkofner, GeoVille; and Thomas Häusler, GAF AG

T
he European Space Agency (ESA) has been collab- records of key parameters of the Earth System. The objective
orating with the United Nations Convention to is to provide long-term and accurate satellite-based measures
Combat Desertification (UNCCD) since the World of Essential Climate Variables (ECVs) that have been defined
Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002, develop- by the Global Climate Observing System to serve the data
ing and delivering Earth Observation (EO) solutions that needs of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in
can be used, with little adaptation, by UNCCD parties to its assessment of the state and evolution of the climate system.
better combat desertification and land degradation and The ECVs include a number of terrestrial variables, such as
mitigate their effects for the benefit of local communities land cover, which it is essential to monitor for the modelling
and in particular poor rural societies. of carbon and water cycles. The ESA CCI has produced a set of
consistent global land cover maps at 300 m spatial resolution
The approach taken by ESA responds to the strategic objec- for the epochs 2000, 2005 and 2010 and is currently extend-
tives of the convention with the provision of EO solutions that ing the temporal series to the years 1990 and 2015 (see case
can improve both the living conditions of affected populations study). These global land cover data sets have been provided
and the conditions of the ecosystems they depend on. Global to UNCCD and constitute an excellent baseline for countries
approaches are needed to deliver consistent data to support when measuring changes in land cover and stratifying their
national assessments and reporting, while local approaches are national assessment on land degradation.
essential to respond to the specificities of rural communities Monitoring trends in land productivity is a necessity for coun-
who are facing different land degradation realities. The exam- tries that face the adverse conditions of living in drylands and
ples shown below address both global and local EO approaches is one of the UNCCD indicators to track progress in improving
to sustainable land management in drylands. the conditions of ecosystems. EO approaches for measuring
land productivity at global scale have been developed but have
Global EO data sets and approaches for national to deal with the complexity of phenomena. Best solutions are
assessment and reporting on land degradation based on time series of proxies of Net Primary Productivity,
During its eighth session in Madrid in 2007, the UNCCD a measure of the net flux of carbon from the atmosphere into
Conference of the Parties adopted a 10-year strategic plan organic matters and a fundamental ecological variable that indi-
elaborated around three strategic objectives that include, as cates the conditions of healthy or degraded land.
the second objective, the goal to improve the conditions of The ESA Diversity II project has developed an innovative
affected ecosystems. A number of indicators were developed method based on the inter- and intra-annual fluctuations of
and refined along the years, resulting in 2013 with the adop- Fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation
tion of six global indicators, comprehensively called progress (fAPAR), a physical parameter that measures the ability of
indicators. The indicators adopted to monitor the conditions vegetation to absorb the energy of the solar radiation and
of ecosystems are the ‘trends in land cover’ and the ‘trends in generate green leaf biomass. fAPAR is one of the biophysical
land productivity and functioning of the land’. These global variables that can best monitor plant productive capacity in
indicators were accompanied by the necessity to develop terrestrial ecosystems. Satellite-based fAPAR time series were
mechanisms to encourage parties to develop their national analysed to extract a number of phenological parameters
indicators. This requires the development of cost-effective and (such as the start and end of the vegetation year, growing
scientifically sound global solutions that can be adapted to and dry seasons) and to compute productivity parameters
national specificities. by integrating fAPAR values during the different vegetation
ESA has a long-standing experience in developing global periods. By analysing their fluctuations through the years,
and consistent data sets from EO missions. One of ESA’s a set of indicators on the conditions of the ecosystems and
most recent and ambitious programmes is its Climate Change on trends in productivity can be derived. These indicators
Initiative (CCI) that aims at producing long-term climate data can be used to analyse specific land degradation phenomena

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Case study: Global land cover mapping

Cropland, rainfed
Cropland irrigated/post-flooding
Mosaic cropland/vegetation
Mosaic vegetation/cropland
Tree broadleaved evergreen
Tree broadleaved deciduous
Tree needleleaved evergreen
Tree needleleaved deciduous
Tree mixed leaf type
Mosaic tree, Shrub/HC
Mosaic HC/tree, shrub
Cropland, rainfed
Shrubland
Cropland irrigated/post-flooding
Grassland
Mosaic cropland/vegetation
Lichens and mosses
Mosaic vegetation
Sparse vegetation/cropland
Tree broadleaved
flooded, freshevergreen
water
Tree broadleaved deciduous
flooded, saline water
Tree
Shrubneedleleaved
or herbacaousevergreen
flooded
Tree
Urbanneedleleaved
areas deciduous
Tree
Bare mixed
areas leaf type
Mosaic tree, Shrub/HC
Water bodies
Mosaic HC/tree,
Permanent snowshrub
and ice
Shrubland
Grassland
Lichens and mosses
Sparse vegetation
Tree flooded, fresh water
Tree flooded, saline water
Shrub or herbacaous flooded
Urban areas
Bare areas
Water bodies
Permanent snow and ice

The 2010 Global Land Cover map

The ESA CCI has produced a three-epoch series of global land cover maps at 300 m resolution (2000, 2005 and 2010). The land cover maps follow a
legend based on the United Nations Land Cover Classification System with 22 high-level classes for global use and 14 subclasses for regional adaptation.

Source: ESA CCI Land Cover project/Université Catholique de Louvain

such as bush encroachment, a major rangeland problem in land productivity, detecting decreased productivity due to diseases
south-west Africa (see case study). or reduction of water; mapping crop areas and types, estimating
the conversion of natural resources into agricultural lands and
Partnering with international financing institutions for assessing impact such as degradation of ecosystems; collecting
sustainable land practices in developing countries statistics on crop production, providing yield estimations using
Since 2008, ESA has taken important steps to showcase the agrometeorological modelling; estimating land suitability for
potential of satellite observations to support sustainable devel- optimum land use, reducing risks such as soil erosion; helping
opment initiatives in developing countries by international management of water resources, monitoring availability of surface
financing institutions (IFIs) and multilateral development waters and estimating water needs and use for irrigated crops;
banks such as the World Bank, the United Nations International supporting climate resilience and adaptation strategies and assess-
Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and recently the ing impact of climate change on natural resources.
Asian Development Bank and the Global Environment Facility. A joint ESA-IFAD project developed a Land Erosion Risk
EO methods have proven to be important tools for the sustaina- indicator in Niger, which together with information on land
ble management of lands in water-scarce environments: assessing use changes allowed the assessment of agricultural practices,

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Case study: Bush encroachment in Namibia

1 Colophospermum mopane (2,500/ha)

2 Acacia reficiens (3,000/ha)
3 Acacia mellifera (2,000/ha)
4 Colophospermum mopane (4,000/ha)
5 Acacia mellifera (8,000/ha)
6 Acacia mellifera (4,000/ha)
7 Dichrostachys cinerea (10,000/ha)
8 Acacia mellifera (5,000/ha)
9 Terminall cericea (8,000/ha)
10 Rhigozum trichotomum (2,000/ha)

Areas affected by bush encroachment in Namibia (left); Trends (2002-2013) of Dry Season fAPAR (right)
Image (left): Bester, F.V. (1998), Major Problem — Bush species and densities in Namibia. Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development, Namibia

The phenomenon of bush encroachment is a major threat for the vegetation greenness during the dry seasons for the years 2002 to 2012
livelihood of many people. Once densely established, bush species that matches well the areas known to be subject of bush encroachment.
block grass growth and prevent the cattle from grazing. The image The Dry Season fAPAR trends, together with land cover changes and
shows the major areas affected by bush encroachment in Namibia. rainfall trends, constitute a wealth of information for assessing bush
The ESA Diversity II project evidenced some gradients of increasing encroachment in the region.

Source: ESA Diversity II project/GeoVille

analysis of environmental impacts of development projects,

and supported the elaboration of irrigation and climate change Case study: Erosion risk indicator for the
adaptation scenarios (see case study). Maradi region, Niger

From bottom: slope, slope

The importance of monitoring dry forests aspect, drainage system,
ESA has been an accredited observer organization of the land use/land cover map and
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change erosion risk indicator
(UNFCCC) since 2001, providing EO solutions for systematic
The predominance of crop and
observations of the environment, long time series of essential livestock farming and poor
climate variables and monitoring of forests to support climate diversification make Niger’s
mitigation activities like REDD+. economy very vulnerable to
climate and market changes.
Reducing emissions from deforestation, forest degrada- An erosion risk indicator
tion, conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks was produced for the
and sustainable management of forests (REDD+) has mainly Maradi region, based on
concerned humid tropical forests due to their high carbon content, a combination of digital
elevation model, land use/
putting aside dry forests and woodlands despite their importance land cover maps and
as carbon sinks. Recently more emphasis has been put on dry meteorological data.
forests to develop dedicated forest monitoring, reporting and The risk of erosion
increases from north
verification approaches relevant to REDD+. In Africa dry forests to south, due to fewer
occur predominantly in sub-Saharan regions where they cover 2.4 precipitations with less
million km2. Population pressure for agricultural land, fuel wood intensity in the north. Areas
and timber extraction leads to some of the highest deforestation with high slopes increase the
risk of erosion, as detected in
rates, with negative impacts on biodiversity, soil fertility and water several small Wadis.
availability, as well as on the livelihoods of local people.
An ESA-funded project on dry forests developed a methodol- Source: GAF AG, ESA and IFAD

ogy to efficiently map dry forests in Southern Africa based on a

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flexible monitoring system that analyses multitemporal data over

the year (see case study). Case study: Dry forest mapping in the
Miombo woodlands
Conclusions
The importance of global and sustained EO for monitoring IF - Intact Forest 1990-2010
dryland conditions has been stressed by all UNCCD stakehold- NF - Non-Forest 1990-2010
NIF - Non-Intact Forest 1990-2010
ers. The availability of long-term series of historical satellite Zambia IF 1990 to NIF 2000/2010
observations allows us to measure trends of global indicators IF 2000 to NIF 2010
such as land cover and land productivity that are essential to
Malawi
assess land degradation and plan rehabilitation of degraded lands.
The use of satellite information also provides opportunities for
the development and verification of sustainable land practices
in marginal rain-fed lands. As stated by an IFAD officer, “Poor
rural people are on the front line of climate change impacts. The
ecosystems on which they rely are increasingly degraded, their
access to suitable agricultural land is declining, and their forest
resources are increasingly restricted.” EOs provide accurate and
consistent information that can support strategic planning and
deliver quality solutions to these local rural communities. Status of the Miombo forests between Zambia and Malawi
ESA will continue to develop innovative EO solutions that
support the collaborative efforts to achieve land degradation The Miombo woodlands with their varying phenology related to
dry and rainy seasons have been identified as a priority ecozone
neutrality. This starts by empowering developing countries because of their unique endemism.
with knowledge and skills on how to use EOs for a sustainable The image shows the status of the Miombo forests between
management of their soil, water and biodiversity. Europe recently Zambia and Malawi, and the changes between three epochs (1990,
launched the first Sentinel satellites of its flagship Copernicus 2000 and 2010).
The Miombo forests are widely harvested to provide fuelwood
initiative, which will provide free and open access to satellite infor- and to be converted in agricultural lands. The loss of dry forests are
mation to protect the environment, mitigate the effects of climate shown in orange (1990 to 2000) and red (2000 to 2010).
change and ensure a sustainable use of natural resources. ESA will
pursue the collaboration with the Rio Conventions and the IFIs Source: ESA GSE Forest Monitoring project/GAF AG

to mainstream the use of EOs within sustainable land practices.

Case study: Irrigated agriculture observed by Sentinel 2

A Sentinel 2 false-colour image showing agricultural structures near Tubarjal, Saudi Arabia, characterized by a central-pivot irrigation system

Despite the benefits that irrigated crops bring to local communities, The Sentinel-2 mission, whose first satellite was launched in June 2015, will
some environmental issues exist such as depletion of water deliver high-resolution optical images of all land surfaces. The five-day revisiting
resources, soil erosion, run-off of chemicals, salinization of the soil together its 10 m resolution and its high spectral content make Sentinel 2 an
and drainage of nutrients. essential tool for monitoring agricultural practices such as irrigated crops.

Source: Copernicus Sentinel data (2015)

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Satellite laser altimetry: a powerful tool to

enhance the capability of global forest inventory
Yoshiki Yamagata, Masato Hayashi and Habura Borjigin, National Institute
for Environmental Studies, Center for Global Environmental Research, Japan

G
lobal forest inventory is required for Reducing years to prevent global warming resulting from deforestation.
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Large-scale deforestation and forest degradation decreases the
Degradation (REDD+) implementations. However, water-holding capacity of soil, and it is one of the principal
conventional methods depending on field measurements are causes of desertification. Therefore, REDD+ is also effec-
extremely labour-intensive. Satellite laser altimetry can make tive for combating desertification. The national report for
it possible to efficiently collect enormous measurement data REDD+ implementations requires the measurement of activ-
about forest carbon stocks without in-situ measurements. As ity data (extent of deforestation activities) and the emission
a result of verification in Borneo, laser altimetry was shown factor (greenhouse gas emissions per unit area). The emis-
to successfully and accurately measure canopy height and sion factor is classified into three levels of complexity, from
forest biomass. Furthermore, laser altimetry could be used Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change default values
to estimate the rate of forest loss, the distribution of forest (Tier 1) to precise values based on a national forest inventory
biomass, and the total amount of biomass in Borneo. (Tier 3). A higher tier can result in a more accurate carbon
budget estimation, but it may generally require labour-inten-
Among various ecosystem services of forests, the regulating sive field measurements. Therefore, if satellite remote-sensing
services such as carbon storage have attracted public atten- can serve as a substitute or assistance for forest inventory,
tion, because they could contribute to mitigating climate it will be extremely valuable to REDD+ implementations by
change. The REDD+ scheme has been developed in recent reducing costs and labour.
For the estimation of forest carbon stocks using remote-
sensing technology, estimating forest biomass is usually
adopted as a substitute. Biomass represents the dry weight of
A schematic illustration of observations by trees and about half of it is carbon weight. Therefore, forest
satellite laser altimetry biomass can be easily converted into forest carbon stocks.
However, measuring belowground (root) biomass is difficult
for remote-sensing technology, so the aboveground biomass
500 (AGB) is usually adopted as a measuring object.
In remote-sensing technology, various sensors are used
on-board satellites. An optical imaging sensor is the most
400 orthodox sensor and has a long history; however, an accurate
estimation of forest biomass cannot be expected. Synthetic
aperture radar is a sensor using radio waves (microwaves) and
300 has an ability to measure forest biomass, but it has a weakness
in that the sensitivity is saturated in high-biomass forests over
Signal start 150 t/ha. Laser altimetry, which is also called light detection
200 and ranging or LiDAR, is a sensor using laser beams, and it
can accurately measure forest biomass without signal satura-
tion. However, its weakness is that it cannot fully observe a
large area because its observation points are discrete.
100
The only satellite laser altimetry so far has been the Ice
Signal end Cloud and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat)/Geoscience Laser
Altimeter System (GLAS), operated by NASA from 2003 to
0
2009. GLAS transmitted laser pulses with a frequency of 40
0 50 100 150
LiDAR Return
Hz, and its footprints were spaced at intervals of 172 m on
the ground along ICESat’s orbital track. The footprint was
Source: CGER elliptical with a 60 m nominal diameter, but the size varied
according to the observation period. The GLAS observations

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The distribution of GLAS footprints in Borneo A forest biomass map of Borneo (500-m resolution)

Aboveground biomass
SRTM elevation

Source: CGER Source: CGER

covered latitudes between 86°N and 86°S globally. The laser’s 4 m for canopy height, and 38.7 t/ha for AGB. Among the
return pulse was detected by a telescope on-board ICESat. field-measurement sites, there was a rich forest where tree
GLAS recorded the changes in laser energy intensity as a height was 30 m and AGB was 300 t/ha. However, accuracy
waveform, and the waveform contained information on the remained high even in such a forest.
vertical structure of forests. At flat areas, the height differ- We applied the estimation models of canopy height and
ence between signal start and signal end corresponded to the AGB to the GLAS data in the whole of Borneo. After exclud-
maximum canopy height within the footprint. If a waveform ing data on cloud-covered measurements and non-forested
was bulky at high elevation, the observation was considered areas, we obtained 127,862 data points that were valid for the
to have been made at a high-biomass forest because it meant analysis. Field measurements at 127,862 plots would require
a large reflectance from the canopy level. In this way, many a great deal of labour, so using satellite data is an efficient
studies have been conducted to analyse the GLAS waveform method for collecting information on forest resources. The
to estimate canopy height and AGB. results of estimating canopy height and AGB from the GLAS
We developed a methodology to estimate canopy height and data showed that the average canopy height was 17.3 m, and
AGB using GLAS data, and evaluated its performance. A technol- the average AGB was 191.8 t/ha over Borneo. Furthermore,
ogy to accurately measure canopy height or AGB using satellite we created AGB histograms for each province to compare
data will make it possible to acquire enormous amounts of data the distribution of forest resources. In Brunei Darussalam,
on forest resources without labour-intensive in-situ measure- the forests were found to have high AGB because of the
ments. The study area was Borneo. The tropical forests in Borneo many forest reserves. The forests in Kalimantan Utara and
have a considerable canopy height and are rich in biomass even Kalimantan Timur, in the eastern part of Borneo, also had
on a global scale, and also rich in biodiversity with many rare a high AGB. By contrast, in Kalimantan Barat, Kalimantan
animals and plants. However, the area of forests in Borneo has Tengah and Kalimantan Selatan, in the southern part of
been rapidly decreasing in recent years because of forest fires, Borneo, relatively low-AGB forests were found. Finally, in
oil palm plantation development and so on. Therefore, Borneo Sabah and Sarawak, in the Malaysian part of Borneo, forests
attracts attention from REDD+ implementations. with a wide range of AGB were distributed.
We collected field-measurement data of canopy height and Next, we divided the GLAS data into two groups accord-
AGB in 37 plots which coincided with the GLAS footprints. ing to their observation period, and we estimated the rate
We used the data as reference data to examine the relation- of forest loss between the two periods by identifying GLAS
ships between some parameters of GLAS waveform shape data for non-forested areas (estimated canopy height < 2
and canopy height or AGB. These relationships could be m). As a result, the forest loss rate was 2.4 per cent per
used to estimate canopy height and AGB from GLAS data. year during three years from 2004 to 2007. The rate in the
The estimation accuracies (root-mean-square errors) were Malaysian part of Borneo was 1.4 per cent per year and

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Histograms of aboveground biomass for each province in Borneo

Sarawak Sabah Brunei Darussalam

6% Average = 179 t/ha 6% Average = 183 t/ha 6% Average = 208 t/ha
Relative frequency

Relative frequency

Relative frequency
5% 5% 5%
4% 4% 4%
3% 3% 3%
2% 2% 2%
1% 1% 1%
0% 0% 0%
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Aboveground biomass (t/ha) Aboveground biomass (t/ha) Aboveground biomass (t/ha)

Kalimantan Barat Kalimantan Utara

6% Average = 182 t/ha 6% Average = 233 t/ha
Relative frequency

Relative frequency
5% 5%
4% 4%
3% 3%
2% 2%
1% 1%
0% 0%
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Aboveground biomass (t/ha) Aboveground biomass (t/ha)

Kalimantan Tengah Kali Kalimantan Timur

6% Average = 184 t/ha 6% Average = 166 t/ha 6% Average = 195 t/ha
Relative frequency

Relative frequency

Relative frequency
5% 5% 5%
4% 4% 4%
3% 3% 3%
2% 2% 2%
1% 1% 1%
0% 0% 0%
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Aboveground biomass (t/ha) Aboveground biomass (t/ha) Aboveground biomass (t/ha)

Source: CGER

that in the Indonesian part of Borneo was 2.9 per cent per areas. However, GLAS data can be used as reference data for
year. These values are a little higher than those found in developing a wall-to-wall forest biomass map using optical
most previous studies. A possible reason is an increased satellite imagery. We combined GLAS data with Moderate
frequency of fires caused by droughts related to El Niño, Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) imagery,
which occurred in 2006. The forest fire frequency in the which is an optical imagery sensor making high-frequency
Indonesian part of Borneo was much higher than in the observations. High-biomass forests were found to be distrib-
Malaysian part, which might have increased the rate of uted along the backbone of the Bornean mountains. Such a
forest loss in the Indonesian part. map can make it possible to understand the detailed distri-
Next, we estimated the total AGB in Borneo. To do so, we bution of forest resources.
calculated the average GLAS-estimated AGB for each prov- In this way, satellite laser altimetry can provide enormous
ince and for each forest type, multiplied them by the area amounts of data for the efficient and accurate estimation of
of each category (forest type and province) and summed canopy height and forest biomass without in-situ measure-
them up. As a result, AGB in Borneo totalled 10.3 billion ments. It will be able to bring about a revolution in global
tons. This value corresponds to 2.1 per cent of the total forest inventory. Since ICESat ceased operation in 2009,
AGB on the Earth, according to the Food and Agriculture there has been no satellite laser altimetry system capable of
Organization of the United Nations Global Forest Resources observing land surfaces. However, ICESat-2 is scheduled to be
Assessment 2010. Borneo occupies only 0.5 per cent of the launched in 2017, and there are plans to mount laser altim-
global land area, so we can understand that the Bornean etry systems for forest observation on the International Space
forest stock has a high biomass. Station. These next-generation satellite laser altimetry systems
GLAS observed only discrete points along the track, will play an important role in global forest resources monitor-
therefore it could not make a complete observation of large ing in the future.

