INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY
TWO BASIC APPROACHES
1. Systemic Anatomy
2. Regional Anatomy
1. Systematic Anatomy
11 systems
Nerves are represented with yellow structure
General function
Specialized function of the system
Components
Two components:
1. To identify major organ
2. Accessory organs
11 Systems of the body
1. Integumentary System
Function:
- First line of defense -> Protective covering
- Thermoregulation
o Homeostasis – State of balance in the body
Ex: Temperature (36.5 – 37.4 degrees)
Major organ of the integumentary: Skin/Integument
2. Muscular System
Function:
- Facilitates Movement in the body
- Body shape
Major organ: Skeletal Muscles
Biggest tendon: Achilles tendons
- Seen in heel bone. A tough band of fibrous tissue that connects the calf muscles to the heel bone
(calcaneus). The Achilles tendon is also called the calcaneal tendon.
Gastrocnemius – muscle
3 types of Muscles
a. Skeletal – Voluntary muscle
Not included in the Muscular System:
b. Smooth – Blood vessels
c. Cardiac – Heart –> Cardiovascular System
3. Skeletal System
- Bones (206 bones in the body)
Function:
- Structural support
- It gives the body its shape
Major organ – Bones
Accessory organs:
a. Tendon – bone to muscle
b. Ligaments – bone to bone
c. Cartilage – soft bones
4. Nervous System
Function:
- Transmitting messages or impulses within the body
- Facilitates communication in the body - signals
- Responses – signals
Major organ: Brain / Spinal cord ( Central Nervous System / Peripheral Nervous System – nerve fibers found along the
boy (PNS )
5. Endocrine System
- Related to chemical signals
o Hormones
- Example: Endocrine glands
o For females – Ovary -> Hormones: Estrogen & Progesterone
o Male – Testes -> Hormones: Testosterone
- Slow signal/slow reaction
6. Cardiovascular System (Circulatory System)
Functions:
- Transports oxygen, nutrients, and byproducts of metabolism
Cardio – Heart
Vascular - Blood vessel
Three types of blood vessels:
a. Arteries
b. Veins
c. Capillaries
Major organ: Heart
7. Respiratory System
Function: Responsible for exchange of gases
- Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
Major organ: Lungs (basic tissue of lungs -> alveoli – where the exchange of gases take place)
- Upper Respiratory Pathway – Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx,
- Lower Respiratory Pathway – larynx, bronchus, lungs
Accessory organ:
8. Digestive System
- Complete digestive system
o Two opening:
Mouth
anus
Function:
- Breakdown of food
o Two levels:
Mechanical breakdown – Chew the food into small particles. Preliminary digestion
Chemical breakdown – Simplify the food for absorption of nutrients
- Absorption of nutrients
Major organ: Small Intestine – main site for chemical digestion
9. Urinary System
- Urine
Kidney -
10. Lymphatic system (Immune System)
Major organ:
Lymph nodes / moules – fluids passing through will be screen by the lymph nodes
Lymph vessels
11. Reproductive System
Function:
- Production of gametes
o Gametes – Sex cells
Male Reproductive System – sperm cell
Major organ: testes
Female Reproductive system – egg cell
Major organ: Ovaries
2. Regional Anatomy
Two structures:
1. Morphology – Looking at the external structure of the body / general form
2. Anatomy - Examining human body / body organism / internal structures
1. Surface anatomy – Using external features to look at internal structure
2. Anatomical Imaging - X-ray, ct scan, MRI, ultrasound
Surface Anatomy: Techniques
1. Visual Inspection
- Using eyes to visually observe
2. Palpation
- Used to identify position of organ and for diagnosis
-
3. Percussion
- Tapping certain part of the body
4. Auscultation
- Listening to the sound
o Ex: Heart sound, lung sounds
Human Anatomic Position
Conventional reference posture where descriptions of the human body are based
ANATOMICAL POSITION
- The body is upright, directly facing the observer, feet forward and flat. The upper limbs are at the side of the
body, palms forward
Anatomical reference / Reference point
- Posterior – tail (tail bone) – last bone in the vertebral