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Enabling investments in
sustainable rangeland management
G. Metternicht, University of New South Wales Australia, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences
and Dryland Ecosystems Thematic Group, IUCN; P. Laban, Dryland Ecosystems Thematic Group,
International Union for Conservation of Nature Commission on Ecosystem Management; J. Davies and C. Ogali,
International Union for Conservation of Nature Global Drylands Initiative

R
angelands are places of important biodiversity order to feed the current population and future genera-
and ecosystem services that occupy up to a tions. 2 This is likely to place more pressure on existing
half of the Earth’s landmasses and up to three resources, leading to conversion of forest and rangeland to
quarters of the world’s drylands,1 providing benefits cropland, and consequent risk of land degradation. Land
to local communities, to national economies and to use conversion and land cover change have been identified
global society. Desertification and land degradation as the leading factors in land degradation and desertifi-
significantly affect rangelands, and in many countries cation. 3 Proximate causes of land degradation such as
measures to address rangeland degradation are weak or overexploitation for agriculture and extractive activities
absent. Furthermore, integrated assessment of range- have a number of common roots. Fundamental social or
land health status is absent in most countries and this biophysical processes underpin the proximate causes of
is contributing to inappropriate investments and poli- land degradation and desertification, which are immedi-
cies that in turn can lead to desertification and poverty. ate human or biophysical actions with a direct impact on
dryland cover.4
Current projections establish that we need at least 70-100 Despite weak evidence in many countries, there is wide-
per cent greater food production from existing land in spread (though not universal) belief that overgrazing is a

Images: Abu-Zanat

Left, Hima Bani Hashem, Zarqa Governorate and (right) a Bedouin herder in the Hima Iyra Range Reserve, Salt Governorate

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Sustainable rangeland management Multiple benefits of sustainably managed rangelands

SRM should focus on enhancing the resilience of rangeland ecosystems

in view of the high variability and unpredictability of precipitation,
which is likely to be exacerbated by climate change. Much can be
learned from local customary practices that have developed indigenous
Food security
livestock breeds and management systems, which demonstrate
remarkable adaptation and tolerance and are often critical to the Economic
efficiency of the system. Indeed, a frequent feature of indigenous Biodiversity growth and
conservation poverty
SRM technologies is their orientation towards ensuring productivity
reduction
in the worst years rather than maximizing on the good years. In lands
where drought is the norm rather than the exception this is a logical
adaptation and is central to resilient rangeland livelihoods. However, Sustainable
this age-old ecological insight can be easily jeopardized by a myopic Carbon rangeland Maintaining
sequestration management hydrological
focus on maximizing production in the short-term, and especially cycles and
and climate
through use of unsuitable land use and cropping strategies. change protecting
mitigation watersheds

Climate
Disaster risk
change
leading cause of land degradation. In practice overgraz- reduction
adaptation
ing is poorly understood and frequently misrepresented,
and in a number of cases under-grazing is an equally
important issue. Many rangeland ecosystems depend on
herbivore action to maintain specific plant communities Source: Adapted from McGahey et al, 201412

and when this action is disrupted, degradation processes

can be triggered. Grazing mismanagement practices are
a common outcome when herd management and seasonal
herd movements are restricted. Policies and strategies of Recent studies have suggested that soil carbon manage-
sedenterization, the loss of transhumance corridors, or ment presents the most cost-effective climate change
inappropriate location of water points contribute to this mitigation option. 8 Rangelands (including grasslands,
outcome. Such mismanagement can become common prac- shrublands, deserts and tundra) contain more than a
tice across a rangeland landscape when small but critical third of all the terrestrial above-ground and below-ground
resource patches are rendered inaccessible (for example carbon reserves. 9 With improved rangeland management
dry-season grazing areas converted to croplands, or forest they could potentially sequester a further 1,300-2,000
patches fenced off to create protected areas).5 MtCO2e by 2030.10 This is confirmed by research estimat-
Sustainable land management (SLM) plays a vital role ing that 51 per cent of the global 2011 net carbon sink
in halting land degradation and in rehabilitating degraded was attributed to the three Southern Hemisphere semi-
lands. Many countries face the challenge of maintain- arid regions. The higher turnover rates of carbon pools in
ing long-term productivity of ecosystem functions while semi-arid areas make rangeland ecosystem dynamics an
increasing productivity of food and other ecosystem increasingly important driver of global carbon cycle inter-
services. This also applies to sustainable range management annual variability.11
(SRM), a term we adopt to cater for the specific conditions Good practices in rangeland management thus offer
of rangelands. win-win situations for simultaneous economic, social and
Sustainably managed rangelands can also deliver impor- environmental benefits. Moreover, sustainable land manage-
tant benefits through ecosystem services — such as water ment in rangelands has the potential to provide multiple
cycling or climate regulation — which have knock-on effects benefits not only to communities that directly depend on
on populations locally and externally. Improved rangeland rangelands but also to others: neighbouring rural commu-
hydrological cycles lead to better infiltration of water and nities, urban centres and global society. At the same time
reduced surface flow, which contribute to fewer floods and sustainable range management can be an important vehicle
lower risk of drought. Indeed each action that takes place in to contribute to land degradation neutrality (LDN).
the rangelands has an impact on surface and groundwater.6 In the many cases where pastoralism is practiced unsus-
The hydrological cycle in rangelands can be characterized as tainably, the common response is to intensify land use,
providing irregular water inputs that are dependent on irreg- notably by converting rangeland to croplands. However,
ular rainfall patterns and, in general, regular water outputs land use intensification is driving investments away from
in the form of regular flows of surface and groundwater. On the multiplicity of benefits from ecosystem services towards
the basis of these water outputs other ecosystem services a narrower focus on single benefit streams. At the same
can be provided as a function of the health of a rangeland time, such conversion bears the multiple costs of land
ecosystem.7 These can include higher biodiversity, soil fertil- degradation, degradation of watersheds, reduced biodi-
ity, carbon sequestration, quality of drinking water and its versity, increased poverty, social inequity and release of
health benefits, and maintenance of rangeland products like greenhouse gasses, as well as concomitant costs of land and
fodder that are the basis of the pastoral economy. biodiversity restoration or rehabilitation.

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The world’s rangelands

Rangelands
Desert
Grassland
Shrubland
Woodland and Savanna
Tundra
Non-rangelands
Forest
Lakes
Rocks and ice

There is considerable disagreement over how rangelands should be defined which leads to divergent estimates of their extent. According to the World
Resources Institute (1986) rangelands cover 51 per cent of the total land area of the world. This shows that rangelands are not confined only to
drylands, but the majority of rangelands are in drylands and the majority of drylands are rangelands.

Source: Society for Range Management13

Sustainable management of rangelands requires innova- An alternative approach is indeed needed that focuses
tive solutions to manage the high levels of climatic risk on the optimization of investment returns in a variety of
that are experienced over these landscapes and to address ecosystem services through greater capture of local bene-
the many other unique features of dryland ecology. While fits and reward for positive externalities. Advancing this
such innovations are often found in customary manage- investment approach requires improved local governance,
ment practices, these practices have often been undermined stronger consultation with rangeland users, better informed
by inadequate development and policy interventions. decision-making and the facilitation of financial flows,
Re-enabling customary practices and supporting them to possibly through payment for ecosystem services (PES) or
adapt and flourish in a modern economy is central to SRM. other compensation for environmental benefits. Progress
Local institutions are vital for rangeland development and towards these targets requires greater motivation within
effective solutions tend to be grounded in improvements in government agencies in particular, to establish enabling
local governance and communal resource rights. investments for sustainable growth, and also within the
This approach to SRM requires a rethinking of orthodox private sector to strengthen value chains and to target
investment paradigms and the role of the private sector. Local appropriate asset investments.
rangeland users already invest heavily in terms of labour and Priorities for intervention include strengthening commu-
social capital to produce a wide array of environmental and nal management of rangeland resources through the revival
economic benefits; new investments should be responsive to and strengthening of local institutions, adaptation of
these existing investments and the risk management strate- traditional governance practices according to the chang-
gies of these local rangeland users. Innovation is needed ing environmental and political context, and more secure
in designing clever investment options and capturing the communal resource management rights.
interest of investor groups to provide appropriate rangeland It is also important to improve local decision-making
management solutions. Moreover, enabling investments may in the rangelands; better informed decision-making can
be required to establish conditions for improved asset invest- be achieved through more inclusive, stronger participa-
ment and to put in place necessary safeguards. tion of local rangeland users in public planning, improved

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Linking local range governance to productive SRM investments and PES

Jordan society benefits

Direct local benefits Higher GDP and biodiversity
Improved rural livelihoods Impact Strengthened rural economy
Jobs and income Higher ground water
Sustained range ecosystems Impact Recharge and reduced
Reservoir siltation

Impact

Direct local investments in SRM Enabling investments in SRM

Hima grazing Mgt.; Local governance
S&WC; MARPS Local PES Value chain development
Ecol. Livestock Prod Institutional and regulatory
Local eco tourism frameworks

Local PES Local PES

Financing investments in SRM

International PES Renewable energy
Eco-tourism
(livestock)
Jordan’s contribution to global
International environmental funding society benefits
GM/UNCCD Climate change adaption
Rationale and mitigation
GEF – UNDP
Green water credits Soil carbon sequestration
Biodiversity
LDN and DRR

In Jordan, the International Union for Conservation of Nature Regional rangeland restoration can amount to JD15 million (US$21.5 million) per
Office for West Asia and the Ministry of Agriculture have engaged year for roughly 30 per cent of the rangelands, if sustainably managed.
with key relevant stakeholders in more detailed studies on rangeland This value does not yet consider other resulting ecosystem benefits such
investment options. This has led to proposals for investments in SRM as increased biodiversity and carbon sequestration.
such as ecological livestock and medicinal plant production, ‘Hima’ The proposed investment packages have high potential to create local
grazing management and soil, carbon and water (SCW) conservation as and societal ecosystem benefits. By implementing them Jordan can
well as in ecotourism and renewable energies. also contribute to ecosystem benefits at the global society level, such
In order to create long-term impact and sustainability, this study as biodiversity conservation, climate change adaptation and mitigation
emphasizes close participation and management ownership of local and LDN. Such contributions need to be rewarded, and global PES
range users. It is argued that this will require important investments could provide a platform for this. Engaging in promising investments
in appropriate local governance structures. Where most of the above such as in ecotourism and renewable energy could provide the vehicle,
mentioned investments can be economically viable, others such as in through taxation and licensing, for country-level PES modalities. Both
SCW conservation and local governance may be more difficult to finance. PES modalities could provide the financing flows needed to invest in
Economic valuation studies have indicated that in Jordan, the value of SCW conservation and in required local governance structures.

Source: Laban, 201514

coordination between public sectors for more integrated, It is important to leverage appropriate investments in SRM.
responsive and sustainable development, and through Greater investments can be generated through awareness-raising
participatory technology development and innovation. based on economic valuation of ecosystem services and commu-
Better science-based evidence is needed in targeting nication of the multiple values of rangelands. In many countries
policy and investment. Evidence of rangeland health and enabling investments in appropriate public services and infra-
development opportunities for better targeting of policy structure are a priority. Investments in multiple ecosystem
and investment can be strengthened through the use of services are needed, as well as mobilizing innovative market-
scalable assessment tools that are adapted to non-equilib- based options such as value chain development and PES.
rium dryland ecology. Evidence-based decision-making Emphasis must be placed on policy implementation.
can be boosted with support for knowledge management, Policy barriers may impede SRM and LDN in some cases,
communications, capacity building and advocacy. but in most countries supportive policies already exist and
Advocacy is a priority to address sustainable develop- priority should be given to raising awareness and capacity
ment concerns in rangelands. Motivation for effective and mobilizing resources to implement these policies.
policy implementation within government agencies, and Considering the importance of rangelands within the
prioritization in rangeland investment, can be stimulated drylands, progress towards a land degradation neutral world
through greater, more informed engagement of local range- will only be possible if major attention is now given to this
land users in public consultations and involvement in globally important biome, and if investments and policies are
political processes. oriented towards supporting locally generated solutions.

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Combating desertification and land degradation

in the drylands: research integration in practice
Mahmoud Solh, Director General and Lamia El-Fattal, Executive Assistant to the Director General,
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas

D
esertification seriously impairs the ability of frequent droughts, excessive use of groundwater resources,
the land in some of the driest, and often the salinization of irrigated lands, land degradation and loss of
poorest, parts of the world to provide food and biodiversity, all of which lead to desertification — the loss
other resources. It is a major threat to food security of fertile land. Climate change, which in the dry areas leads
and livelihoods at the global level with heavy economic, mostly to lower rainfall, greater rainfall variability, higher
social and environmental costs. The drylands of the temperatures, shorter growing seasons and seawater intrusion
world are the most vulnerable to desertification. in coastal areas, is compounding these challenges and further
threatening livelihoods in the drylands. As a result, there is
The drylands are home to over 2 billion people, or approxi- greater pressure on the already limited natural resources,
mately one-third of the world’s population. Poverty is leading to overexploitation and mismanagement of land and
concentrated in the drylands which are home to the poorest water resources, loss of valuable biodiversity, desertification,
and most marginalized people in the world, with 16 per increased poverty, poorer nutrition, migration and increased
cent of the population living in chronic poverty. Women political instability which together pose significant threats to
and children suffer the most. Characterized by water scar- national and international development efforts.
city, the drylands — which cover more than 40 per cent of The experiences of the International Center for Agricultural
the land surface globally — have less than 8 per cent of the Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), after more that 37 years
world’s renewable water resources. They are challenged by of research for development in the drylands, confirm that

Image: ICARDA

Salinity threatening irrigated land in Iraq; complementary approaches are helping to reduce the negative effects of salinity on Iraqi agriculture

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Landsat satellite images of pre- and post-salinity reclamation in Dujaila, Iraq, showing significant
improvement in agricultural productivity by 2014

Saline or abandoned croplands

Active or healthy farmlands

Pre-salinity reclamation period Post salinity reclamation period

(April 1984) (April 2014)

Source: ICARDA/NASA

research and science — along with indigenous knowledge of Agriculture and the Ministry of Agriculture and Water
— can offer technically viable and economically feasibe long- Resources of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region Government,
term solutions to combat desertification in the drylands while adopted an integrated approach to combat land and
enhancing economic growth, alleviating poverty and using water degradation caused by salinity. The project, which
natural resources sustainably. Examples of such accomplish- aimed to improve agricultural productivity and liveli-
ments abound. hoods in Iraq, was funded by the Australian Centre for
ICARDA’s most successful ‘science for impact’ experi- International Agricultural Research, AusAID and the Italian
ences have relied on using holistic integrated human and Government. It followed two complementary approaches
agrosystems approaches. Such integrated approaches for adaptation, namely managing salinity (such as leach-
produce robust bodies of new knowledge, technologies and ing salts added with irrigation water by drainage and
practices synthesized from three main research and prac- other means) and living with salinity (such as planting
tice domains, namely natural resource management; crop halophytes and salt-tolerant plants). The collaborative
and livestock genetic improvement; and socioeconomics, research focused on saline water management; salt-affected
policy and institutions. Through their integration, ICARDA soil and water management; and plant management and
and its partners in national programmes are tackling the adaptation of agricultural production systems to salinity.
complexity of the challenges on the ground and achiev- Multidisciplinary teams of scientists worked side-by-side
ing large-scale impact, particularly when this integrated with smallholder farmers to test the impact of soil salinity
agrosystems approach is tailored to the different agro- and water management as well as the management of crop
ecological zones in the drylands with different agricultral adaptation to salinity. Through a combination of interven-
livelihood systems such as pastoral/agropastoral, rain- tions such as regional irrigation and drainage management;
fed, tree-based and irrigated production systems. Using reclamation; salt extraction; salinity prevention and shift-
integrated agrosystems approaches also requires the collab- ing agriculture systems to grazing; biosaline agriculture
oration of various stakeholders including multidisciplinary and agroforestry at watershed; irrigation district and field
teams of researchers, farming communities, pastoralists, scales, agricultural productivity in salt-affected soils had
policymakers, civil societies and private and public sector improved significantly by 2014, compared to 1984 before
actors. Below, we have shared two examples where such any salinity reclamation efforts were implemented.
an approach has been particularly successful at ICARDA. Parallel to these efforts, the project also researched fodder
species that thrive despite salinity and drought stresses and
Salt-affected soils in Iraq are palatable to the livestock. Various fodder species were
In 2013/14, biophysical and social scientists from tested by the local communities of Iraq’s rangelands. A pitter
ICARDA, together with scientists from the Iraqi Ministry seeder was developed by ICARDA scientists to make a series

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Images: ICARDA
Greening the Badia: laser-guiding micro-catchment water harvesting technology on contours for forage shrubs

of semicircular long depressions in the ground to drop seeds ened agroecosystem that has become severely degraded over
of selected palatable forage species. Livestock scientists the last few decades as a result of overgrazing of rangelands
also conducted research into rams and ewes in an effort to and monocropping, the agricultural practice of culitvating the
improve sheep flock productivity. The project provided 265 same crop year after year on the same land.
drought-tolerant and rust-resistant wheat genotypes devel- An elaborate integrated research site selection process
oped in collaboration with ICARDA, which were tested by was carried out involving the collection and analysis of
the Iraqi Government under irrigated conditions. Finally, geographic information systems data, hydrological surveys
significant policy research and support were provided to the and rapid rural appraisals conducted by crop, livestock and
Government on the national seed law, wheat seed policy soil scientists as well as social scientists to interact with
and policy modelling. This holistic agroecological inte- the local communities and to conduct socioeconomic and
grated research approach was effective in understanding policy analysis. The final sites were selected to test various
and addressing the complex realities of Iraq’s drylands and innovations which included water harvesting, natural
received positive evaluations from the donors, the govern- resource management technology packages and drought
ments of Iraq and the Iraqi Kurdistan Region Government. tolerant crops — mainly barley.
Thus, through this project a new body of evidence related Among the interventions tested and adopted is the micro-
to soil and water salinity management was developed that catchment water harvesting technique using the Vallerani
included rehabilitation of irrigation and drainage networks, plough which ICARDA’s scientists have further upgraded
introduction of new salt-tolerant crops, improving the with an inexpensive auto laser-guiding technology. This new
quality and management of groundwater, and introducing system enhances water harvesting capacity for forage shrub
best farming practices to enhance crop production. This growth and reduces the cost and time required to identify
can provide new options and solutions for reducing the effective water harvesting contours. It has tripled the water
negative effects of salinity on Iraqi agriculture. harvesting capacity, improved efficiency and precision and
substantially reduced the cost of creating micro-catchments.
Jordan’s rain-fed Badia The impact of the large-scale application of the Vallerani water
ICARDA, in collaboration with Jordan’s National Center for harvesting technology has effectively reduced soil erosion and
Agricultural Research and Extension, is working with the enhanced the collection of scarce water resources to conserve
Jordanian Government to reverse and prevent land degrada- the precious rainfall as well as boost crop production — a
tion and desertification across the Jordanian Badia. The Badia win-win situation for the people of the Badia.
stretches across most of Jordan and receives less than 200 mm The improved Vallerani technology has been implemented
of rainfall per year. It is a highly fragile, marginal and threat- on over 1,800 hectares of rangeland so far and the adoption

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Images: ICARDA
Water harvesting technology in the Jordanian Badia has reduced soil erosion, enhanced the collection of water and boosted vegetative cover

rate is quickly rising. The Jordanian Government has decided halt of sediment loss due to the construction of micro water
to adopt the water harvesting technique to enabling large-scale harvesting structures.
planting throughout the Badia, which is substantially improv- These technologies implemented in Jordan’s rain-fed
ing fodder and forage productivity, crop yields and incomes for Badia for improved water and land management have
pastoralists and farmers. Planting the fodder shrubs in widely successfully increased the vegetative plant cover and
spaced roads has reduced the pressure on rangelands which improved soil productivity, leading the way for expansion
have now recovered with much more vegetative growth/cover. and scale-up in similar agroecosystems.
This has initiated the recovery process of lands degraded due These examples from Iraq and Jordan demonstate the power
to overgrazing and desertification. Benefiting pastoralists and of the integrated agrosystems approach which has been the
farmers are enjoying more than 1.6 times their previous forage cornerstone of ICARDA’s research philosophy to address the
shrub production and significantly higher rangeland productiv- challenges facing dry areas including the serious effects of
ity. Their yield for barley has more than doubled as compared climate change. We earnestly believe that this approach holds
to that grown without water harvesting and water application. the key to bringing out the underutilized potential of the
This intervention was coupled with research to promote drylands. But science and technology alone cannot succeed
drought-tolerant shrub species as a crucial means of assist- without continuous investments in agricultural research and
ing rangeland rehabilitation efforts, helping to conserve development and the support of an enabling policy environ-
rapidly-depleting water resources and maintaining grazing ment. New and strong partnerships also assist in combating
at sustainable levels. One of the most commonly planted desertification since it is obviously beyond the scope and
shrubs in the Mediterranean, Atriplex halimus, is known capacity of any one institution or country to cope with this.
for its remediation of degraded rangelands and salt-affected Therefore, in the cases mentioned above, both the Jordanian
areas. It is commonly used as a forage plant for sheep and Iraqi governments were involved as full partners from
and goats and contributes significantly to the feed calen- the beginning of the research process where both the coun-
dar when herbage availability is low. It is the only green, tries adopted the technologies to launch large development
protein-rich forage available during late summer and early interventions to combat land degradation and desertifica-
fall when it is needed for the nourishment of pregnant and tion. It is through partnerships, alliances and collaborative
early-lactating ewes. Disseminated as part of a participa- efforts such as the United Nations Convention to Combat
tory sustainable grazing strategy, which was developed Desertification, the Consultative Group for International
in cooperation with landowners, pastoralists and other Agricultural Research, the Global Dry Land Alliance and
community members, the promotion of native perennial others that governments in dry areas are supported in plan-
shrubs has been a successful response to continuous land ning for and envisioning prosperous dryland communities
degradation. Recent successes include a significant increase with higher incomes, better access to food, improved nutrition
in barley production, up from 50 tons per hectare to 200 and health and increased capacity to manage natural resources
tons per hectare in one rural community, and a near total in equitable, sustainable and innovative ways.

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Food insecurity, drought and climate

change: the case of Karamoja, Uganda
A. J. Jordaan, Director: Disaster Management Training and Education
Centre for Africa, University of the Free State, South Africa

K
aramoja region in Uganda is among the most distortions, have resulted in famine and extreme poverty
underdeveloped, poor and food insecure regions among the Karamojong. Historically, these factors have
in the world. Bordered by an unstable and exacerbated the climate for increased internal and exter-
violent southern Sudan to the north and arid western nal conflicts.2 Means of livelihood in Karamoja were never
Kenya to the east, Karamoja is the driest and poorest owned by an individual but by all people in the community.
region in Uganda.1 Traditional weapons and firearm possession was common
to protect community assets from enemy raiders. Historical
The World Food Programme, other United Nations organiza- intra- and inter-clan conflict over cattle and access to pastoral
tions and many non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are land and resources like water also added to the adverse effects;
involved in humanitarian aid and development programmes, as did cross-border incursions by clans from neighbouring
yet the region remains extremely poor and food insecure. South Sudan, and the Turkana and Pokot from Kenya.
Recurrent droughts are blamed for its chronic food insecu- The population in Karamoja has increased 3.5 fold since
rity. A drought risk assessment was carried out, and analysis 2000 to just over 1.4 million today.3 The increased pressure on
of the historical meteorological data does not point to a higher natural resources contributes to the perception or experience
occurrence of dry periods. However, the importance of of a rise in drought incidences in Karamoja. Most of Karamoja
Karamoja’s vulnerability to dry periods due to economic, experiences chronic food insecurity with approximately 82
social and environmental factors was highlighted. per cent of the population living in extreme poverty. Life
Recurrent droughts, coupled with human and animal expectancy of the Karamojong is only 47.7 years with infant
diseases, conflict, sociopolitical challenges and economic mortality of 178 per 1,000. Approximately 50 per cent of the
Image: 2014 DigitalGlobe

Image: DiMTEC

Pastoralists in Karamoja, like these young herders, own mainly

A satellite view of a manyatta in Karamoja cattle, goats and sheep

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Image: DiMTEC
Most of the primary cultivation and weeding is done manually, by women

Karamoja people are younger than 18 years with just 115,985 The Karamoja region consists mainly of three agricultural
children in the 245 primary schools and 7,158 children in systems: pastoralist in the east, agro-pastoralist in the central
the 20 secondary schools.4 Socioeconomic infrastructure and part, and predominantly agriculturalist in the north-west,
services such as roads, health centres, clean potable drinking named the ‘green belt’ of Karamoja. Livelihoods and agricul-
water, sanitation and schools, and infrastructure such as roads tural systems are mainly linked to climatic conditions.
and markets are poorly developed. Only 46 per cent of people Land tenure is one of the most important vulnerability
in Karamoja have access to safe drinking water and 8 per cent and/or coping capacity indicators for drought risk. The four
have access to sanitation. main tenure systems in Karamoja are freehold, leasehold,
The Karamojong stay in ‘manyattas’ (homesteads) — a mailo and customary. Customary tenure consists of indi-
secure environment in which more or less 20 households vidualized and communal subtenures, each with distinct
live together. These households share a common perimeter, characteristics and resource rights for individuals, house-
fenced off with local materials such as wooden poles and holds and the community. The two subtenure types are
thorns to form a manyatta. The families in a manyatta are distinguished on one hand by grazing lands and shrine areas
often related and live in close proximity, appreciating the need within the communal subtenure system; and on the other
for safety and interdependence. They engage in shared labour by arable cultivated land and land used for homesteads on
like herding, watering livestock and gardening, and provide which the manyattas are constructed in the individualized
social support to each other in times of need. customary subtenure,.
The climate in Karamoja varies from arid to semi-arid, with The pastoralists in Karamoja own mainly cattle, goats and
precipitation from 500 mm per annum in the east to 1,200 sheep with a few camel owners close to the Kenya border.
mm in the west. Precipitation varies widely from year to year Though characterized by a nomadic grazing pattern, their
and by region. Karamoja has a unimodal rainfall pattern with livelihoods are sedentary with families remaining in the
rainfall from the end of March to October, and a prolonged manyattas while herders migrate to available grazing areas
dry period from November to March. Maximum temperatures with drinking water as determined by the season and dry
in the east are 35.6°C with a minimum of 5.5°C during the conditions. The mobility of pastoralists in Karamoja is one of
dry season. Dry periods and droughts are a natural occur- the main coping mechanisms against drought and the single
rence in Karamoja and part of the climate regime. A number largest factor contributing to resiliency against dry periods
of recent reports blamed recurrent droughts on the effect of and drought. The relatively low population and animal
climate change.5 numbers, combined with available land, currently favour

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Image: DiMTEC

Image: DiMTEC
Sufficient, high quality grazing is essential to the pastoralist system, but
Typical grainaries restocking could cause a return to overgrazing

the communal land tenure system and the nomadic grazing was used as the framework for drought risk assessment.
patterns of pastoralists.6 Phase 1 consists of the hazard analysis, Phase 2 the analysis
The security situation in Karamoja, however, has a nega- of vulnerabilities and coping capacity, while Phase 3 entails
tive impact on the mobility of pastoralists and the pastoralist the identification of adaptation and coping strategies.
system. Pastoralists are forced to kraal their animals every The main determinant for hazard assessment in the case of
night in fear of raiders from neighbouring South Sudan and drought is water deficit for normal production caused by too
Kenya. This practice results in overgrazing around the kraals little precipitation and too high evapotranspiration. Assessment
and underutilization of grazing far away from them. of these factors was based on historical meteorological data and
Crop production in Karamoja is rain-fed with high potential contributions from focus groups and other stakeholders.
yields in the western districts of Abim, Napak, Nakapiripirit Dry conditions were analysed using satellite-based monthly
and the green belt of Kaabong and Kotido. These areas are rainfall estimates at 5 km2 spatial resolution. The source of the
ideally suited for rain-fed crop production due to good quality rainfall data was ‘CHIRPS’, a blended rainfall dataset developed
soils and annual rainfall of more than 800 mm. The main crops by the United States Geological Survey for the whole of Africa for
produced are sorghum, maize, millet, beans, groundnuts, agricultural productivity and long-term drought analysis. Macharia
cowpeas, pigeon peas, sesame, sunflower and sweet potatoes. prepared the precipitation anomalies for the past 10 years.9
Cassava is a new crop recently successfully introduced into Analysis of the results clearly shows that below-average
the region due to its drought tolerance. Intercropping with precipitation is the exception rather than the rule and the
maize, sunflower, sorghum, beans and cowpeas is a common perception of droughts every second year is totally unfounded.10
practice in the higher rainfall zones. Drought vulnerability was measured using indicators for
Cultivation of fields and gardens is done manually with each of the seven districts and these were grouped according
hoes and only the more progressive farmers utilize oxen for to economic, social and environmental indicators. The main
cultivation. The absence of oxen as the main method of culti- economic vulnerability indicators were extremely low crop
vation was evident in the eastern districts with more draught yields as a result of poor agricultural practices; high post-
power utilization in the western districts. Women mainly do harvest losses (40-60 per cent); market imperfections; and
primary cultivation and weeding while generally men take the high animal mortalities mainly due to animal diseases.
lead with harvesting. The traditional social structure in Karamoja elevated the
Lack of water harvesting or soil conservation practices has importance of social vulnerability. The main social vulnerability
resulted in poor plant growth. Cultivation only starts after the indicators were cultural beliefs and practices; gender discrimi-
first rains. Seeding is done on poorly prepared seedbeds with nation and beliefs regarding gender responsibilities for food
resultant low germination and uneven plant densities. In addi- production; extremely low literature levels; lack of knowledge
tion, weeding is done too late and weeds compete with crops for — which resulted in poor agricultural practices; and security,
available soil moisture. Cultivation and seedbed preparation is which limits the movements of pastoralists and agriculturalists.
key in the successful production of crops, yet the way it is done in Environmental vulnerability to drought in this case refers to
Karamoja makes agriculturalists highly vulnerable to dry periods. natural resources such as grazing, soil and water. Important
The disaster risk assessment methodology as proposed by indicators were bush encroachment, overgrazing, water avail-
Wisner, Blaikie, Cannon and Davis7 and adapted by Jordaan8 ability and soil quality.

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Image: DiMTEC
Gold mining is a survival practice that has negative and unintentional consequences

Some people in Karamoja survive and cope during dry Drought risk is a more complex problem than what is
periods in spite of extreme poverty and vulnerability. normally defined as a negative deficit in annual mean rain-
Different survival practices with negative and unintentional fall. Rainfall distribution is important, as is annual rainfall,
consequences are utilized for survival. These include sand but farmers, government and development partners cannot
mining, gold mining and charcoal burning. The large number do anything about that. When farmers start to experience
of NGOs and United Nations organizations involved in droughts every second year, clearly there is a problem with
humanitarian support also assist livelihoods to survive but the agricultural system; it is not adapted to the current
this is not sustainable due to the development of a depend- climatic conditions and requires adaptation, or farmers
ency syndrome among the people in Karamoja. employ risk-seeking methodologies such as poor agricul-
The best and most sustainable example of coping with dry tural practices.
periods is the pastoralist system.11 Pastoralists have sufficient Most of the droughts experienced in in Karamoja since
land to follow the water and grazing. They move their animals 2000 are in fact man-made and not the result of poor climatic
from the dry regions to regions with sufficient grazing. The conditions; that means that agriculturalists and pastoral-
current land ownership system and relatively low animal ists can do something about drought risk. They can reduce
numbers allows for such movement. However, the restock- drought risk and build resiliency against drought simply by
ing programme from the Government is threatening this implementing good agricultural practices. In order to achieve
strategy. Animal numbers in Karamoja declined by about 50 that, they must have the necessary knowledge and institu-
per cent after the successful disarmament programme of the tional support. Limitations in terms of cultural beliefs, gender
‘Karamoja warriors’ in 2008. An unintentional consequence and security should also be addressed.
was that rebels and others from neighbouring south Sudan Development partners such as NGOs and United Nations
and Kenya then raided and stole large numbers of animals organizations can reduce drought risk by implementing
without resistance from the Karamoja pastoralists. Reduced coordinated and specifically designed programmes with
animal numbers allow for the recovery of overgrazed land a focus on drought risk reduction. Government should
and therefore sufficient grazing for pastoralists. Restocking develop and implement policies and create an environment
will increase pressure on available grazing and the pastoralist for sustainable development according to a commonly
system will also be more vulnerable to dry periods. agreed strategy in Karamoja.

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Biosaline agriculture as an approach

for combating desertification
Dr Abdullah Dakheel, Dr Rao Nanduri and Dr Richard Soppe, International Center for Biosaline Agriculture, Dubai

D
esertification has several causes, including popu- An approach to break this cycle is through the application
lation pressure, changing climatic conditions, of biosaline agriculture at different locations in the land-
economic, political and social conditions, and lack scape. More salt-tolerant and drought-tolerant plants can be
of access to science and technology. introduced, allowing the use of marginal water resources to
increase plant production for foraging or fodder, thus reduc-
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment lists overgrazing as one ing the risk of overgrazing. Higher-value salt-tolerant plants
aspect of the desertification cycle, when land and water do not and trees can be introduced to provide a source of income
provide enough resources for sustainable grazing. Salinization to local populations. In addition to introducing landscape
of soils is another chain in the process towards desertifica- management, socioeconomic and (implementation of) policy
tion. Desertification usually results in more poverty which decisions are needed. The introduction of managed forage
in turn strengthens the conditions leading to desertification. land under saline conditions, for example, should not result
Rehabilitation of desert systems requires the adoption of multi- in an increase of the grazing population larger than the carry-
ple strategies including the rehabilitation of natural degraded ing capacity of the managed lands.
ecosystems and the use of the limited water resources in agri- Several aspects need to be considered when biosaline agri-
culture production, afforestation and aquaculture systems in culture is introduced. Introducing new genetic resources (new
certain cases. However, water resources in deserts are in most genotypes or more salt-tolerant species) requires access to
cases limited to groundwater of ancient origin or shallow aqui- seeds, or introducing nurseries, as well as an assessment of
fers that mostly have became salinized due to overutilization crop diversity and management to maintain the local diversity
and depletion. In coastal and subcoastal deserts seawater and (prevent invasive species to compete out the local genotypes
highly salinized groundwater resources exist in large quantities; and varieties, for example as is the case with wild melon in
however their use in rehabilitation requires the use of special Australia). Maintaining the local biodiversity ensures an ecosys-
agroecosystems that can tolerate such high levels of salinity. tem that is adaptable to changing environmental conditions.

Image: ICBA

Rehabilitation of desert areas with salt-tolerant grasses (Oman)

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Image: ICBA
an increase of concentration of salts. These salts, previously
stored in the water source (groundwater, seawater or other
surface water sources) are increasing in concentration due
to evapotranspiration, but also due to the spatial accumula-
tion at the locations where plants are grown and irrigated.
Consideration of where the accumulated salts are stored is
a necessity under biosaline agriculture. Options are to store
salts in the soil below the active root zone (through leach-
ing of salts, that is the application of excess water to move
the accumulated salts away from the plant roots), leach salts
into the groundwater (less preferable), or concentrate salts in
evaporation ponds where they can be collected in solid form
and taken out of the agro-production system).
Six different groups of biosaline systems have been piloted
in the Arabian Peninsula, providing opportunities to break
the poverty cycle, green the desert and reclaim salinized
lands. These groups can be classified as conventional forage
production systems; non-conventional forage production
for subcoastal and coastal deserts; high-value crops and date
palms; medicinal crops production systems; seawater-based
systems including aquaculture; and production systems based
Salicornia is produced on a large scale and irrigated with seawater in on treated wastewater.
coastal areas
Forage production systems
Water scarcity and salinity are two of the biggest constraints to
The economics of the introduced biosaline agricultural system agricultural production in several counties in the Middle East
are important. Since desertification is related to the poverty cycle and North Africa region. In the United Arab Emirates (UAE),
and marginal agricultural ecosystems, it is important that the over the years, more than 70 per cent of the farms were dedi-
new landscape management system has a positive contribution cated to forage production, mainly with Rhodes grass (Chloris
to the local economy. Two examples are the introduction of more gayana) — a high water consuming crop. The large-scale cultiva-
salt-tolerant date palms, a cash crop with an already existing tion of this fodder grass species to meet the increased demand for
market system in many desert-prone areas, and quinoa, a high forages in the emirate, has had a profound impact on the usage of
market value crop which produces seeds and biomass well under water resources for agriculture and contributed to the depletion
marginal conditions (salinity, high temperatures and drought). of the groundwater reserves faster than the aquifer recharge that
Providing forage and grazing genotypes and varieties that are depends on the scanty rainfall and as well as in increased aquifer
adapted to marginal conditions (such as drought and salinity) salinization due to intrusion of seawater, especially in the coastal
also requires an analysis of the nutritional value, and the palat- areas with close to 4,800 farms facing the risk of abandonment.
ability of the introduced crops. A crop can be growing well under In a pilot project on three farms in the UAE, four halophytic
the marginal conditions, but if it does not have a nutritional addi- perennial grass species were planted: Distichlis spicata, Sporobolus
tion, or if the small ruminants are not willing to consume it as virginicus, S. arabicus and Paspalum vaginatum. The new grasses,
part of their diet, the value of the crop is limited for the region. with the mean green biomass yields ranging between 122 t/ha
In some areas, only seawater is available. Some plants growing and 141 t/ha per year and dry matter yields between 24 t/ha and
under hot, coastal conditions, halophytic plants, can provide an 42 t/ha per year, proved to be excellent and viable alternatives to
economic value, for example plants from the Salicornia geno- Rhodes grass for sustainable forage production in salt-affected/
type. In the Netherlands, a market chain was developed and degraded farms. In terms of water productivity, the forage yields
supported, including the development of customer demand obtained per cubic metre of highly saline water (15-18 dS/m)
through the introduction of cooking classes and recipes, for were 66 per cent more than the yields reported for Rhodes grass
Salicornia imported from the coastal and desert areas in Mexico. with low salinity water (2 dS/m). In terms of water saving, it
Land and water management needs special attention when means saving 44 per cent of water to produce the same amount
managing agroecosystems under dry and saline conditions. of forage as Rhodes grass.
Water resources are often non-renewable (fossil groundwater)
and application of saline water on soils without considering Potential high-value crops
the potential accumulation of salts can lead to non-sustaina- Several neglected and underutilized species, because of their
ble, short-term solutions. Although in some cases, short-term resilience and natural adaptation to harsh growing condi-
solutions can be applied to overcome crises periods, the tions, can provide alternatives to the staple crops to sustain
long-term aim of land and water management in fragile and farm productivity in desert environments constrained by water
marginal environments is to develop sustainable solutions. scarcity, poor soil fertility and other such yield-limiting factors.
When saline water is used for crops, forestry or any type of Among the species native to or naturalized in the Middle
biomass growth, evaporation and transpiration will result in East, Christ’s thorn jujube (Ziziphus spina-christi), purslane

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Image: ICBA
species documented in the UAE are known to have medicinal
properties. Two good example are Aloe vera (sabar), a shrubby
xerophytic, succulent plant used for centuries for its health,
beauty, medicinal and skincare properties, and Cynomorium
coccineum (tarthuth) a parasitic plant considered as a ‘treasure
of drugs’ because of its numerous traditional therapeutic uses
in treating colic and stomach ulcers, piles, nosebleeds, dysfunc-
tional uterine bleeding and as a contraceptive. Most medicinal
plants are still being collected from the wild population and
many are being seriously threatened by overgrazing and habitat
degradation. According to the UAE Red Data plant list, of the 132
species of medicinal plants, six species fell under the threatened
category. Thus, it is important to integrate commercial exploita-
tion with action plans for sustainable conservation and use.

Seawater and brine-based systems

To provide additional income and reduce the poverty cycle,
improving water supply for human consumption and irrigation
purposes requires the desalination of groundwater. Approximately
15 per cent of farmers in the Arabian Peninsula have installed
small-scale reverse osmosis (RO) plants to desalinate the ground-
Salt-tolerant and drought-tolerant plants allow the use of marginal water water for field crop irrigation. These RO plants produce highly
resources to increase plant production and reduce overgrazing concentrated brine which can be used as a resource under best
management practices. A project to showcase the potential of a
farming system using seawater-level brine was developed in the
(Portulaca oleracea), jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius), rocket UAE. The desalinated water is used to irrigate a large variety
(Eruca sativa and Diplotaxis tenuifolia), safflower (Carthamus of high-value vegetable crops (such as asparagus, eggplant and
tinctorius) and wild drumstick tree (Moringa peregrina) have radish). The produced brine is used for aquaculture, followed by
considerable value in terms of their tolerance to salinity and irrigation of salt-tolerant forages and halophytic plants. The mari-
harsh climatic conditions. Many such species have the potential culture system contains fish, sedimentation and seaweed tanks.
for more widespread use and their promotion could contrib- Two fish species (sobaity seabream and tilapia) showed adapt-
ute to food security, agricultural diversification and income ability to the fish tank conditions in the Emirati climate. One of
generation, particularly in areas where cultivation of major the halophytic species irrigated with brine is Salicornia bigelovii,
crops is constrained or economically unviable. Similarly, salt- a multipurpose species that can be used as a vegetable, biofuel
and drought-tolerant non-native species such as leaf mustard or fodder. Previous research found that cultivating the proper
(Brassica juncea), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), salicornia salicornia varieties, combined with suitable agronomic practices,
(Salicornia bigelovii), guar (Cyamposis tetragonoloba) and could be economically viable and successful in marginal land.
amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus) which showed good adapta-
tion in field trials under harsh conditions in the UAE, are likely Production systems based on treated wastewater
to be of value in providing cost-effective and long-term solu- Arab countries are expected to face severe water scarcity as early
tions to problems of water shortage and increasing salinity of as 2015, when the annual per capita water share in the region
soil and water resources in the region. Besides their tolerance to will fall to less than 500 m3. Give that agriculture uses 70-80
abiotic stresses, all these species are nutritionally rich and can per cent of all water, the reuse of reclaimed (treated) wastewa-
thus play a crucial role in combating vitamin and micronutrient ter for irrigation could contribute considerably to the reduction
deficiencies frequently experienced by inhabitants of marginal of water scarcity for domestic use. In many countries of the
environments. Research to improve the productivity and value Arabian Peninsula, due to the problem of social acceptance and
of these crops, and to encourage them to be more widely the perception of health risks, municipal wastewater, even after
cultivated, would contribute to food, income and nutritional tertiary-level treatment, is not used for growing food and feed
security for smallholder farmers in marginal environments. crops. In the UAE, of the 600 MCM of tertiary-treated wastewa-
ter produced per year, 58 per cent (352 MCM) is used mainly
Medicinal crop production systems for landscaping and the rest is discharged into the sea. In fact,
In combating desertification, integration of biodiversity conser- reclaimed wastewater can be a valuable resource to grow bioen-
vation into economic development — accomplished through ergy crops for the specific purpose of producing liquid fuels, with
sustainable production and commercialization of natural prod- considerable economic and environmental benefits, when social
ucts derived from native plants — is beginning to emerge as a barriers prevent its use for growing edible crops. If bioenergy
major strategy in several countries. Deserts harbour a variety crops can be cultivated on a commercial scale, they can reduce
of flora adapted to the dry conditions and surviving for several pressure on fossil fuels while simultaneously improving environ-
years without water. The medicinal value of these plants is well mental quality and reducing desertification/soil erosion which is
known, for example, nearly 20 per cent of the 750 native plant also a matter of serious concern in the region.

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Restoring the soil to feed

people and fight desertification
Claire Péhi-Verny, President, Association Pour un autre monde

T
he association ‘Pour un autre monde’ (For another Africa when I was 12 years old. I went to school and univer-
world) was founded by seven people from the sity in Dakar and Abidjan and married in the Ivory Coast, so
academic community in Alsace, with the goal of taking part in a Pour un autre monde adventure in Burkina
educating for sustainable development. Pour un autre monde Faso was only natural.
chose to target school pupils because, being educators, we Soon, contacts with local teachers brought us to the Loroum
believe that what is learned at school can imprint something Province in the North region. We began training teachers,
in a pupil’s mind and make a more responsible adult. Living pupils and volunteer parents of the first four partner schools in
in Alsace, a French province with water pollution problems Sahelian compost making, growing organic vegetables, mulch-
and a lively ‘organic network’, we focused on agroecology ing, limited watering, water harvesting, shrubbery and tree
for our contribution to stop desertification. We also taught planting. Through these endeavours we improve the daily food
French and nearby German pupils a form of active solidar- rations of both the children and their families. We restore the
ity and reflection on their own energy-consuming behaviour. degraded soil, sterilized by 40 years of drought, by producing
humus and we plant local trees to combat desert growth, using
The association first worked in Sri Lanka after the 2004 seeds from the National Forestry Seeds Centre in Ouagadougou.
tsunami. Coming to Burkina Faso in 2006 was pure chance: The four school gardens of Hargo, Salla, Siguinonguin
a Burkinabè (resident of Burkina Faso) had seen our website and Rimassa attracted the attention of colleagues coming
and requested to partner with us. We have remained in the for meetings at the education offices. We now work with 26
country to work in depth in order to address real local needs. primary school partners, two secondary schools in Loroum
Our first president discovered Africa when he flew to Burkina and one 700 km away in Sebba, in the Yagha province of the
Faso. He started the first project in Bobomundi with the help Sahel region. Two coordinators, Appolinaire Bazié in Titao,
of the Centre écologique Albert Schweitzer in Ouagadougou, Loroum province and Souleymane Diabate in Sebba, follow
and signed an agreement with the Government. I discovered the projects year-round on a voluntary basis.

Images: Association Pour un autre monde

Pupils collect material such as cow dung, ash and poultry bones to help create natural compost, and enjoy stamping the damp clay during
watering of the trenches dug by the parents

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Images: Association Pour un autre monde

Trenches are layered using the natural fertilizer material and water, then dried grass is added to the top and weighed down to secure

Pour un autre monde works with small investments for big cent contribution in money or work). It lists the people responsi-
profits. We are a small non-governmental organization (NGO) ble and the materials in the school’s inventory, and explains how
with a €30,000 yearly budget, but we help feed 15,000 pupils controls are established with the school garden copy book (written
for eight months of the year. Those pupils are able to study by different pupils) and with the APE/AME bank book (as schools
better and are in better health. Girls can remain in school soon gain money selling surplus vegetables or grain, iron mesh
longer instead of pounding sorghum. rolls, charging telephones or grinding flour).
As volunteers we pay for our own plane tickets and food, If everybody agrees, after hours of friendly discussion, news,
only declaring these costs to the tax office to get a one-third translations and thanks, the plan is signed and a copy is given
rebate on annual income taxes. The NGO rents a house in to the DPENA. We set up a Comité de suivi et de gestion (moni-
Titao and bought its own vehicle — a three-wheeler motor- toring and management committee) which consists of parents
bike — to visit the schools, meet partners and carry materials, and teachers working together with the NGO as a non-voting
covering distances of approximately 5,000 km in 12 weeks. member. Once that is in place, the practical work begins.
Transferring know-how is free. Here is a typical account of how we work to make a garden
The projects include fostering 40 pupils or students and out of a ‘zipelle’ (a sterile ground haunted by djinns). Before the
providing materials and books, photovoltaic plates (we have first practice visit, parents have dug the first of four trenches
already installed 18, 10 of which were co-financed by Sol (3 m x 0.75 m x 0.4 m). Pupils have collected ‘rumbs bindu’
Solidari), 40 pedal sewing machines for girls leaving school, (dried cow dung) for azote, dried vegetal refuse for carbon,
five mesh roll hand machines for out-of-work youth (creating little bags of ashes from the kitchen fire for potash, and dried
10 self-sustained jobs with profits going to the schools), and small poultry or fish bones for calcium and phosphorus. The
five fuel grain mills controlled and managed by mothers. We cow dung and vegetal refuse, including sorghum chaff, are
plan to open the first solar powered mill in November 2015. watered two days beforehand to revive the good bacteria and
A project begins with somebody contacting the coordina- prevent people from inhaling cow dung dust when breaking it
tor (kindly loaned by the Directeur Provincial de l’Education into small pieces (this causes pneumonia, as I found out).
Nationale et de l’Alphabétisation (DPENA) in Titao) or any To check soil permeability we throw water from five water-
Pour un autre monde representative — phone numbers, cards ing cans into the bottom of the trench: if it disappears quickly
and flyers are easily passed from hand to hand. Before making we need clay, of which there is plenty in Loroum. We then ask
a decision about the request, we meet three or four times with volunteers to stamp the damp clay — the pupils enjoy this chance
teachers (and pupils’ heads in secondary schools), parents’ and to have their feet in water and mud with their parents’ and teach-
mothers’ associations (APE/AME), the Education Inspector, local ers’ approval. If water remains we start some damming using the
authorities such as chiefs, elders and mayors, and environment pupils’ feet as well. Then we make a gigantic sandwich consist-
and agriculture directors. We report twice yearly to the DPENA. ing of 17 wheelbarrows full of damped dried plants, six to seven
The first group of partners wrote a ‘guide for sustainable projects’ wheelbarrows full of humid cow dung in small pieces, two hand-
in 2012, which was completed in 2014. The guide describes activi- fuls of ashes and two handfuls of pounded bones, with five or six
ties during the five years of the project, the role of the NGO and cans of water for each layer. This fills the trench up to knee-level.
what the teachers, pupils and parents will do (including a 20 per To finish, we add plenty of dried grass in a layer 10 cm thick. If it

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Image: Association Pour un autre monde

Image: Association Pour un autre monde

A mix of vegetables and plants in the hewn and watered beds Young trees are protected by woven baskets

is very windy we put broken, spikey branches from the Balanites and then mulch with a mixture of chaff, dried leaves and grass,
aegyptica tree on top to make sure the materials will not fly away. watering every evening the first week and three times a week —
Two weeks later, parents have planted the posts for the iron or even twice weekly — during the next weeks. This is judged by
mesh protection and dug the rest of the trenches. I put my digging a forefinger in the soil: if the soil is ‘cool’, don’t water. In
hand into the mixture, take a handful of the already fermenting two to four weeks cooks will have something to use, pupils will
compost and sniff it. This shocks the children and parents at first, have seen different stages of vegetable development and learned
but they don’t see the different components anymore, only the that some will perhaps not give anything, in spite of loving care.
black compost, and once everybody has sniffed it they agree that Semi-ripe compost can be used with different vegetables. Pierre
it does not smell bad. In fact, there is always a child who says that Rabhi, the inventor of that technique, kindly allowed us to copy
it “smells like the rainy season”, like earth after the first rainfall the drawings in his book and leave them in the schools.
— and that is a delicious smell to all Sahelian noses. Finally, in week eight the compost is ripe: it can be used
I then start putting aside the straw layer with the help of for cereals or dried in the shade and put in sacks for further
Appolinaire Bazié or Souleymane Diabaté. We ask pupils to bring use, especially during the rainy season when too much water
water and we pour five watering cans full in the second trench. would make it rot and smell. In the meantime the ‘compost
We start throwing the contents of the first trench into the second, wheel’ continues to turn. There is always something underway
and after three minutes the picks and shovels are taken from our and the schools produce 500 kg of compost every two weeks
hands and parents, teachers and pupils take turns (temperatures after the first two months. This amount can improve a half-
are 35-45 degrees Celsius depending on the season). For the first hectare in cereals or vegetables, so we ask the schools to share
turnover you need only the first five watering cans of water at the it with the parents who help out.
bottom and five on the top layer before you put the straw cover That’s how schools in several villages have each planted
on it. Then we fill the first trench again, as we did before. a garden and trees, and how every year four or five parents
We bring a dozen young trees for this visit, and we give a tree in each village have tried for themselves. It is the way many
planting course: dig a hole 60 cm deep and 40 cm in diameter, women’s groups have learned how to grow vegetables without
throw in about five litres of water to make a water reserve, mix one buying fertilizers and how to protect against predators with
third of young compost with sand or small gravel and red earth. azadirachta indica oil or tea, tomato leaves or dangling broken
Undo the recycled plastic bag with care, free the roots, place seed- CDs against the birds, how to make paper balls for the stove
ling in the half-filled hole, fill and harden the soil with your fist to instead of burning it away, and how to use old plastic bottles
make a small basin and complete with mulching and protection — for insect traps or slow-drip watering.
this can be a nicely woven basket or a makeshift job with branches. Each successive DPENA has facilitated our work, understand-
The rest of the trees will be planted by the teachers. ing the long-term issues. Our dream is to make it part of the
Six weeks after the first practice we return to find three trenches primary schools curriculum in Burkina Faso so that in every dry
underway, and two- and four-week-old compost. Pupils have yard, even in town, on every dry patch of land, everyone will have
hewn and watered the future vegetables beds. This time we bring the know-how to grow vegetables, beans, cereals and trees, with
more young trees, seeds and vegetable seedlings that are 20-30 three times more than the average chemically fertilized produc-
days old. Pupils plant a mix of vegetables of different families (it is tion, with little water, less hard work, no chemical pesticides,
a challenge to explain that tomatoes, aubergines and potatoes are little expense and a nice profit. Sahel will be green again, forests
of the same family and so ‘eat’ the same nutrients in the ground) and rains will come back, and hunger will be a ghost of the past.1

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Long-term drought in southern Australia

David Jones and Alex Evans, Australian Bureau of Meteorology

A
ustralia is the driest inhabited continent with The effect of below-average rainfall during the cool season
strong rainfall variability from year to year. Annual was accumulative in southern Australia, leading to increas-
mean rainfall averaged across the continent is 465 ing hydrological impacts which compounded over the years.
mm, but this has varied between a low of 314 mm during This saw a long-term drying of vegetation and a drawdown
1902 (an El Niño event) to 760 mm during 1974 (a La of surface and ground water resources. For example, in
Niña event). While rainfall is not strongly correlated from Melbourne (a city of more than 4 million people) urban water
year to year, a number of multi-year drought events have storages dropped from almost full in October 1996 (97.5 per
occurred of varying spatial and temporal duration and cent) to only one-third full by June 2010 (33 per cent). Water
intensity including the federation drought (1896-1902), supplies for this city would have been emptied at the peak
Second World War drought (1937-1945) and more of the drought were it not for water restrictions and price
recently the millennium drought (1997-2010). increases applied to water use in response to the drought
which curtailed consumption.
Each of the multi-year drought episodes resulted in severe soci- With the millennium drought affecting all major capital cities
etal and economic impacts, with the loss of life through wildfires across southern Australia, large-scale urban water projects were
and heatwaves. The first two of these multi-year droughts were commissioned, including the construction of desalination
widespread in impact affecting the bulk of continental Australia, plants in Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane with
whereas the millennium drought mostly impacted southern a total cost of more than $A10 billion. The trigger for supple-
Australia. While an estimate of the full cost of the millennium mental water supplies was a lack of confidence in the past as a
drought is not available, extremely low rainfall during 2006 saw
the loss of an estimated $A7 billion in agricultural production
alone. Devastating wildfires occurred during the summer of
2002/03, 2006/07 and 2009 in forests which were tinder dry due Rainfall deciles for the peak of the millennium
to drought and heat. The Black Saturday bushfires of 7 February drought, calculated from national rainfall data
2009 resulted in 173 deaths and at least $A4.4billion in property from 1900 to the present
damage across south-east Australia, being one of the costliest
disasters in the country’s history.
While drought is an episodic feature of the Australian
climate, the most recent drought highlights a confluence of
climate variability (drought) and climate change (changing
aridity) and raises the question of how to define and manage
drought in a changing climate.
The millennium drought affected most of southern Australia
with particularly severe conditions experienced in the more
densely populated and cultivated south-east and south-west
regions. A feature of the millennium drought was the especially
marked decline of cool season rainfall in the south with little
reduction in the warm season rainfall in the south and excessive
summer rainfall in the tropical north. The cool season is the
main agricultural period across southern Australia. This meant
Highest on Record
that irrigated agriculture reliant on winter inflows into dams
Very Much Above Average
was badly affected across the south, as was winter grain produc- Above Average
tion in the southern cropping regions of Australia (annual grain Average
production is near 40 million tons). Impacts on ecosystems and Below Average
Very Much Below Average
urban water supplies dependent on cool season replenishment
Lowest on Record
were also significant. In striking contrast northern Australia,
a region of low population density and lower intensity agri-
culture, saw above-average to record-high rainfall during the Source: Australian Bureau of Meteorology

summer half of the year.

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Cool season rainfall in south coastal Australia: the solid line shows the 10-year running anomaly

200

150

100

50
Rainfall Anomaly (mm)

-50

-100

-150

-200
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year

Source: Australian Bureau of Meteorology

guide to the future, and the very real fears for water supplies in in both the northern and southern hemispheres. A poleward
the event that the drought continued. shift in the high pressure belt and increases in its intensity
The distinctive feature of abnormally heavy warm season rain- means dry zones expand further into the mid latitudes (and
fall in the north and cool season rainfall deficits in the south vice versa). El Niño events are one factor that can drive an
has no obvious parallel in the historical record, and is not easily expansion and intensification of the high pressure belt over
understood in terms of the dominant natural variability tied to Australia, which is part of the reason for the droughts that
the El Niño Southern Oscillation. Past droughts tended to extend Australia commonly experiences during these events.
across most of Australia and have a particular focus across the The April to October cool season rainfall across southern
eastern third of the country, where rainfall is reduced during El Australia shows a systematic decline in recent decades that
Niño events. The millennium drought, however, manifests out is broadly consistent with climate change projections for the
of strong seasonal rainfall across Australia, which also provides region. The recent multi-year drought appears as a continu-
insight into the proximate (‘local’) cause of the drought. ation of lower rainfall which commenced in the 1970s. The
Rainfall in northern Australia is dominated by the summer initial decline appears as a loss of very wet years and more
monsoon, with rain coming from storms, monsoonal lows and recently the near-complete dominance of below-average rain-
the occasional tropical cyclone between November and April. fall conditions year after year. During the past decade the mean
The cool season is virtually rain-free with high rates of evapo- rainfall in this region is more than 15 per cent below average,
ration, low humidity and clear skies. meaning the loss of more than 1.5 years of cool season rainfall
In southern Australian (south of about 35°S), most of the in total during the millennium drought. This anomaly is more
annual total rainfall comes as a result of cold fronts and mid- than twice as large as for any previous like period and up to
latitude (baroclinic) low pressure systems. These systems peak four times as large in some high rainfall catchments relevant
between April and October (the cool season) when the lows to urban water harvesting in southern Australia.
in the Southern Ocean tend to move closer to Australia as The recent decline in rainfall has coincided with increasing
the dominant belt of high pressure moves further north to be atmospheric pressures between the months of April to October
placed over the Australian landmass. While summer rainfall and a subsequent decline in the penetration of fronts and lows
does occur, surface water balance is such that during the warm across southern Australia. The intensifying pressure means an
months it contributes very little to water supplies for urban use, increasing dominance of dry weather as the subtropical ridge
and has very limited use for agricultural production. has become more dominant. Atmospheric pressure across
Southern Australia sits on the northern limit of the mid- Australia shows remarkably strong correlations with rainfall
latitude westerlies and is particularly susceptible to shifts in and explains some 60 per cent of the year-to-year variability
the intensity and latitude of fronts, low and highs. Of particu- (variance). The accumulated impact of the trend in pressure
lar importance is the dominant high pressure belt, known as implies a mean rainfall reduction of nearly 50 mm over the past
the Subtropical Ridge, which extends across central Australia 50 years. This figure is close to the anomalies which have been
during the cool season. This high pressure belt is the cause of observed during the millennium drought in southern Australia.
the semi-arid and arid dry zones that occupy the subtropics In other words, the proximate cause of the recent cool season

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Cool season (April-October) mean sea level pressure near southern Australia showing an increase since 1950

1020
Southern Australian Pressure (hPa)

1019

1018

1017

1016

1015

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Source: Pressure observations taken from National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research reanalyses

Image: Australian Bureau of Meteorology

rainfall deficits during the millennium drought is the domi-
nance of high pressure. This suggests that the drought should
be considered, at least partly, as a shift to a more arid climate
rather than just an episodic drought event following which
conditions will return to the historical norm.
Even though the millennium drought is popularly consid-
ered to have ended during the 2010-2012 La Niña sequence,
there has been little recovery of cool season rainfall across
southern Australia. The period from late 2010 to early 2012
saw nearly continuous La Niña conditions in the Pacific result-
ing in the wettest two-year period on record for Australia.
However, the heavy rainfall was confined to the summer half
of the year, reinforcing the multi-decadal pattern of increas-
ing tropical (summer) rainfall in northern parts and poor cool
season rainfall in the south. With the return to near El Niño
conditions in 2014 and a subsequent El Niño in 2015, rainfall
patterns in southern areas and parts of eastern Australia have
returned to a situation similar to that which occurred during
the millennium drought. Preliminary data suggests that pres-
sure over southern Australia is likely to be above average in A dry lake bed (Tchum Lake) in the Mallee region of Victoria at the peak of the
2015, indicative that the background trend continues. hydrological drought
It remains to be seen whether the emerging impacts become
as severe as those felt during the millennium drought. Detailed
climate change projections for Australia show that contin- effect with ozone depletion enhancing this shift. These anthro-
ued rainfall declines are likely in the cool season in southern pogenic drivers provide a causal mechanism for the changes
Australia, and it is very unlikely that these will be offset by in pressure and rainfall in Australia’s south which continue.
summer rainfall increases. These changes will interact with While natural rainfall variability in Australia remains large,
natural drought cycles and may be expected to give rise to and rainfall continues to be strongly influenced by the El
conditions beyond earlier experience. Niño Southern Oscillation, it is likely that the drying across
Climate science and continued weather observations high- southern Australia in recent decades cannot be explained
light that recent dry periods across southern Australia are by natural variability alone. When combined with increas-
more accurately characterized as a shift to an increasingly ing temperatures and heightened demands for water, it is
dry climate (increasing aridity), rather than simply episodic imperative that managing for drought must look beyond the
drought events. The poleward extension of the subtropical past as a guide, and towards understanding the interaction
dry zones and contraction of the westerlies is one anticipated between climate variability and change to better inform deci-
impact of a warming climate under the enhanced greenhouse sions for the future.

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Recovering life in the desert: successful

experience with indigenous communities
in Mendoza, Argentina
Elena María Abraham, Laura Torres, Darío Soria, Clara Rubio and Cecilia Rubio, Argentine
Dryland Research Institute of the National Council for Scientific and Technical Research

I
n contrast to the widespread image of Argentina as the activities. 3 Despite the extent of Mendoza’s drylands, it
‘the world’s breadbasket’, reality shows a vast territory is essentially difficult to simplify the analysis of deserti-
(around 70 per cent) of dry, arid, semi-arid and dry fication because of the high diversity of socioeconomic,
sub-humid lands affected by different degrees of desertifi- political, ethnic and ecological situations taking place
cation. The Monte Phytogeographic Province makes up an throughout the area. Combating desertification is essential
arid diagonal that crosses the country with all gradations to ensure long-term productivity of these drylands. Many
of aridity. This ecoregion, devoted to raising cattle and live- efforts have failed for using partial approaches, disregard-
stock, is the driest of cattle lands in Argentina. Agriculture
is confined to areas under intensive irrigation, the wine-
making ‘oases’. Both types of land use are responsible
for a great part of the degradation, evidenced not only by The DPU experience involves active participation from
biodiversity loss and deforestation of native woodland, but communities in the ‘El Junquillal’ locality of Argentina
fundamentally by the poverty of the people, most of them
subsistence goat herders who still remain in non-irrigated
drylands in extremely critical survival conditions.1

Mendoza, with a surface area of 150,839 km2 and a popu-

lation of 1,741,610 people, is located on the central strip
of Argentina’s drylands and 100 per cent of its territory
is desertified.2 This territory is organized on the basis of
a great contradiction; the confrontation between irrigated
lands (oases) and the non-irrigated lands of the desert.
Competition for the use of water arises as one of the major
environmental conflicts in interaction between oasis and
desert: the latter no longer receives surface water inflows
because river flows are fully used for irrigating the culti-
vated area and for consumption in urban settlements. Hence,
non-irrigated drylands, which represent 96.5 per cent of the
territory, are characterized by very sparse population —
1.5 per cent of the total population — with a subsistence
economy based on goat production, and by their depend-
ence for equipment on distant urban centres. The desert has
lost its natural and social capital, which was used for build-
ing wealth in the oasis. Over time, it has offered valuable
resources such as mesquite woodland and grasslands, which
have been overexploited. The problems of land tenure, isola-
tion and marginalization of desert inhabitants have produced
strong exodus and migration movements. This involves
abandonment of productive lands and increased suburbani-
zation processes in the urban fringe.
The ultimate environmental problem affecting drylands is Source: IADIZA

desertification, triggered by climate variability and human

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Images: IADIZA
Members of the DPU community make brooms from rattan, one of the Lavalle desert’s natural resources

ing the complexity and multiple cause-effect relationships three pillars (natural, economic and sociocultural compo-
and, above all, for not considering that dryland people are nents) and, through local development, aims at achieving
the major resource in these lands. They know the problems a better land use, improving and diversifying goat produc-
and potentials of drylands and have developed knowledge, tion, reducing livestock pressure and increasing producers’
technologies and skills to produce under restrictive condi- income. It combines innovative aspects of desertification
tions. However, they have been not only ignored, but also assessment and monitoring, recovery and management
blamed for generating desertification. Traditional land use of degraded lands for forage production, adaptation to
methods were often abandoned and replaced by foreign global change, optimization of water resources, revegeta-
solutions which in many cases only managed to exacerbate tion, establishment of nurseries, herd sanitation, design of
poverty. Nevertheless, especially in recent times, successful DPUs directed towards production diversification (healthy
experiences have been achieved by organizations that were goat milk and by-products), capacity-building in the local
able to listen to the local people, learn about their prob- population and government, halting of migration through
lems and priorities and rescue their knowledge in order to business opportunities and youth employment, train-
find shared solutions, putting into practice the concepts ing of specialized technicians, promotion of producers’
of participation, bottom-up planning, gender sensitization, associations and technical assistance for product trading.
reinforcement of identity processes and fighting against The work combines diverse methodologies: participatory
exclusion. In this context, the Demonstrative Production assessment procedures, thematic mapping, participant
Unit (DPU) experience is presented, with active participa- observation, remote sensing, field control and establish-
tion of local communities in the Lavalle desert. ment of measurement plots.
The DPU initiative emerged in 2002 as the result The DPU experience is set in the El Junquillal local-
of international cooperation. The Argentine Dryland ity (Lavalle, Mendoza), located in the non-irrigated area:
Research Institute (IADIZA), Spallanzani Institute and the desert. The territory exceeds 1 million hectares with
the Desertification Research Centre (University of Sassari) indigenous communities, with a population reduced by
conducted a feasibility study and started working on migration and poverty to only 3,500 people (0.5 inhab-
raising awareness and empowering local communities. itant/km 2), grouped in small settlements (hamlets built
With the support of the United Nations Convention to with adobe bricks). More than 31 per cent of their basic
Combat Desertification Global Mechanism, a research- needs are unsatisfied and they have an illiteracy rate of
action programme was designed to generate strategies 8.2 per cent. They are entirely devoted to subsistence
for local development and production diversification to goat production. The population self-identifies as being
combat desertification and poverty. The proposal leans on of Huarpe ancestry, and the productive activities they

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Image: IADIZA
The community manufactures ‘green’ (unfired) bricks with local materials for the construction of the DPU

perform are related to a subsistence economy destined for ate development strategies for the sustainable development
self-consumption. These activities mostly include raising of rural indigenous communities in the desert, improve the
small livestock for the production of meat and manure. status of the ecosystem through an integral management of
The climate is arid and precipitation ranges from 80-100 natural and cultural resources, and promote improvement of
mm per year, which strongly affects productive activities. the socioeconomic conditions of dryland inhabitants. It takes
The experience is focused on a small Huarpe community into account compatibilizing ecosystem regeneration with
called Pinkanta, of around 40 families. Eleven families in investment in infrastructure and services, transformation and
this community formed the Kanay Ken cooperative with diversification of productive activities, generation of employ-
the aim of participating with IADIZA and the Municipality ment and increase in revenue.
of Lavalle as beneficiaries of the project. The people expect An interdisciplinary group of technicians and researchers
that the project will enable them to improve their quality of took part in the design of the proposal and the integrated
life through productive diversification and improvement of desertification assessment in the fields. The beneficiary
their fields, and to earn higher income and be able to rise community participates in fieldwork and construction,
above the poverty line, taking on the challenge that the through their work and contribution of their knowledge,
desert can be productive and sustainable. land and livestock. This cooperative and the demonstrative
The proposal includes innovative traits in comparison with experience is a pilot case that can be replicated throughout
the strategies implemented thus far in an area whose natural the territory, nucleating other scattered communities. In this
resources have been devastated. It is based on acknowledging action the Municipality of Lavalle supports the development
the rural environment potential from a surmounting perspec- of infrastructure, equipment and services such as roads, water
tive of the assistance and compensatory approach. It is framed supply and materials.
within a conception of rural territory development that aims A significant change would be encouraged by moving the
at competitive and sustainable agriculture, articulating the people above the poverty line, and reducing the pressure
rural territory with dynamic markets. Its goals are to gener- of stocking rates would also promote improvement and

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Images: IADIZA
Construction of the water supply system for the DPU in the desert of Lavalle, Mendoza

recovery of the fields. The experience involves a profound food production and consumption, and innovation in the
change in the traditional extensive livestock management production alternatives for a healthy diet and a decent life,
system: with only 28 goats coming into the system of the by applying technological advances adapted to the needs and
DPU, the profit obtained is equal to that generated by 200 requirements of the community.
goats under the current method of livestock use. The system The initiative is an integrated one and involves envi-
would need only 56 goats to double the monthly income ronmental, social and economic dimensions, so during
of the family group, versus more than 400 goats with the these years the results have increased impact in and
current model. Other activities related to the utilization of outside the community. The case was a Land Degradation
the area’s natural resources include production of brooms Assessment in Drylands pilot site and is currently a pilot
from collecting rattan (junquillo), manufacturing ecologi- site of the National Observatory of Land Degradation and
cal bricks with local materials for the construction of the Desertification, which ensures high visibility and potential
DPU, genetic improvement of goats to keep them rustic and for replication in areas with similar problems.
to produce better milk in larger quantities, and nurseries of Current results indicate that dialogue and joint work
native species with low water requirement for the revegeta- among populations, local governments, research institutes
tion of degraded areas. Training, community empowerment and international financing agencies are of great impor-
and local government interest are the factors that ensure that tance for the coherence, depth and continuity of actions to
the enterprise keeps running when IADIZA withdraws the combat desertification. It is necessary to work in interdis-
project. The community has learned and, without intermedi- ciplinary teams, which go beyond the fragmentary visions
aries, has established links with national and local agencies of scientific specialities. Experience indicates this as the
to access projects that keep this line. best way to work on mitigating the adverse consequences
The DPU experience shows that it is possible to promote of desertification and reach its invisible causes, transcend-
an integral development so that communities at risk become ing isolated cases to tackle complex and dynamic problems
able to support themselves with dignity, in health and pros- at territory scale. Dialogues with local populations must
perity. At the same time, those communities are considering exceed consultation levels, generating active processes of
basic principles such as recovery of cultural guidelines; iden- empowerment and equality in terms of decision-making.
tity; knowledge of traditional lifestyles; and the creativity Systematic work with populations affected in their rights
to associate those guidelines with new possibilities derived denotes the importance of attending, in the short term,
from the knowledge of ecosystem structure, functioning to the possibilities of social reproduction of the groups,
and production capacity. It is an approach that highlights solving their unmet basic needs. Only thus will environ-
dryland environments and their sociocultural aspects of mental, social and economic balance be possible.

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Wasteland rehabilitation for sustainable

agriculture in the Indian Himalayan region
G.C.S. Negi, Scientist E; P.P. Dhyani, Director; and R.C. Sundriyal, Scientist F,
Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, India

L
and degradation is a global problem caused by pastures/grazing land comprise a total of 32 per cent of
a variety of factors and processes including soil the IHR area, and these can be rehabilitated for biomass
erosion by water/wind and deterioration in the production and to reduce the pace of soil erosion. This
physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. region is thus faced with increasing land degradation and
These lead to long-term loss of the productive capacity wasteland generation and reduced livelihood opportuni-
of land, biodiversity and associated ecosystem goods ties. For example, during 2005/06 and 2008/09 remarkable
and services. In India, land degradation estimates vary, increases in land with dense scrub (3 per cent), open scrub
ranging from 53-188 million hectares.1 (18 per cent), degraded pasture (15 per cent) and mining
wasteland (6.8 per cent) have been recorded in the region.
In the Indian Himalayan region (IHR), which extends However, decreases ranging from 0.4 per cent to 33 per
over 2,500 km in length and 240 km in width, waste- cent in all other categories of wasteland have also been
lands account for about 34 per cent, and the area under recorded during this period.3
wasteland varies from one state to another. This is mainly Subsistence agriculture is the mainstay of rural people in
because about 22 per cent of land in the IHR is either the IHR. The majority of holdings are marginal (<2 ha), and
under snow or barren, and does not support any biologi- agriculture is heavily dependent on the surrounding forests
cal growth. Out of 59 million hectares total geographical and pastures for a variety of ecosystem services such as
area of IHR, 7.3 million hectares are degraded commu- fodder for livestock; forest floor litter for livestock bedding
nity land, 13.5 million hectares are degraded government and fertilizing the crop fields; wood for fuel; agricultural
forests, and 1.2 million hectares are abandoned agricultural implements and other minor timber needs. Furthermore,
land. Of the 23 wasteland categories,2 those such as land people derive a variety of wild edibles and raw materials for
with open and dense scrub, current and abandoned shift- cottage industries from the forests that generate income and
ing cultivation area, underutilized/degraded forest scrub, employment and contribute to livelihoods. Thus continu-
agriculture land inside notified forest land, and degraded ing biotic pressure on various categories of land year-round
Image: GBPIHED

Image: GBPIHED

A community pasture land taken up for silvi-pasture development: note the

trenches dug along contours for soil and rainwater conservation Silvi-pasture developed on a community wasteland

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Image: GBPIHED
Plantation activities through women’s participation in a degraded community forest in Champawat

for subsistence living has left the degraded mountain slopes conservation (SWC) measures such as contour trenches
devoid of vegetation and prone to soil erosion, landslides, (5-6 m long, 30-45 cm feet wide at 5 m intervals), filling
nutrient washout and invasion of weeds. This region pits dug out for plants with fine soil along with farmyard
is faced with a vicious cycle between land degradation, manure (20:80 ratio) and biocompost, participatory planta-
scarcity of natural resources, loss of biodiversity, food tion and aftercare were followed across all the wasteland
insecurity, poverty and outward migration. Under these rehabilitation models, and are briefly summarized below.
circumstances land degradation is deepening and wasteland Eco-restoration of degraded watersheds: A package of
is increasing. These issues need to be tackled to restore practices named ‘sloping watershed environmental engi-
biodiversity and ecosystem services for the revival of dwin- neering technology’ was devised for treating five degraded
dling agriculture and threatened livelihoods. watersheds. This approach integrates SWC measures,
It is evident from the foregoing that a reconciliation of plantation of suitable MPTs for provisioning fodder and
the livelihood interests (immediate tangible benefits) of fuelwood, biofencing and aftercare of plants along with
local communities with concern for ecology and biodi- the introduction of low-cost, environment-friendly and
versity (long-term intangible benefits) is of the utmost income-generating activities to boost the livelihood of local
importance for sustainable rehabilitation of degraded waste- people and thereby reduce their dependence on the forests.
lands. Since its inception in 1988, the GB Pant Institute Measures such as rooftop rainwater harvesting for house-
of Himalayan Environment and Development (GBPIHED) hold needs and increasing the water retention capacity of
has followed several approaches/methods across the IHR watersheds were also areas of prime concern. This approach
for rehabilitation of degraded watersheds and forests, was used in 55 hectares of degraded land in the Bhimtal
pastures/non-arable land and abandoned agricultural lake catchment area (Nainital district, Uttarakhand). A
land. Mobilization of stakeholder communities for micro- total of 38,322 saplings of more than 20 MPTs were planted
planning, selection of suitable multipurpose tree species on barren hill slopes, where they registered a 16-47 per
(MPTs) based on ecological suitability and the indigenous cent survival rate after five years. The highest growth
knowledge of the community, application of soil and water was recorded by Alnus nepalensis (211 cm height; 5.6 cm

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Important MPTs suitable for wasteland plantation in the Central Himalayan region

Species Main use Minor use Crude protein (%) Season of major use

Bauhinia variegata (D) FD, FR AG, F 18.1 Winter

Celtis australis (D) FD, FR AG 8.2 Summer

Grewia optiva (D) FD, FR F 26.1 Winter

Melia azedarach (D) MT, FR FD 18.4 Rainy

Prunus cerasoides (D) SC, S FR, FD 19.2 Year-round

Quercus leucotrichophora (E) FD, FR, SC AG 18.1 Year-round

Albizia stipulata (D) FR FD 15.0 Summer

Alnus nepalensis (D) SC FR, FD 12.6 Year-round

Dalbergia sissoo (D) T FD 9.1 Summer

Ougeinia dalbergioides (D) FD, AG MT, M 18.2 Summer

FD= fodder, FR = firewood, MT = minor timber, SC = soil and water conservation, S = sacred, T = timber, AG = agricultural implements, F = fibre, M = medicine, D= deciduous, E= evergreen

Source: Negi & Dhyani, 2014 7

collar diameter). In Arah village in Garur Ganga watershed Rehabilitation of pasture/non-arable land: This category
(Uttarakhand), after treatment of 9 hectares of degraded of land, suffering from high grazing pressure, soil erosion
land the soil fertility, ground grass cover and plant canopy and gully formation and the invasion of non-palatable
improved and soil loss was reduced by 60 per cent after grass/weeds, was treated with a silvi-pasture development
12 years. Fodder production increased from 2.7 tons per approach by planting fodder trees and grass of high fodder
year (Rs4,050) in 1993 to 16.4 tons per year (Rs75,020) in value and placing a ban on grazing. A nursery of suitable
2006, thus gradually reducing the women’s workload and plants was raised using healthy seed/root stock from the
improving income from the degraded land. nearby areas. This model followed five community grazing
lands across IHR (area 60 hectares). Improvements were
achieved in fodder productivity (from 0.5 to 4 t/ha-1/yr-1)
Image: GBPIHED

and soil fertility (soil carbon increased from 0.44 per cent
to 0.96 per cent), organic matter (from 0.75 per cent to
1.66 per cent) and soil moisture (from 13.2 per cent to
20 per cent). In a fodder bank development method on
6 hectares of degraded grazing land in Maikhanda village
(Rudraprayag district, Uttarakhand) a combination of
MPTs, indigenous and exotic fodder grasses were planted
with the participation of women’s groups. Improved fodder
quality and an eightfold increase in fodder yield not only
saved about a week in terms of the time needed to collect
fodder from forests, but also improved the milk yield of the
animals from 0.5 litres to 1.5 litres per day due to feeding
nutritive grasses, particularly Napier.4
Rehabilitation of abandoned agricultural land: In this cate-
gory of land, abandoned due to low soil fertility and crop
yield, an agroforestry model was developed. Selection of
MPTs for plantation was based on agroforestry traits such as
straight bole, deep roots and a low canopy shade, so that the
food crops grown underneath (local cereals and vegetables)
do not face much competition for sunlight, soil moisture
and soil nutrients. This approach was demonstrated in 6
hectares of abandoned agricultural land at Bansbara village
in Garhwal Himalaya where, after 20 years, height growth
Oak forest converted to open scrub due to lopping for fodder and fuelwood (5-17 metres per tree), biomass (20-160 t/ha), C sequestra-

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Total geographical area of different IHR states and their respective total wasteland area (for West Bengal only,
Darjeeling district is considered)

120,000

100,000

80,000 Total geographical area (sq km)

Total wasteland 2008-09 (sq km)

60,000

40,000

20,000

0
Jammu Himachal Uttarakhand Darjeeling Sikkim Assam Arunachal Meghalaya Nagaland Manipur Mizoram Tripura
& Kashmir Pradesh Pradesh

Source: Wasteland Atlas of India, 2011

tion (0.95-2.09 t C/ha-1/year-1), and fodder harvest (14.4 t/ of trees is banned through religious sentiments. This
ha-1) was recorded. Vegetables grown in this demonstration approach was demonstrated in the restoration of Badrivan
site were consumed and sold by the stakeholder fami- in Badrinath — a famous Hindu shrine at high altitude
lies.5 Similarly, in Dharaunj (14 ha) and Gumod (6.5 ha) in Uttarakhand,7 and Raksha Van (a defence forest) estab-
villages of Champawat district (Uttarakhand) cash crops lished by army people in 10 hectares of land at Bantoli
of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) were planted and (Badrinath). Also, at Kolidhaik village (Champawat district,
capacity-building of farmers on cultivation, harvesting, value Uttarakhand) 5.6 hectares of degraded land was brought
addition, packaging and marketing of MAPs was undertaken. under plantation of 6,200 saplings of 20 MPTs which have
Income generated from Ocimum basillium (Rs98,500 per attained over 3-4 metres in height. This approach was
hectare) encouraged 120 farmers to adopt MAPs for income included by the International Union for Conservation of
generation and a benefit-sharing mechanism was devised by Nature in its guidelines for planning and managing moun-
forming a MAPs growers group. tain protected areas.8
In the shifting cultivation (jhum) affected area in the It can be inferred from the above mentioned case studies
north-eastern IHR, extreme soil erosion and loss of soil that owing to the great biophysical diversity of the IHR a
fertility has accelerated the pace of land degradation and range of approaches would be required to address waste-
reduced crop yield. In such areas contour hedgerow inter- land rehabilitation/restoration and stop further degradation
cropping was practiced, which involved the planting of of land. Some of the major recommendations drawn from
local leguminous nitrogen fixing shrubs at 1.5 m to 2 m our studies are to:
distances (the alleys) along contours. Crops were grown in • s trengthen village institutions as they comprise
the alleys by applying a mulch of these hedgerow species crucial traditional knowledge on natural resource
to improve soil fertility (nitrogen from 0.165 per cent to management; the best practices must be scaled up
0.173 per cent) and yield of vegetables (20 per cent to 100 • p  romote participatory consultation with communities
per cent). Soil erosion was reduced to 50 per cent after to share knowledge, beliefs and resources for
three years.6 rehabilitation of degraded land
Eco-restoration of degraded forest land: Mobilizing people • e mphasize ecological, agroecological, and
for plantation of degraded forest lands in the high alti- socioeconomic considerations
tudes is rather a tough task as this land is owned by the • d  evelop strong linkages among technical institutions,
Government and people often do not consider themselves village institutions, practitioners and policy planners
to be the real stakeholders. In such land, the creation of • s trengthen formal and technical information networks
sacred forests and integration of science with religion was on land rehabilitation engineering, erosion control
adopted as an innovative approach for inviting the partici- measures and productivity enhancing techniques
pation of the people. After eco-physiological scrutiny, • i nclude religions and cultural/economic/livelihood
plants acclimatized for high altitude were distributed as concerns in rehabilitation activities and incentives for
‘Briksha Prasada’ by the local religious authority to pilgrims participation
and local people, and were planted as an act of devotion. • f acilitate community skill development and training on
The plantation is dedicated to the local deity, and cutting key sectors of ecological rehabilitation of wastelands.

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Soil and the living land — threats and responses

Uriel Safriel, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Israel

S
oil constitutes the infrastructure for all terrestrial Loss of soil fertility is detrimental to the local land user,
life on Earth. Jointly, soil and the life it supports hence local responses to prevent it are required. Direct users of
make the living land, whose fertility caters for plant land productivity are often unaware of the losses or they lack
productivity, which generates food for all other terrestrial tools and resources for proper responses. The global indirect
organisms, mankind included. users of soil fertility often possess the knowledge, technologies
and financial resources required by the local, direct land users.
Soil provides mechanical anchorage and nourishment to the Therefore, cooperation between the local direct and the global
land’s plant cover, which injects to the atmosphere the oxygen we indirect users of soil fertility would benefit both — it would
breathe, and absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide thus regulating outweigh the short-term costs of using the soil prudently borne
the climate. Jointly with its underlying soil, the land’s plant cover by the local direct user, and the cost of international develop-
is engaged in water filtration and regulation locally, and in driving ment aid borne by the global indirect land user.
the water cycle globally. The soil functions as a bioreactor for recy- The major threat to soil fertility is when its exploitation, directed
cling nutrients, as moisture and water storage, and as a repository at increasing land productivity that is of economic value, leads to
for organic matter that facilitates water-holding capacity, and its soil erosion, losses of organic and mineral compounds, and salini-
sequestration contributes to climate protection. All these life- zation at rates faster than natural. Rather than the aspired increase
support benefits to mankind travel across scales, from current to in economic land productivity, the land use practices bring about
future generations, from local to global land. But when the land a persistent and often irreversible productivity decrease relative to
user inadvertently harms the soil of his land, the repercussions of the soil’s potential fertility. This persistent reduction in the land’s
the resulting local fertility loss travel far, in time and space. biological productivity comes under the heading of ‘land degrada-

Images: Uriel Safriel

A Bedouin village in the Negev dryland of Israel: its degraded land due to ploughing (left) is a candidate for restoration; ongoing degrading land use (right) can be
offset when the degraded land has been restored

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 Living Land

tion’ which, when occurring in drylands, is labelled ‘desertification’.

These are driven by land use practices that turn exploitation into Identifying states of land use for a local LDN project
overexploitation, sustainable into non-sustainable land uses, and in a semi-arid watershed in Israel
result in reducing rather than increasing land productivity.
Though the knowledge required for sustainable land use
exists through millennia of accumulated traditional knowl- Degraded
edge and centuries of scientific research, three interlinked rangeland
socioeconomic policy drivers currently combine to invoke the Sustainable
drivers of land degradation — increasing global human popu- rangeland use

lation size, increasing per capita calories consumption, and

Productivity
Sustainable
increasing socioeconomic inequity.1 These reflect on increas- cropland use
ing demands from, and pressure on, soil fertility and point at a Degrading
cropland use
paucity of resources for averting the mounting threats of land
degradation by transporting knowledge and technologies to,
and effectively implementing them in, the developing world.
Though much knowledge for preventing land degradation is
available, means to detect and quantify it are controversial. A
quarter of the global land may be degraded2 and the socioeco- Time
nomic and policy drivers of land degradation are intensifying;
hence the rest of the global land is at a risk of land degrada- Source: Uriel Safriel

tion.3 Furthermore, local soil erosion, a major driver of the land’s

productivity loss and the loss of vegetation cover, is also the driver
of off-site, transboundary detrimental impacts on non-degraded
lands — covering agricultural plots, blocking water reservoirs, time-series satellite images that degraded land continuously
generating floods and dust storms and increasing water and air accumulates,10 a phenomenon projected to continue.11 Third,
pollution. Other social off-site impacts of local land degradation — degraded soil can be rehabilitated such that land productivity
local poverty in degradation-affected areas causing migrations and can be restored, as has been demonstrated by a number of
refugees — may trigger foreign interventions.4 Finally, the spatial well-studied cases in non-drylands12 and drylands.13
spread of land productivity loss, associated with the impaired soil LDN is achieved when, within the time period in which an
function of carbon sequestration, would undermine global food amount of non-degraded productive land becomes degraded, an
security and global climate change mitigation, respectively. identical amount of already degraded land of the same productivity
Long before land degradation had become widely recognized, potential is restored to its non-degraded state. In other words, LDN
many countries promulgated legislations and adopted policies can be achieved by offsetting the amount of land being degraded
each addressing a specific driver of land degradation. In some each year through reclaiming land of equivalent area and produc-
cases these increased rather than reduced land degradation,5 tivity potential from already degraded land. This implies that when
and in most cases they have not explicitly targeted land degrada- LDN is achieved, land degradation has not been totally arrested,
tion.6 Furthermore, the United Nations Convention to Combat but the amount of the domain’s productive land stabilized.
Desertification (UNCCD) text obliges the parties to more effec- The direct quantifiable indicators of this target are conceptu-
tively implement and enforce the already existing policies and ally (but not yet technically) straightforward: one is the area of
states that only when these tools “do not exist”, “enacting new newly-degraded land and the other is the area of degraded land
laws and establishing long term policies” would be required.7 newly restored, nominally and as proportions of the domain under
Thus, in order to address land degradation holistically, land consideration. These values need to be compared for determining
degradation needs to be recognized as an interlinked syndrome the distance from the LDN target set for the LDN project’s domain.
of global dimensions that requires global policy responses. Thus, attaining the LDN target depends not only on success-
The opportunity for this came when the family of nations ful restoration, but also on the protection and management for
under the auspices of the United Nations agreed upon interlinked sustainability of the used land — both the restored land, and the
development-environment targets — reducing biodiversity losses, land not yet degraded but coming under use. Most important is
mitigating climate change and alleviating poverty. These cannot that attaining LDN is a cumulative process — when each region
be acheived by setting targets that only address each of these within a country achieves LDN, the country as a whole becomes
processes, since the state of soil and its backdrop of biodiversity land degradation neutral; furthermore, all countries combined can
loss, climate change and poverty need to be addressed through strive to achieve a land degradation neutral world.
setting a land degradation target, ambitious and realistically attain- An LDN project requires an identification of the state of
able within a plausible time frame. This target, conceived at the land with respect to its productivity, a tool kit for applying
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), the appropriate land use practices for each state of land, and
is the land degradation neutrality (LDN) target. a reliable system for monitoring the changes in these states.
LDN is based on three observations. First, even though the These require the support of a global mechanism that assesses
precise spatial dimension of degradation is not yet consen- the available science and technology, identifies knowledge
sual,8 it is undisputable that degradation already prevails in gaps and sets out to bridge them, and then interfaces them
many areas.9 Second, there is sufficient evidence derived from to policymakers, to be eventually extended to the land users.

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 Living Land

Land degradation, climate change and biodiversity loss are mutually reinforcing nested feedback loops

Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Adapted from Adeel, Z. et al, 200520

The UNCCD’s 11th Conference of Parties in 2013 took the Furthermore, the climatic boundary of the drylands was set at
first step in this direction by deciding to establish its Science- an aridity index value of 0.65,17 that is to say areas where the ratio
Policy Interface, which started functioning as of June 2014. of precipitation to potential evapotranspiration is higher than 0.65
This included motivating and assisting the Intergovernmental do not qualify as drylands. The aridity index used for mapping
Platform of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services to set and to the global drylands18 was based on the rainfall and tempera-
carry out a thematic assessment of land degradation and resto- ture means for the period 1951-1980. However, the directional
ration, whose findings would assist in guiding responses to land anthropogenic climate change undermines the stability of the
degradation, including attainment of LDN at all scales. aridity index and changes the spatial expase of the drylands. Most
One stumbling block for applying effective responses to land of Africa, for example, has become drier: the hyper-arid and arid
degradation is that the UNCCD is directly relevant to only 34.5 drylands increased by 51 and 3 million hectares respectively, and
per cent of global land since its mandate is restricted to drylands the non-drylands of 1931-1960, ‘lost’ 25 million hectares. Finally,
only.14 But loss of biological or economic productivity resulting rainfall decreases and evapotranspiration increases are projected
from processes spelled out by UNCCD text also occurs in most to intensify this trend in many drylands by mid-century.19 Thus,
of the other 64.5 per cent of global land, regardless of whether lands identified as non-drylands due to their climatic conditions
it is exposed to risk of land degradation or desertification. For during 1950-1980 already qualify, and many more will qualify as
example, land degradation in China depends more on land use drylands in the future, making the current distinction between
than on whether it is dryland or not. Other evidence of severe the UNCCD drylands and non-drylands redundant.
land degradation in non-drylands is being increasingly detected.15 Finally, recalling that land degradation impacts biodiversity
In addition, non-drylands also abound in most ‘dryland coun- and exacerbates global climate change, expanding the focus of
tries’: only 43 per cent of these countries have drylands covering UNCCD to cover all lands and their soils would also enable the
more than 95 per cent of their territory, and in about third of the addressing of land and soil issues at the global scale. Jointly with
dryland countries, drylands take up less than 50 per cent of their the Convention on Biological Diversity and the United Nations
territories.16 Desertification national action plans compiled by Framework Convention on Climate Change, addressing the land-
dryland countries, pursuant to their commitments as parties to biodiversity-climate interlinkages would comprise an effective
the UNCCD, address land degradation while ignoring the deline- framework for holistically securing the living land’s life-support
ation of drylands within their territories. system of the planet.

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Returning agricultural productivity to former

tin mining land in Peninsular Malaysia
Dato Dr Sharif Haron, Dr Mohamad Roff Mohd Noor, Dr Wan Abdullah Wan Yusoff and Rohani Md. Yon,
Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute

F
or more than a century, tin ore was one of the main cent of the ex-mining land has been rehabilitated or reused
pillars of Malaysia’s economy which was based on for other puprposes. Present uses of the ex-mining land
primary commodities. The prominence of tin in the include housing and settlement areas, industrial estates,
economy lasted until the world tin industry collapsed in agriculture, aquaculture and animal husbandry, tourism
the mid 1980s. Following this event, the country’s tin and recreation facilities and public institutions and facilities.
industry greatly reduced its activities. With the collapse Presently, about 50,000 hectares of ex-mining land
of the tin mining industry large tracts of land, which have remain unused. These areas are found quite near the urban
been used for depositing tin tailings, are left vacant. ‘Tin areas. Most of these areas are tin tailings which have been
tailings’ refers to the materials other than the tin miner- deposited with sand, therefore they are known as sand tail-
als coming out of the mining process that were deposited ings. Like other marginal soils, sand tailing is a problem
on the mined or unmined land adjacent to the mining soil because of its poor physical and chemical properties
sites. Three types of tin tailings are usually found in the making it unsuitable for crop growth. The sand tailing
tin mines: gravel (>2 mm), sand (coarse sand, 2.0-0.2 contains coarse sand grains with less than 5 per cent clay
mm and fine sand, 0.2-0.02 mm), and slime (silt, 0.02- content. The sandy texture of sand tailing leads to excessive
0.002 mm and clay, <0.002 mm). internal drainage and low water holding properties. Sand
tailing also has a high surface temperature.
It is estimated that the total area of ex-mining land in the Sand tailing has a pH of about 5 or less and is characterized
whole of Malaysia is about 127,550 hectares. About 60 per by a very low level of bases, phosphorus and nitrogen. Organic

Images: MARDI

Margenta groundnut planted on sand tailings, producing a yield of 300 g/clump

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Effects of organic and inorganic fertilizer inputs on yields of sweet potato, chilli and tomato on sand tailings

Crop Yield (t/ha)

No inputs Organic inputs only Inorganic inputs only Organic + Inorganic inputs

Sweet potato - 11.2 - 25.0

Organic: 60 t/ha POME
Inorganic: 1.4 t/ha NPK

Chilli 0 - 1.4 6.1

Organic: 30 t/ha poultry dung
Inorganic: 3 t/ha NPK

Chilli 0 1.1 1.4 3.1

Organic: 30 t/ha POME
Inorganic: 3 t/ha NPK

Chilli 0 0.5 1.4 4.1

Organic: 100 t/ha EFB
Inorganic: 3 t/ha NPK

Tomato 0 12.5 3.0 40.0

Organic: 30 t/ha poultry dung
Inorganic: 1.5 t/ha NPK

Tomato 0 7.5 3.0 31.3

Organic: 30 t/ha POME
Inorganic: 1.5 t/ha NPK

Tomato 0 5.5 3.0 21.0

Organic: 100 t/ha EFB
Inorganic: 1.5 t/ha NPK
NPK = 12 N: 12 P2O5: 17 K2O: 2 MgO+trace elements

Source: Vimala and Sukra (2010)1

matter content and cation exchange capacity are extremely Organic ameliorants used were mainly agrobiomass such
low, leading to high nutrient leaching rates. All these proper- as oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB), palm oil mill efflu-
ties make the sand tailing uncondusive to crop growth. ent (POME), animal manures and various composts which
The Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development were either made on site from crop residues or purchased.
Institute (MARDI) took on the challenge and undertook The organic amendments are mainly agrowastes available
research to overcome these problems so that the sand tailing abundantly in the country and generally inexpensive.
areas can be utilized for crop production. The close proxim- The key to transforming barren sand tailings to productive
ity of these areas to the urban areas makes them attractive cropland is the use of agrobiomass which provides organic
for crop growing since there is a ready market in the urban matter and nutrients. The provision of organic matter is the
areas for fresh food crops. Such proximity to the urban areas more vital role of agrobiomass as the nutrient content in
would reduce transportation and marketing costs. organic matter is limited. Nutrients can be supplemented
The above constraints to crop production can be over- from chemical fertilizers. Agrobiomass also serves as mulch-
come with the use of appropriate agrobiomass and inorganic ing material. The agrobiomass needed for crop production
fertilizers. Application of both organic and inorganic nutri- can come from either plant or animal sources.
ent inputs is important for obtaining good yields of crops The largest source of agrobiomass in the country comes
grown on sand tailings such as sweet potato, chilli, cabbage from the oil palm industry which provides about 50
and tomato. million tons of agrobiomass comprising of fronds, trunks,
MARDI has successfully cultivated a range of food crops EFB, POME, nut shell and pressed fibre. Of these, EFB
and herbs at the Tin Tailing Research Station in Kundang, and POME have been extensively evaluated as sources of
Selangor. The crops cultivated include vegetables (leaf, organic matter and nutrients on sandy soils.
fruit and root vegetables), field crops (sweet potato and Empty fruit bunches are available from the oil palm facto-
sweetcorn), herbs (lemon grass, turmeric, ginger, noni and ries after the oil containing fruits are removed by steaming,
aloe vera) and fruit crops (papaya, ciku and starfruit). leaving behind the empty bunches. These bunches are

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Yields of leafy vegetables on sand tailings compared to mean yields on normal soils

Common name Yield (t/ha)

English Local Sand tailings Normal soils

Chinese mustard Sawi bunga 12-20 12.8

Chinese spinach Bayam 12-25 14.3

Water convolvulus Kangkong 10-20 10.0

Lettuce Daun salad 8-15 17.9

Chinese chives Kucai 10-15 11.5

Source: Abd. Shukor et al.2

Yields of fruit vegetables on sand tailings compared to farmers’ mean yield

Common name Yield (t/ha)

English Local Sand tailings Farmers’ mean

Chilli Cili 6-19 11.8

Brinjal/egg plant Terung 25-30 16.0

Okra/lady’s finger Kacang bendi ~20 13.4

Cucumber Timun 38 19.1

Tomato Tomato 21-40 28.4

Source: Abd. Shukor et al.3

Herb yields on sand tailings compared to farmers’ mean on normal soils

Common name Yield (t/ha)

English Local Sand tailings Farmers’ mean

Lemon grass Serai makan 17.8-24.7 12.1

Ginger Halia 16.0-24.9 6.0

Turmeric Kunyit 6.2-10.9 12.6

Noni Mengkudu 3.7, 14.8, 12.9 1.2, 16.0, 18.0*

Aloe vera (gel yield) - 14.5 -

*Yields in first, second and third years

Source: Abd. Shukor et al.4

sterilized during the oil extraction process and can be of slow-release organic matter and some nutrients to the
considered as pathogen-free and therefore relatively safe infertile sand tailings. It also aids in retaining nutrients and
to use directly without composting in the planting hole water, and can be used as a mulch to prevent the surface
especially for the cultivation of fruit crops. EFB can also be soil temperature from rising too high.
applied in furrows for the cultivation of long-term vegeta- The POME is collected in ponds near the palm oil mills.
bles such as sweet shoots. The EFB becomes the source Here the effluent undergoes a series of anaerobic and

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Images: MARDI
Sweet potatoes planted on sand tailings to produce a crop of VitAto (red) and gendut (white) varieties

aerobic fermentation. Solid particles of the effluent settle and then incorporated into the soil or applied in furrows and
to the bottom of the pond and as the water evaporates the mixed with the sand in the furrows. However, furrow appli-
POME is produced. POME is rich in nutrients and has a cation of POME or poultry manure was superior to broadcast
low carbon-nitrogen ratio indicating that the material has application for a number of vegetable crops in sand tailings
undergone extensive degradation during the fermentation such as French bean, okra, cucumber and tomato.
process. The nutrients present in POME are readily avail- In both methods, it is important that the organic source
able to the growing plants. Studies have shown that POME is thoroughly mixed into the soil and then left for about
is a good nutrient source for vegetables and sweetcorn in three to five days before sowing or transplanting, especially
sand tailings. if animal manure is used. This is to ensure that the seeds or
Animal manures have also been reported to improve
yields and soil properties of sand tailings. Poultry, sheep,

Image: MARDI
goat and cattle manure are good sources of slow-release
nutrients for crops on sand tailings such as chilli.
In addition to using agrobiomass directly, plant and
animal materials can be composted and used as nutrient
sources. The nutrient content of compost can vary widely
depending on the nutrient content of the source materials
as well as the proportion of the different materials used.
Legume species, with their ability to fix atmospheric
nitrogen, can be used as a soil ameliorant on sandy soil.
These legumes can be ploughed in at flowering, as a means
to maintain or improve soil organic matter and fertility.
Legumes such as Calopogonium mucunoides, Centrosema
pubescens, Indigofera tinctoria, Mucuna cochinchinensis,
Vigna radiata, Glycine max, Arachis pintoi and Pueraria
javanica have been found to establish well on sandy soils.
The legume species must be inoculated with appropri-
ate inoculants and mixed with a little phosphorus before
sowing to get effective nodulation and nitrogen fixation to
occur. Incorporation of the green manure must be done
three weeks before seed sowing.
For the rehabilitation of sand tailings, the organic sources Newly planted sweet potato on sand-tailing for the production of
of biomass can either be broadcast on the surface of the plot cuttings with a sprinkler watering system

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Images: MARDI
Irrigation for agriculture: (left) a lake on ex-mining land provides a water source and (right) mangoes are planted on slime tailings with an irrigation trench

transplants are not scorched by any ammonia gas that may These results indicate that problem soils such as sand
still be emanating from the organic sources. tailings can become productive farms when given proper
Spot application of organic manure is recomemmended treatment with organic inputs. Crops such as vegetables,
for crops such as lemongrass, watermelon and fruit trees fruits, sweet potato, sweetcorn and herbs can be success-
and also for those crops with spacing at 1 m x 1 m or fully produced by application of the technologies developed
greater. Spot application will save the total amount of by MARDI. With these technologies sustainable agricul-
organic sources required per hectare. The organic source ture production on sand tailings is equal that obtained from
is applied in planting holes and then thoroughly mixed normal soils. Thus soil improvement in sand tailings has
with the sand before planting. not only produced fresh fruits, vegetables and herbs for the
The rates of application of the organic inputs depend on nation but also helped to improve farmers’ incomes.
the crops to be planted. For tomatoes the yield increased
significantly with application of 70 t/ha of POME while leaf

Image: MARDI
mustard yield increased linearly when poultry manure was
applied at 10-40 t/ha. Okra and cucumber yield increased
when 40-50 t/ha of poultry manure was applied. Chilli
increased significantly when 80 t/ha POME was applied.
For leafy vegetables an application of 30-60 t/ha of poultry
manure significantly increased the yield. For short-term
leafy vegetables a basal application of about 40 t/ha of
poultry manure is sufficient.
Organic fertilizer significantly affects the yields of crops.
Applying organic matter greatly increased the yield of crops
such as sweetcorn, chlli and tomato. A combination of organic
and inorganic fertilizers greatly boosted the yields of all the
crops. Yields of leafy vegetables such as Chinese mustard,
Chinese spinach, water convolvulus, lettuce and Chinese
chives, grown on sand tailings with appropriate amounts of
organic and inorganic sources of nutrient can match or exceed
the mean yields achieved by farmers on normal soils. Several
fruit vegetables also perform well on sand tailings compared
to the mean yield of farmers working on normal soils. This
clearly shows that organic inputs supplemented by inorganic
fertilizers are crucial to high productivity. Planting herbs on
sand tailings also produced good yields. Herbs such as lemon-
grass, ginger, turmeric, noni and aloe vera produced yields Sand tailing areas are close to urban areas with a ready market for
that exceed farmers’ means when planted on sand tailings. fresh food crops

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Innovative agricultural intensification

of sandy desert soils using organic
and inorganic amendments
Shabbir A. Shahid, Abdullah Alshankiti, Shagufta Gill and Henda Mahmoudi,
International Center for Biosaline Agriculture, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

E
arth’s total land mass is about 148,939,063 km2 so on. However, ‘soil’ is narrower in meaning and exclu-
which is about 29.2 per cent of its total surface. sively means a medium for plant growth. Overexploitation
Water covers approximately 70.8 per cent of the of soil resources, for quick benefits without appreciating
Earth’s surface, mostly in the form of oceans and ice soil health, has shrunk soil resources to an unprecedented
formations. Earth is the only planet known to have an level and there is growing concern that over years it may not
atmosphere containing free oxygen, oceans of water on its be able to provide sufficient food to meet human demand.
surface, and life. Thus, if it provides sustainable ecosys- Therefore it is essential to maintain soil health for long-
tem services we can call it a living land. If, however, its term benefits; this is only possible when we manage the soil
capacity is diminishing due to diversified threats then through scientific diagnostics and innovative ways includ-
we have to think of its sustainable management for long- ing diversified organic and inorganic soil amendments.
term services for human beings, maintaining biodiversity Trials on soil amendments for forage production at the
and environmental services. International Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA) have
revealed a general increase, and in some cases a doubling,
‘Land’ is a broad term, which includes diversified features, of fresh biomass over the control treatment where amend-
mountains, rivers, forests, agricultural farms, buildings and ments were not added. Results from greenhouse and field

Image: ICBA

Land degradation is a serious environmental problem, especially in the drylands that occupy one-third of the Earth’s surface

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Sandy soil amended for agriculture intensification

20
Control Water treatment 100% ETc
A1: AustraHort
16 A2: Meliorit
A3: Zeoplant Pellet
Fresh biomass (tons/ha)

A4: Zeoplant
12 A5: Compost

0
0 1.5 3 4.5
Amendment doses kg/m2

A field trial was conducted on sandy soil (Typic torripsamment) at an determined. The trial was irrigated at two irrigation levels (75 per cent
ICBA station for barley forage production. Sandy soil is dominant in ETc and 100 per cent ETc). The results have shown positive effects of
the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and other Gulf Cooperation Council amendments addition to soil on biomass production. At both irrigation
countries and is used for agricultural and landscaping activities. The levels the addition of amendments has shown promising results in terms
sandy soil was amended with four inorganic amendments (AustraHort: of fresh biomass increase (more than double) over control treatment. At
A1, Meliorit: A2, Zeoplant pellet: A3 and Zeoplant: A4) and one 75 per cent ETc and 100 per cent ETc (control) biomass was recorded
organic amendment (Compost: A5) applied at the rates of 0, 1.5, 3 as 6.5 and 9 tons/ha, whereas with the addition of amendments
and 4.5 kg/m2. Standard fertilizer rates were used to offset nutrient variable increase of biomass was recorded, the maximum being 15.5
requirements of barley crop. Treatments were triplicated in Randomized tons/ha with the application of 4.5kg/m2 meliorit at 75 per cent ETc
Complete Block Design. The plot size was 2.25 m2 (1.5m x 1.5m). (138 per cent increase) and 19.5 tons/ha with the application of
Soil amendments can boost soil resource capacity, improving the 4.5 kg/m2 zeoplant pellet at 100 per cent ETc (117 per cent increase).
cost-effectiveness of agricultural production. This preliminary investigation provides hope for the intensification of
The standard agronomic parameters were recorded and biomass agriculture in sandy soils which are inherently low in crop productivity.

Source: ICBA

trials give us hope for the intensification of agriculture in through natural and human activities, and accelerated due
desert sandy soils through organic and inorganic amend- to persistent droughts in many developing arid countries.
ments and boosting forage production. Irrational use of soil resources has been carried out by
Soil is made up of sand, silt and clay and has many thou- powerful competing economic and social forces that have
sands of soil taxa, depending upon where you are on the little knowledge about the potential of soil resources and
world soil globe. Plants and crops depend on soil for the little or no regard for the long-term care of soils. Therefore,
supply of water and nutrients, anchorage of plants and as a there is a lot riding on our capacity to understand, conserve
medium in which to grow. Soil is a fundamental component and manage soil resources efficiently and sustainably. The
for food production and in providing other soil functions unsustainable use of soil resource is ultimately diminish-
such as climate regulation, nutrient cycling, habitat for ing its capacity for long-term services especially producing
organisms, flood regulation, a source of pharmaceuticals food. Sustainable soil management could produce up to
and genetic resources, foundations for human infrastruc- 58 per cent more food through agricultural intensification,
ture, provision of construction materials, cultural heritage, so that 95 per cent of our food is directly or indirectly
provision of food, fibre and fuel, carbon sequestration produced on our soils.1 This provides hope for meeting the
and water purification and soil contamination reduction. future food demand of an increasing population.
Thus we are justified in saying that soils deliver ecosystem Global data shows that 33 per cent of soils are degraded due
services that enable life on Earth. to diverse ailments. Among the natural forces of land degra-
Over many years humans have used soils to gain great dation, under desert conditions wind has a major role in soil
economic rewards. However, many of the methods used erosion. Globally over 24 billion tons of fertile soil was lost
to gain those benefits are now seen as unsustainable, due to erosion in 2011, that is 3.4 tons per person per year,
because in many cases they lead to degraded land. Hence costing US$70 per inhabitant, or US$419 billion worldwide.
land degradation (loss or reduction of land functions or Without fertile soils, food security, poverty alleviation and
land uses) becomes a serious worldwide environmental climate change mitigation and adaptation will not be achieved.
problem, especially in the drylands that occupy one-third In addition to affecting agricultural farms through nutrient
of the Earth’s land surface. Land degradation is induced mining, drifting soil also causes environmental issues.

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Image: ICBA
ICBA has experience in managing marginal lands with sandy, salt-affected soils through scientific and site-specific diagnostics

Due to increasing population growth and unsustain- to meet human demand. Globally there are 1,500 million ha
able land uses, arable lands are shrinking. Currently, each cropland including 250 million ha (17 per cent) irrigated
human has only 0.22 hectares at their disposal; in 1960, that producing 40 per cent of world food, and 1,250 million
figure was 0.5 hectares. The other major constraint to food ha (83 per cent) rain-fed agriculture contributing 60 per
production is the development of soil salinity in irrigated cent of world food production.4 Under a business-as-usual
agricultural farms which is great concern as 40 per cent of scenario, by 2050 agricultural production must increase by
world food is produced from irrigated agriculture and 60 60 per cent globally — and almost 100 per cent in develop-
per cent from rain-fed agriculture. Currently, an estimated ing countries — to meet food demand alone for 9 billion.1
20 per cent of irrigated lands is salinized to various degrees To achieve such targets it is essential to understand soil
and the global annual cost of salt-induced land degradation health constraints and develop problem-solving, innova-
in irrigated areas could be US$27.3 billion because of lost tive ways which have long-term effects. This requires the
crop production.2 Globally about 1.6 million hectares are development and implementation of new agricultural and
lost annually due to salinization. With this pace of loss, the food policies, and water, environmental and soil protec-
irrigated area that is now contributing to agricultural foods tion plans. The concept of climate-Smart Agriculture
will be out of production in nearly 140 years — an alarming (CSA) could be a step in the right direction. The CSA
situation since by 2050 we have to produce 70 per cent more being promoted by FAO 5 is not a single specific agricul-
food to feed 2 billion extra mouths in addition to current 7.3 tural technology or practice that can be universally applied.
billion. The impact of climate change is another constraint to It is an approach that requires site-specific assessments to
achieve sustainability in food security. An Intergovernmental identify suitable agricultural production technologies and
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis report 3 has practices. With this understanding, using innovative ways
recognized the major impacts of climate change as food and to improve soil health, intensification in both irrigated and
water shortages, increased displacement of people, increased rain-fed agriculture may be possible. However, increasing
poverty and coastal flooding. agriculture lands may not be a viable option in many coun-
Overexploitation has shrunk arable lands for food tries due to various factors including unfavourable terrains,
production and it may not be able to provide sufficient food such as in African countries.

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Integrated plant nutrient management for sandy soil

800
Fresh biomass (gm/pot)
(10 plants/pot)

600

400

200

0
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10

One of the best ways to improve soil properties and prevent nutrient T9 — C
 ompost @ 5 tons/ha + 5.5 L/ha biofertilizer + 5 tons Biochar/ha
losses is to improve soil health through innovative ways using organic T10 — C ompost @ 5 tons/ha + 50 per cent fertilizer + 5.5 L/ha
amendments and minimizing the use of fertilizers. In order to achieve this biofertilizer + 5 tons biochar/ha.
we have conducted a greenhouse experiment to test the integrated effects
of chemical fertilizer (CF), compost (C), biofertilizer (BF) and biochar (BC) on The results are presented as grams per pot (each pot contains 10
maize crop productivity and improvements in nutrient availability. plants). They show that agricultural intensification in desert sandy soils
A pot experiment was conducted in the greenhouse using the following can be achieved through appropriate combinations of organic and
treatments with three replication: inorganic soil amendments
T1 — Control General observations revealed the maximum biomass production
T2 — Compost @ 5 tons/ha was found when biochar was applied in combination with 100 per cent
T3 — Compost @ 5 tons/ha + 100 per cent conventional fertilizer conventional fertilizer (T8), which is 29 per cent more compared to where
T4 — Compost @ 5 tons/ha + 5.5 L/ha biofertilizer chemical fertilizer was applied alone (T3). All treatment combinations
T5 — Compost @ 5 tons/ha + 50 per cent fertilizer + 5.5 L/ha increased fresh biomass over the control treatment (T1) in various
biofertilizer ranges. It was also found that when half of the chemical fertilizer was
T6 — Compost @ 5 tons/ha + 25 per cent fertilizer + 5.5 L/ha applied in combination with biofertilizer and biochar (T10), an increase of
biofertilizer 19.7 per cent fresh biomass was recorded compared to where 100 per
T7 — Compost @ 5 tons/ha + 5 tons biochar/ha cent conventional fertilizer was applied (T3). The application of various
T8 — Compost @ 5 tons/ha + 100 per cent conventional fertilizer amendments has increased cation-exchange-capacity (9-15 per cent) and
+ 5 tons biochar/ha organic carbon (48-52 per cent) compared to T3.

Source: ICBA

Image: ICBA
ICBA has vast experience in managing marginal lands
(sandy, salt-affected soils) through scientific and site-specific
diagnostics. The marginality has been mainly in two forms:
desert sandy soils and salt-affected lands. The former is
confined to desert environments where loose sand forms
the major landscape and basis for agricultural farms.6 The
salt-affected lands can be found both on sandy deserts and
other arid region soils of various soil textures. ICBA scien-
tists believe that it may be possible to keep the soils healthy
and productive for a long time when a soil health programme
goes simultaneously with agricultural activities.
Sandy desert soils (hot arid climate) are plagued with
very low water and nutrient holding capacities, which
results in frequent irrigation and nutrient application,
high leaching and nutrient losses. Such harsh conditions
call for new ways to conserve water, improve soil proper-
ties and prevent nutrient losses. One of the best ways is to
modify sandy soils with organic and inorganic amendments
to improve soil tilth and ultimately improve moisture
and nutrient retention, leading to efficient use of water
resources and preventing groundwater pollution. At ICBA
we have proved through greenhouse and field trials that
the addition of suitable quantities of organic and inorganic
amendments improved soil qualities, leading to significant
water saving and doubling fresh biomass production. Desert soils are loose and fragile — a view of degraded land in UAE deserts

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Reclaiming degraded lands and building resilience

to climate change in Maharashtra, India
Dr Marcella D’souza, Executive Director and Karan Misquitta, Researcher, Watershed Organisation Trust

D
rylands constitute 69 per cent of India’s total area. conserve soil and water and improve land productivity.
These are heavily populated regions where the live- Importantly, WOTR has always focused on developing scala-
lihoods of the inhabitants are vulnerable as they ble and replicable interventions and has directly and indirectly
depend on a natural resource base that is degraded and implemented and supported successful watershed develop-
deforested. According to the National Bureau of Soil Survey ment across 83,857 km2 in 1,422 villages in seven states of
and Land Use Planning, an area of 146.82 million hectares India, benefiting over 1.2 million people.
is reported to be suffering from various kinds of land However, it has been observed that unless climate change
degradation, with erosion caused by water alone contrib- adaptation is factored into project design, weather variations
uting to about 61.7 per cent and wind erosion contributing will continue to obstruct progress and development. Hence, in
to 10.24 per cent. Much of this is reversible or can be 2009 WOTR included weather uncertainties into project design.
arrested, as dryland regions and degraded ecosystems can There follows below an account of the impact in 16 villages, in
be significantly improved by participatory and integrated the Sangamner Block of Ahmednagar, of a climate change adap-
management of water and natural resources. However, tation (CCA) project implemented by WOTR and supported
management of dryland resources must be viewed from the by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC)
broader climatic and socioeconomic context. and the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD). The findings described are the results obtained
The Watershed Organization Trust (WOTR) has played an from various studies, impact assessments and reports.
important role in developing techno-participatory approaches Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra, lies in the dry semi-arid
to watershed development that have proven to significantly rain shadow of the Western Ghats. The land has little biomass

Satellite image analysis of the Sangamner cluster project villages shows an increase in the area under vegetation cover

Dec 2008 Dec 2013

Total area: 16,050 ha

Source: WOTR

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 Living Land

cover and rainwater run-off is high. It receives an average of

450 mm of annual rainfall. The temperature ranges between Ecosystems-based adaptation: key features
19.2ºC and 32.9ºC in Sangamner. When the Community
Driven Vulnerability Evaluation tool, developed by WOTR, was Community-led: people-centric. Local Institutions are strengthened
to be inclusive and to ensure that benefits reach all stakeholders.
applied in representative villages, people highlighted delayed
Attention is directed to building the capacity of local communities to
monsoons, prolonged dry spells, droughts, unseasonal heavy participate in and lead interventions.
rainfall, increasing temperatures and prolonged summers as
climate risks. They also stated that market demands pushed Ecosystems-based watershed development as a means to reduce
risks, stabilize and enhance nature-based livelihoods, reduce the
crops that were new to the region. In 2009 the majority of impact of extreme meteorological events, increase productivity,
agriculture was rain-fed and 54 per cent of households were conserve biodiversity and improve quality of life.
smallholder producers, dependent on agriculture for income.
Adaptive sustainable agriculture promotes Low External Input
In times of climate stress, people coped by turning to seasonal
Sustainable Agriculture methods, use of indigenous seeds and
distress migration for survival. Food security was met from the system of crop intensification to increase crop and land
the public distribution system, with a little from their farms productivity and reduce costs of cultivation. This is combined
and purchases when possible. During summers and in times of with agrometeorology and water budgeting to make agriculture
sustainable, efficient and adaptive keeping in mind food and
drought, wells ran dry and water had to be supplied in tankers nutrition security, markets and income.
for domestic purposes between February-March and June.
Leveraging WOTR’s expertise in participatory water- Automated weather stations and SMS-based agro-advisories
shed development, the 16 villages were organized into two provide timely, locale-specific crop-weather advisories to farmers
so that agricultural activities are planned accordingly. Evidence
clusters for better management. In each village the Village from around the world shows that texts-based advisories
Development Committee and women’s self-help groups were and reminders have a positive effect on the adoption of new
capacitated and worked in close cooperation as the primary technologies and techniques.
stakeholders. WOTR moved to ecosystems-based adaptation Water budgeting helps communities visualize and plan their crops
to help vulnerable communities build the resilience of their based on water availability, their water needs and requirements,
livelihoods resource base, now threatened by climate change. ensuring optimum and efficient use of water, equitable sharing of
WOTR introduced a bottom-up, holistic and integrated excess water, and informed decisions on groundwater withdrawals.

approach with appropriate interventions, towards adaptation Biodiversity. WOTR integrates biodiversity concerns and builds
and resilience-building. awareness in the community about the importance of promoting,
Farmers in the region are mostly dependent on seasonal conserving and protecting the local biodiversity; helps them
keep a record of it through participatory mapping; identifies and
rains which are highly variable in time and space. Weather sustainably promotes biodiversity-based economic activities; and
events such as drought, storms and heatwaves have severe sensitizes local bodies to the likely adverse biodiversity-related
effects on agricultural production. The impact of these events impacts of decisions taken by them.
on farmers’ livelihoods can be reduced if:
• farmers are able to align their agriculture with climate- Source: WOTR

smart, sustainable agronomic practices

• they are able to access advance information about the
probable occurrence of these events, as well as the possible
contingency measures for their geographical locations. where appropriate. The objective of these locale-customized
advisories is to help farmers take informed decisions, which
Responding to this WOTR has developed and promoted a in turn helps increase productivity, mitigate risks and reduce
locale-specific comprehensive package of agricultural prac- losses. The SMS-based delivery system for the agro-advisories
tices. Through the CCA project more than 6,000 farmers in allows WOTR to take advantage of the high degree of mobile
the 16 villages were trained in the use of these techniques. telephony penetration in the Indian countryside. To date
Applying these techniques improved yields, particularly of WOTR has sent approximately 300,000 SMS-based adviso-
traditional dryland crops like sorghum and groundnut, which ries to 6,612 farmers in Sangmaner and the adjoining block
increased by 10-30 per cent, while reducing the costs of culti- of Akole. The intervention helped create awareness among
vation and promoting sustainable agriculture. the farmers in the project and nearby villages about climate
In response to the second need, WOTR installed automated variability and means to reduce the negative impacts on their
weather stations in project villages. Locals were trained to read livelihoods. Further it serves as a platform to promote WOTR’s
the meteorological data displayed on blackboards in the village. package of climate-smart agriculture techniques. Increased
Information is provided in the local language to the villages usage of organic manure and pesticides has been observed by
through mobile telephone based Short Message Service (SMS) the villagers who received information from the Agro-SMS
texts, together with crop-specific advisories. Weekly forecasts services provided to them, while decreasing the application
and advisories for the common crops are also printed on wall of inorganic pesticides and fertilizers. All these efforts have
posters. Agro-advisories are prepared by in-house agricultural helped farmers ensure income even during low rainfall years
experts based on local soil conditions, crops currently grown in and improve overall crop productivity.
the villages and forecasts provided by the India Meteorological Under the CCA project in Sangamner at total of 4,180
Department. The advisories place emphasis on organic and hectares was treated. Besides this in the previous decade,
sustainable farming methods and contain marketing advice 4,506 hectares in six villages had watershed development

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Image: WOTR
Community members in Wankute collect data from an agrimet station

works implemented with the support of WOTR. Satellite Concerning the aggregate benefits of watershed interventions,
image analysis shows that the area under vegetation cover the World Resources Institute calculates that the net present
in project villages increased by more than 500 hectares, or value of a project implemented by WOTR in Kumbharwadi
almost 30 per cent, between 2009 and 2013. This can be village in Sangamner ranged from US$5,573 to US$8,172 per
attributed to plantation and grazing regulation and monitor- hectare treated or US$29,650 to US$43,479 per household,
ing activities done under watershed development projects by with a benefit-cost ratio that ranged from 2.28 to 3.76.
WOTR and other government project implementing agencies. To move to scale, WOTR has developed a suite of tools, meth-
Besides the impact on land restoration and arresting degra- odologies and implementation processes. The Community Driven
dation, the interventions under the project have had tangible Vulnerability Evaluation — Programme Designer (CoDriVE-PD)
impacts on the livelihoods and well-being of local communi- for adaptation planning identifies key vulnerabilities early on in
ties. While the pre-project intervention was characterized by the project design and integrates these variables within the project
widespread reliance on daily wages, the end-line assessment framework so as to minimize adverse impacts and ensure that the
of the project found that the average number of days where project is able to achieve the desired outcomes.
people are engaged in primary occupation (agriculture) has Given the complexity of the challenge presented by land degra-
increased by 16.8 per cent (from 184 days to 215 days) post- dation and climate change, it is apparent that any effort to respond
project implementation. Further, due to poor land conditions to these problems would require collaboration among various
within the village, in the pre-project period 22.7 per cent of stakeholders, both state and non-state. This project brought
the individuals reported temporarily migrating in search of together experts from complementary fields — NABARD, SDC,
labour. Post-project data indicates a 29 per cent reduction the Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, local
in the number of individuals reporting temporary migration. agriculture universities, the International Centre for Research in
As part of a more holistic approach to rural well-being, Agroforestry, and the support of the Government of Maharashtra.
WOTR monitored the nutritional status of children of the 16 WOTR’s work demonstrates that with appropriate support,
villages using the weight-for-age measure. There was a 25.9 communities are able to co-create a sustainable natural resource
per cent decrease in ‘Grade III’ malnutrition and during the base and leverage the possibilities presented by innovations in
same period an increase of 37.1 per cent in ‘normal’ grade information technology to develop inclusive governance of shared
children was noted. resources and increased access to benefits for all.

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Rehabilitation of degraded
tropical forests in Malaysia
Ismail Harun, Raja Barizan, Raja Sulaiman and Samsudin Musa, Forest Research Institute of Malaysia

M
alaysia has been blessed with relatively large while the remaining 3.32 million hectares is categorized as
tracts of natural tropical forests amounting to protection forest.
18.01 million hectares and covering about 55 Production forests are managed under a selective manage-
per cent of its total land area. The forestry sector is an ment system (SMS) where large trees are selected to be felled
important economic sector and has continued to contrib- based on a cutting regime. The regime addresses the sustain-
ute to the socioeconomic development of the nation. ability of the residual stand for a future cut by retaining
Consequently, Malaysia has accorded the sustainable sufficient healthy advanced regeneration that will make the
management of its forests a high priority. While focus- next crop, while minimizing damage and encouraging optimal
ing on economic growth and development, Malaysia will utilization of resources.
continue to give equal attention to promoting the conser-
vation and protection of its natural environment. Inland forests
The application of the SMS has significantly reduced forest
An important strategy in the sustainable management of degradation. An important management strategy is to under-
forests is to ensure that the forest is able to recover and regen- take a post-felling assessment of the forest and carry out
erate within the cutting cycle. This will ensure that the forest suitable silvicultural treatments to assist in the rehabilitation
will not continue to be degraded with each cutting cycle and of the stand. Some silvicultural treatments include planting
end up completely devoid of forest vegetation. of all skid trails and large gaps. Where the residual stand is
An important step in the sustainable management of the poorly stocked, enrichment planting will be undertaken. An
forests is their gazettement as permanent reserved forests enrichment planting scheme promotes both the horizontal
(PRF), national parks and wildlife reserves. There is a total and vertical structures of the forest for biological conservation
of 14.52 million hectares of PRF in Malaysia, of which while sustaining a desired level of marketable high quality
11.2 million hectares is categorized as production forest timber species.
Image: FRIM

Image: FRIM

Eroded coastal mangroves at the beach of the D’ Muara Marine Growth monitoring of Avicennia alba planted using Comp-Pillow planting
Park Resort, Selangor techniques, 36 months after planting

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Image: FRIM
The geotube breakwaters constructed at the beach of D’ Muara Marine Park Resort (before planting)

Logging decks, where the soil is more compact, are areas caused a catastrophic disaster in the coastal areas facing
where rehabilitation is often difficult. Based on research the sea, the Government of Malaysia realized the critical
findings, using larger sized plants, bigger planting holes need to stabilize the country’s shoreline areas that could
and slow release fertilizers has enhanced the rehabilitation potentially be affected by tsunamis in the future. This could
of such areas. be achieved through conserving the existing mangrove
Outside the forest reserves, open areas are also being forests and rehabilitating the degraded coastal mangroves.
rehabilitated. A good example of badly degraded areas that To undertake this, a National Task Force Committee
have been rehabilitated can be seen in the forests within on Planting Mangroves and Other Suitable Species on
the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM) campus. Shorelines of the Country was formed on 7 February 2005
Planting on the campus, which was originally a tin mining by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. The
and agricultural area, began in the 1920s. Today the area has main objective of the task force was to monitor the progress
fully regenerated into a healthy and highly stocked forest and implementation of planting programmes throughout
with rich biodiversity. The mean volume of timber is esti- the country’s coastal regions. The national task force was
mated to be close to 400 m3/ha which is twice that of a rich supported by two technical committees: Planning and
natural forest. Biomass has been estimated to be in excess Implementation (PPTC) and Research and Development
of 450 tons/ha. (RDTC). These two committees are working in parallel to
ensure the success of the planting programmes. The PPTC,
Rehabilitation of degraded coastal mangroves which is headed by the Forestry Department of Peninsular
Mangrove forests are one of the most productive and Malaysia, aims to conduct coastal stabilization through
biodiverse wetlands on Earth. They grow in unique condi- planting in sheltered areas that have a low risk of coastal
tions and are frequently found along sheltered coastlines erosion. The RDTC, which is headed by FRIM, was given
in subtropical and tropical areas. The coastal forests play the task to carry out research and development related to
a vital role in coastal protection, especially in reducing mangrove forest conservation and rehabilitation. One of
coastal erosion and the impacts of storm surge (tsunami). the activities under the RDTC was focused on ensuring
Mangrove forests represent an important ecosystem and a high rate of survival of mangrove seedlings planted in
have been accorded high priority in maintaining protective coastal mudflats which are classified as highly eroded with
and productive functions along the coastline. These forests strong wave actions.
also play a vital role in carbon sequestration and mitigat- The mudflats of mangroves are still unstable environ-
ing climate change. They are an important ecosystem for ments for natural succession to take place due to active
carbon reservoirs known as carbon sinks, and an integral erosion and accretion occurring within the areas. To facili-
part of the global biological system. As such, the implemen- tate the stabilization of coastal mudflats prior to innovative
tation of coastal forest conservation and rehabilitation to techniques of mangrove planting, ‘soft engineering’ tech-
reduce forest degradation and deforestation and enhance niques were applied whereby partially submerged woven
the carbon stock is a commitment under the United Nations geo-textile tube (geotube) sand-filled breakwaters were
Framework Convention on Climate Change. constructed. Four geotubes, each 1.8 m high, 3.7 m wide
The total mangrove area in Malaysia is currently 575,000 and 50 m long were successfully constructed in July 2007
hectares. The area was reduced from 695,000 in the at the beach of D’ Muara Marine Park Resort in Sungai Haji
1970s to about 575,000 in 2005 due to land conversion Dorani, Sungai Besar, Selangor. The design and placement
or reclamation for agriculture, aquaculture, urbanization, of the geotubes as breakwaters took into account the height
infrastructure development and natural causes, mainly of the incident waves, depth, tidal range and site conditions
coastal erosion. After the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (soil profiles).

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Images: FRIM
Rhizophora apiculata planted using Comp-Mat planting techniques (clockwise, from top left) six months, 18 months, 27 months and 36 months after planting

The geotubes create a calmer wave environment in their survival and growth performance of the planted mangroves
lee as larger waves break upon them. The calmer state behind has shown that only Comp-Mat and Comp-Pillow planting
the geotubes induces substrate build-up allowing the setting techniques were successful in rehabilitating the degraded
of semi-stable mudflats between the geotubes and shoreline. mangroves at high-risk sites.
This provides space for mangrove planting trials. However, The project has proven that the breakwater geotubes
the mudflat is still in semi-liquid form. Thus, it provides induced substrate build-up on the landward side and that
poor anchorage for mangrove seedlings to grow and cannot the semi-liquid mudflats changed to structured mudflats,
withstand the strong wave and current actions. Therefore, thus allowing a setting for the regeneration of mangroves
innovative planting techniques have been introduced as either through replanting using innovative techniques
alternative means for rehabilitating the site. or through natural regeneration of mangrove wildings.
The rehabilitation project commenced in December 2007. New information and records on rehabilitating eroded
Three innovative mangrove planting techniques were devel- coastal mangroves were generated from the successfully
oped and tested (Comp-Mat, Comp-Pillow and Bamboo established seaward demonstration plot at the beach of D’
Encasement methods) against the current standard planting Muara Marine Park Resort with mixed mangrove species
practice or conventional planting techniques with the estab- (Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Avicennia alba and A.
lishment of geotubes as breakwaters at the project site. Three officinalis). From the output of the project it was concluded
species of mangrove seedlings were used to investigate the that the design of geotubes established at the project site
suitable planting techniques. These were Rhizophora apicu- can be used as a benchmark for establishing breakwaters
late, Rhizophora mucronata and Avicennia alba. Assessment of in other places.

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 Living Land

Awarding innovation to combat

desertification and drought
Abdulmalek A. Al Alshaikh, General Secretary, Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz International Prize for Water

T
he Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz International Prize for each of the five prizes. Nominations undergo a rigorous
for Water (PSIPW) is a leading scientific award, three-tiered evaluation process, starting with a preliminary
offered every two years, that focuses on innovation. evaluation committee, followed by a referee committee, and
Since its establishment in 2002 by HRH Prince Sultan Bin ending with a final selection committee.
Abdulaziz (1930-2011), PSIPW has given recognition to As a prize focusing on water, a number of our winners have
scientists, researchers and inventors around the world for been awarded for work that is directly relevant to the problem
pioneering work that addresses the problem of water scar- of desertification and water management in arid lands. Their
city in creative and effective ways. innovative research has made substantial contributions to our
understanding of desertification and potential ways to combat it.
To this end, PSIPW offers a suite of five prizes, covering the
entire water research landscape. First, there is the Creativity Predicting drought
Prize, worth US$266,000, which is awarded for cutting- In our Sixth Award, given in December of 2014, the
edge interdisciplinary work that can rightly be considered a Creativity Prize was awarded to Dr Eric F. Wood and Dr
breakthrough in any water-related field. Then there are four Justin Sheffield of Princeton University for developing a
specialized prizes, each worth US$133,000: the Surface Water state-of-the-art system to accurately monitor, model and
Prize, the Groundwater Prize, the Alternative Water Resources forecast drought on regional, continental and global scales.
Prize, and the Water Management and Protection Prize. Today, virtually every drought monitoring system in the
Nominations are evaluated by an international panel of world uses Wood’s and Sheffield’s approach. Their efforts
distinguished scientists who serve on various committees have culminated in the recent development of a drought

Image: PSIPW

Eric Wood and Justin Sheffield with the African Flood and Drought Monitor

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 Living Land

Image: PSIPW
The PSIPW Sixth Award ceremony, December 2014

monitoring and forecasting system with the United Nations alters our perspective on how global warming impacts hydro-
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) logical phenomena and extremes.
for sub-Saharan Africa. Another very important outcome is
the unique Princeton Global Meteorological Forcing Dataset Climate change and the world’s water
that is now widely used by scientific and drought forecasting There has been considerable work in previous awards that
communities worldwide. relates to the problem of desertification. In 2012, Dr Kevin
Wood’s and Sheffield’s system utilizes modern remote Trenberth and Dr Aiguo Dai from the National Centre for
sensing and ground monitoring capabilities to help fuse Atmospheric Research in the United States won our Surface
state-of-the-art hydrologic science, much of which they Water Prize for their ground-breaking work that provides
helped develop, with seasonal climate and shorter-term a powerful estimate of the effects of climate change on the
weather studies in a way that enhances, fundamentally and global hydrological cycle, with a clear explanation of the
significantly, our understanding of land-atmosphere coupling global water budget. If we are going to tackle desertifica-
and the ability to monitor as well as quantify the space-time tion in the twenty-first century, one of the overwhelming
variability of droughts, past and future. An important compo- challenges is to understand hydrologic variability and the
nent of this fusion is the bridging of scales between relatively impact that climate change is certain to have on global
low-resolution climate models and hydrologic models water resources.
having much finer spatial and temporal scales of resolution. Trenberth and his team made a unique contribution
Consequently, terrestrial hydrology can be simulated at fine through the investigation of climate variability and trends
temporal (hourly) and spatial (12 km) scales over continental in the past, and through the use of models and other creative
domains for the long periods (50 years) necessary to create the efforts to reconstruct river discharge into the oceans across
historical record required to fit probabilistic models. the planet for almost 1,000 river basins. They used climate
Previous assessments of historic changes in drought over models to understand likely changes in the future and the
the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries expected uncertainty associated with those predictions, and explained
climate change to cause an increase in drought frequency their findings using such popular indicates as the Palmer
and severity due to a corresponding decrease in regional drought index. As a result, they have provided an exemplary
precipitation and increase in evaporation. In a 2012 letter to account of the global water budget that is now being used in
Nature, the team effectively overturned this expectation by textbooks and encyclopedias.
demonstrating that it is based on an oversimplified potential They have made pioneering contributions to under-
evaporation model. By contrast, their more comprehensive standing the past with real data, and evaluating the future
approach indicates that there has been little change in drought prospects within the context of what we know of the global
over the past 60 years. This explains why tree-ring drought climate and hydrology. They have provided a much better
reconstructions diverge from earlier drought records, and it understanding of hydrologic responses to climate change,

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 Living Land

which in turn will provide tremendous guidance for anti-

desertification and land reclamation initiatives. PSIPW Sixth Award winners

Image: PSIPW
Ecohydrology
In 2010, Dr Ignacio Rodriguez-Iturbe of Princeton University
and Dr Andrea Rinaldo of the École Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausan in Switzerland won the Creativity Prize for their
invention and development of the new field of ecohydrology
which bridges the gap between the physical and life sciences.
Ecohydrology is a multidisciplinary research field borrowing
from a number of ‘classic’ disciplines (physical sciences, life
sciences) yet aiming at a unified picture of water-supported
biological dispersion. In practical terms, the new research field
presents itself as a comprehensive blend of theory (mathemat-
ical modelling), interpretation of past and present biological
records, and field experimentation. Ecohydrology is a power- Winners of the PSIPW Sixth Award. Top: Kristine Larson, Eric Wood
and Justin Sheffield, and Larry Mays. Bottom: Jesús Carrera Ramirez,
ful tool in combating desertification, since human activities Polycarpos Falaras and William Yeh
alter the linkages between climate, ecosystem functioning and
water availability in arid lands. Dryland ecohydrology directly The Sixth Award ceremony for the Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz
tackles the crucial question: do human beings cause deserts? International Prize for Water was held in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on 15
December 2014. The winners were:
Managing human water needs in the desert
Creativity Prize: the GPS Reflections Group led by Dr Kristine M.
In 2008, Dr Patricia Gober won the Water Management and Larson (University of Colorado, Boulder) for discovering how GPS
Protection Prize as co-director of the Decision Center for a instruments, which exist all over the world, can be used to provide
Desert City (DCDC) at Arizona State University, for work at critical information to hydrologists, like soil moisture, snow depth
and vegetation water content, at minimal cost.
the forefront of integrating physical and social science into a
decision support system for enhanced water planning in an Creativity Prize: Dr Eric F. Wood and Dr Justin Sheffield
urban, desert region, with proven results. DCDC successfully (Princeton University) for developing a state-of-the-art system
engages with the daunting challenge of managing water in the for accurately monitoring, modelling and forecasting drought on
regional, continental and global scales, which is used for drought
face of climate change by introducing a new kind of scientific prediction throughout the world.
enterprise — one that includes social and policy scientists along
with climate scientists, hydrologists and engineers; one that Surface Water Prize: Dr Larry Mays (Arizona State University) for
demonstrating how ancient water technologies can be adapted to
embodies a holistic, system-wide perspective and considers the address the urgent needs of people living in water-scarce regions today.
dynamic interactions between energy and water use; one that
facilitates collaboration between decision makers and scientists, Groundwater Prize: Dr Jesús Carrera Ramirez (Institute for
and one that is firmly focused on the future. As a ‘decision Environmental Assessment and Water Research, CSIC, Barcelona,
Spain) for contributing decisively to the development of mathematical
centre’ the organization asks the ‘what if’ questions, it explores hydrogeology and transport modelling in groundwater systems.
the kinds of decisions that must be made today to avoid future
disasters, and it provides strategies that are robust enough to Alternative Water Resources Prize: Dr Polycarpos Falaras
(National Center for Scientific Research ‘Demokritos’, Athens,
work over a wide range of future climate conditions. Greece), coordinator of the European Union’s CLEANWATER Project,
for developing a novel detoxification system that destroys toxins
Water resources management in arid areas through solar photocatalysis during the water filtration process.
Dr Howard S. Wheater of Imperial College, London, won
Water Management and Protection Prize: Dr William W-G Yeh
the Water Management and Protection Prize in 2006 for his (University of California, Los Angeles, USA) for pioneering the
work in improving our understanding of the hydrology of arid development of optimization models to plan, manage and operate
areas, developing suitable modelling tools for the management large-scale water resources systems throughout the world. His
methodology, and the algorithms he developed for the real-time
of those areas, applying them in practice and disseminating operation of complex, multiple-purpose, multiple-reservoir systems,
state-of-the-art information to students and practitioners. He have been adopted in a large number of countries including the United
carried out some of his winning work as a co-chair of the States, Brazil, Korea, Taiwan and the People’s Republic of China.
UNESCO initiative, G-WADI (Global network for Water and
Development Information in arid lands), a network which
promotes international and regional cooperation in the arid
and semi-arid areas. bilitation of degraded land. One of these initiatives is the
Prince Sultan Project for the Rehabilitation of Villages and
Other PSIPW initiatives Hamlets in Saudi Arabia, which engages in rainwater harvest-
Besides awarding its suite of prizes every two years, PSIPW ing and groundwater recharge to provide sufficient water for
is active in numerous water-related projects, some of which sustainable agriculture in the country’s rural areas. PSIPW
focus on combating desertification, community development also supports a research chair at King Saud University with a
and sustainable agriculture through the restoration and reha- focus on rainwater and run-off water harvesting and storage.

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 Living Land

Land use and the restoration of degraded land

towards sustainable development in Malaysia
Omar Osman, Kamarulazizi Ibrahim, Kanayathu Koshy, Fauziah Ahmad
and Ahmad Shukri Yahaya, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang

W
ith a rising population and increasing and ecosystems in the world. The UNCCD benefits from
destruction of fertile soil and agricultural the largest membership of the three Rio conventions and is
land, the need to promote prudent land increasingly recognized as an agreement that can make an
management has become an integral part of sustain- important contribution to the achievement of sustainable
able development. Although land degradation leading to development and poverty reduction. 3 In order to attract
desertification is not a serious issue in Malaysia, there more attention to climate-compatible development, the
is increasing concern about landslide and slope-land United Nations launched the Decade on Deserts and the
stability in the context of development activities linked Fight against Desertification (UNDDD).4 During the launch
to construction and cultivation. of the decade, the United Nations Secretary General Ban
Ki-moon said: “Continued land degradation — whether
Taking those negatives and developing a positive approach from climate change, unsustainable agriculture or poor
that looks at rainfall variability, climate change, risk assess- management of water resources — is a threat to food secu-
ment, slope monitoring and computer-aided slope stability rity, leading to starvation among the most acutely affected
scenario generation are key priorities. Within the new communities and robbing the world of productive land.”
vision of Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) to transform This summarises the issues and connects CCD to other
higher education for a sustainable tomorrow, a risk- development goals such as the Millennium Development
reduced development pathway that integrates sustainability Goals and by extension the Sustainable Development Goals
challenges in natural sectors with cross-sectoral areas such to be finalized at the United Nations in September 2015.5
as climate change, population and production has been Based on the evapotranspiration to rainfall ratio of 0.005-
gaining ground. 0.65, most of Malaysia does not fall under the definition of
Developed as a result of the United Nations Conference deserts. However, Malaysia is not devoid of land degrada-
on Environment and Development 1992, 1 the United tion problems, associated mostly with forest harvesting, hill
Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)2 and agricultural development, and mineral exploitation. In
is a unique instrument that has brought attention to the land order to manage challenges in these areas, the mitigation
degradation affecting some of the most vulnerable people measures taken mainly involve policies, legislation, guide-
lines, soil conservation practices and awareness campaigns.
The following is based on Malaysia’s reports to UNCCD
Image: USM 2015

in 2006 and 2014. Three major policies worth mention-

ing in this regard are the National Forest Policy (NFP),6
National Agricultural Policy (NAP) 7 and National
Urbanization Policy (NUP).8 The implementation of NAP
involves measures such as: not opening new lands, using
underutilized and marginal lands, mixed farming, integra-
tion of livestock into plantation forests (rubber and oil
palm), and soil mapping. Under NFP the measures taken
include setting aside 4.84 million hectares as permanent
reserved forest, sustainable management of forest through
classification into protection and production forest, forest
for timber, soil protection, flood control, water catchment,
sanctuary for wildlife, virgin jungle, amenity, and research
purposes. As part of NUP, the Department of Town and
Country Planning in collaboration with various other
departments and agencies has developed a multisectoral
Professor Dato’ Omar Osman, USM Vice-Chancellor and Professor
Kamarulazizi Ibrahim, Director of the CGSS discuss USM’s Five-Year Plan sustainable land use master plan for the whole country.
for sustainability implementation National development follows these plans and practices.9

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 Living Land

Mean rainfall for Air Itam and Simpang Ampat, 1983-2012

10 7.5

7.0
9

6.5
8
Mean rainfall (mm)

Mean rainfall (mm)

6.0

5.5

6
5.0

5
4.5

1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010
Year Year

Air Itam Simpang Ampat

Source: USM

Although a special national programme to combat

desertification, land degradation and drought (DLDD), The DRM-SD model for risk reduction
as promoted by the United Nations, is not drawn up in
Malaysia mainly because land issues are addressed secto-
rally, about 41 per cent of the national population is ry
ve Pr
informed about DLDD and/or DLDD synergies with climate co opm
ent 1. M e
vel itig
Re

de

ve
change and biodiversity.10 le at

nti
b

ion
ina

Within the new vision of USM to ‘transform higher

on
ster management

sta

Before
Risk
After the event

education for a sustainable tomorrow’, the university has

7. Su

management
embraced a whole-institution sustainability transition.

the event
Resilience enhancement Risk reduction
The university’s Sustainability Policy 2014 uses such an D2 D1 R4 R
D4 D3 3 R2 R1
integrated approach with a sustainability priority repre-
tio ss

sented by WEHAB+3.11 This is an expanded version of the

Disa

.R
ne

i
5

ad
6.

elie
n
Re

es f 3 . Re
ss
R

WEHAB — water, energy, health, agriculture and biodiver- tor a

a a pt
sp

ne

tion d
2. A
sity — the sectoral challenges popularized by Kofi Annan se
on

ed

r
during the World Summit on Sustainable Development12 pa
4.
Pr e
and ‘+3’ stands for three overarching cross-sectoral issues
— climate change/disaster risk management, production/
consumption and population/poverty.13 Within the acceler-
ated implementation of the sustainability policy, the USM It is assumed that the radius of the right hemisphere represents
Vice-Chancellor is currently engaged in active discussion the full risk and that on the left, the full disaster. The key to
with various sections of the university. the successful implementation of the model is the ability to
progressively reduce risk through mitigation (R1), adaptation (R2)
One of the practical innovations USM is proposing is a and readiness (R3) measures carried out ‘before the event’ under
risk-reduced development approach that builds resilience ‘prevention’ and ‘preparedness’. The residual risk is shown by
and eventually leads to sustainable development. For R4 which when realized as disaster (D1) is presumably small and
example, each land use problem may be visualized in terms manageable. The post-disaster activities relief (D2), restoration (D3)
and sustainable development (D4) will enhance resilience (reduced
of the result of the impact of a ‘hazard’ (whether ‘natural’, disaster) under the response and recovery phases.19
like heavy rain or ‘unnatural’, the direct result of human
activity) on vulnerable exposure units. When a hazard meets Source: CGSS-USM

vulnerability, a risk is generated. This risk is later realized as

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 Living Land

Environmental risk by project

4.00
Environmental risk (rating)

3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00

P12
P3

P13

P15
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9

P11
P1
P2

P10

P14

P16
Project ID

The graph shows the results applying the authors’ methodology

to 16 selected project sites, P1-P16, which are also landslide- Typical output of Safety Map Analysis using USlopeMTM software
prone hillside development sites in Penang. The results show that
12 per cent of project sites were at high environmental risk, 44 Source: USM
per cent at medium risk and others at low risk.20 The results are
used to develop the guidelines for slope land use and sustainable
management by the Penang State Government.

Source: USM moderate positive trend. Mann-Kendall trend analysis and

Sen’s slope tests were carried out to establish the decadal
mean monthly rainfall variability. The Fournier indexes
were used to determine the effect of extreme rainfall events
disaster. Such considerations, and the UNDDD, have helped towards soil erosivity. Air Itam recorded 10 per cent cases
USM to refocus attention on land use and land degradation of very severe impact using the Fournier index and 3.33 per
under sustainable development. Malaysia and its universi- cent cases of very high impact using the modified Fournier
ties are an active part of national efforts to manage land and index. This shows that while Air Itam is susceptible to soil
land resources sustainably.14 The disaster risk management erosion due to rainfall events, Simpang Ampat is more
for sustainable development (DRM-SD) model, developed prone to landslide.16
by USM and the Centre for Global Sustainability Studies Penang has a corrugated and hilly topography.
(CGSS), shows such an approach. Construction activities in these areas are increasing primar-
There follows a description of USM’s research efforts ily for residential and commercial purposes. Assessing the
towards risk-reduced land use by addressing potential extent of the corresponding development risk is critical to
negatives and turning them into positives that promote the life and property of local inhabitants. Using 13 variables
sustainability. In order to address land degradation and such as slope gradient, soil profile, rock quality designation,
risk management within the context of this article, we have plastic index, shear strength of coarse and fine grained soil,
identified four specific areas: rainfall and land erosion; risk groundwater monitoring, land-use suitability, slope stabili-
assessment; slope monitoring; and slope stability software zation measures, slope stability analysis, rock fall analysis,
where the authors (Fauziah Ahmad and Ahmad Shukri retaining and foundation system, soil erosion and sedimenta-
Yahaya) have played lead roles. Although these projects tion control and maintenance monitoring, the authors have
have focused on land management issues of Penang state in modified existing rating systems to arrive at a methodology
Malaysia, the methodologies used and the results obtained to assess the overall risk thresholds for landslides.
have much wider applications. USM’s main campus in Penang has an aesthetically beau-
Rainfall erosivity — the ability of rainfall to cause erosion tiful and hilly terrain. As part of its commitment to be a
due to its physical characteristic — is increasingly used for sustainability-led university, a pilot slope-monitoring study
soil erosion risk assessment for current and future, espe- was conducted by a group led by the authors to monitor
cially under a changing climate. Land management models and mitigate USM’s hillside hostels. The Well-Inform
use rainfall amount and intensity as key factors.15 Landslides Monitoring System (WILMS), a real-time web
The effect of rainfall erosivity in Penang was considered monitoring system, was developed which integrates the
for two stations, Air Itam and Simpang Ampat. Monthly as use of Short Messaging Services and Multimedia Messaging
well as annual rainfall data, obtained from the Department Services technology to disseminate results.17
of Drainage and Irrigation, Malaysia for 30 years (1983- Based on the on-site data collected without needing
2012) was used to calculate the mean and standard constant manual intervention, WILMS forecasts when land
deviation per decade. instability is more likely to occur. Such data eventually
The coefficient of variation is less than 0.3 for all form the basis on which WILMS outputs are computed.
stations, showing that the mean rainfall has very small WILMS’ capacity to establish secure communication with
variability although the regression line shows a slightly users while preserving proper data transfer between data

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 Living Land

Result from WILMS on rainfall amount and pore water pressure over a certain monitoring period

J 03
F 03
M 03
A 03
M 03
J 03
J 03
M 03
A 03
M 03
J 03
J 03
M 03
A 03
M 03
J 03
J 03
M 03
J 03
F 03
M 03
A 03
M 03
J 03
J 03
M 03
A 03
M 03
J 03
J 03
M 03
A 03
M 03
J 03
J 03

Pore water pressure (mH2O)

1,260

1,220

1,180

1,300

1,280
1,260
Rainfall (mm)

1,240

1,220
1,200

1,180
1,160

1,140
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
col2
J F M A M J J M A M J J M A M J J M J F M A M J J M A M J J M A M J J M

Source: USM

acquisition tools, servers, computers and mobile devices is a Factor of Safety Map which will indicate the region of
via wired and wireless is one of its unique properties. It critical area in just less than a minute.18
also has an alarm system that is triggered when changes are The software has obtained copyright and trademark
detected in the geotechnical parameters of the slope that and has also won gold medals at the 25th International
exceed the safety limit. Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition in Kuala
Although developed for the USM Kampus Sejahtera Lumpur; at the Belgian International Trade Fair for
(Healthy Campus) Programme (2000), WILMS is a handy Technological Innovation in Brussels; and at the Korea
tool to alert slope stability managers when remedial meas- International Women’s Invention Exposition in Seoul.
ures are deemed necessary. USM is at the forefront of research and capacity-building
Evaluating the stability of slopes is a big challenge for within its renewed vision for an all-institution mainstream-
geotechnical engineers. It involves locating the slip surface ing of sustainability. This finds expression in campus
with the minimum factor of safety (FS). An in-depth study sustainability promotion on the one hand and integrating
revealed that most of the current commercial slope stabil- global sustainability principles and practices, as articulated
ity software suffers from poor search algorithms, resulting through the Rio process, on the other. Within this priority
in over-estimation of stability. Considering this limitation, we have focused this discussion on land use issues relat-
USlopeM TM was developed which employs state-of-the- ing to slope land erosion and slope failures. Considering
art metaheuristic search algorithms to locate critical slip the impact of rainfall, new development and other emerg-
surfaces to determine the minimum FS that indicates ing issues that increase the vulnerability of slope lands, we
probable slope failures. USlopeM TM addresses the possi- have highlighted risk assessment as a way to monitor slope
ble existence of multiple, rather than single failure modes. strength. A new slope stability software, USlopeMTM, has
Currently, engineers have to run commercial software been developed at USM to generate slope stability scenar-
several times using different initial parameters to locate ios for risk-reduced land use. Through research, training
all important slip surfaces. USlopeMTM finds all global and and community based initiatives, USM will continue its
local minima of FS in a single run without significant reli- UNCCD focus. After all, desertification represents the
ance on engineering experience. The software is released acute convergence of a wide range of challenges that must
with a CAD-like graphical user interface for creating slope be faced globally — poverty reduction, economic growth,
models and viewing results. It also uses parallel comput- food security, climate change, land use, water manage-
ing to exploit the full performance of multi-core central ment, good governance and the achievement of Sustainable
processing units. The major end product of the analysis Development Goals.

[ 187 ]
 Notes and References
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1. h ttp://www.isric.org/sites/default/files/ExplanNote_1.pdf New opportunities for Tomorrow’s Generation, Rome: IFAD
2. h ttp://www.isric.org/sites/default/files/Report%202008_01_ 6. World Bank (2007) op. cit.
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Reversing land degradation in the drylands: scaling out and monitoring Combating desertification: introducing an integrated management
proven sustainable land management options approach in the People’s Republic of China
Further reading: 1. The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not
– FAO, 2015. Guidelines on restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank
drylands. (under publication) (ADB) or its Board of Governors or the governments they represent. ADB
– Mekdaschi Studer, R., Liniger, H. 2013. Water Harvesting: Guidelines to does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication
Good Practice. Centre for Development and Environment (CDE), Bern, and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. By making
Switzerland any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area,
– Oweis, T., Benli, B., Bruggeman, A., Farahani, H. 2006. ‘Characteristics or by using the term “country” in this document, ADB does not intend to
of benchmark research agroecosystems in WANA: rainfed, irrigated, and make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area.
marginal drylands’. 98 p. Water Benchmarks of CWANA project. 1. ISBN 2. Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning. 2011. Key
92-9127-189-7. (En). ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria environmental information news, volume 6, issue No. 4.
– Ziadat, F. T. Oweis, S. Mazahreh, A. Bruggeman, N. Haddad, E. Karablieh, B. 3. Radstake, F., M. Ariens, H. Luna, and J. Quitazol-Gonzalez, eds. 2010.
Benli, M. Abu Zant, J. Al-Bakri, and A. Ali. 2006. Selection and Characterization Dryland Ecosystems: Introducing an Integrated Management Approach
of Badia Watershed Research Sites. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria,vi+105pp in the People’s Republic of China. Manila: ADB. Available: http://www.
– Ziadat, F., Mazahreh, S., Haddad, M., Benabdelouahab, T., Attaher, S., Karrou, adb.org/publications/dryland-ecosystems-introducing-integrated-
M., Oweis, T., Kandakji, T. 2015. Similarity and Suitability Analysis to Assist the management-approach-peoples-republic-china
Out-Scaling of Sustainable Water and Land Management Practices in West Asia 4. Qun D, Hannam I. 2011. Law, Policy and Dryland Ecosystems in the
and North Africa. Research Report No. 11. ICARDA, Beirut, Lebanon. 79 pp People’s Republic of China. IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper
– www.groasis.com No. 80: Gland, Switzerland
– www.fao.org/forestry/tww 5. – People’s Republic of China (PRC)−Global Environment Facility
(GEF) Partnership on Land Degradation in Dryland Ecosystems,
Enhancing water resources management in irrigated agriculture to cope and China−Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA).
with water scarcity in arid regions 2008. Best Practices for Land Degradation Control in Dryland
About the authors: Areas of China. Beijing: China Forestry Publishing House.
– Bakhodir Mirzaev, Senior Irrigation and Drainage Specialist in Agriculture Available: http://www.gefop12.cn/data/upload//month_201404/
& Rural Development Department of the IDB Group
 BestPracticesforLandDegradationControlinDrylandEcosystemsof
China_lVsDkl.pdf
– Shehzad Akram, Senior Water Resources Specialist in Agriculture & Rural
Development Department of the IDB Group
 – Jiang Z, Hu Z, Liang Z, Liu S. 2013. Best Practices for Sustainable
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and human well-being: current state and trends: findings of the Condition
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 he author dedicates this article to the memory of El Hadj Ly Boubakar and Neville Ash. Island Press, Washington (2005)
Soumana and Ousmane Ouédraogo, who helped through kind advice 10. Lepers, E. et al. ‘A Synthesis of Information on Rapid Land-cover
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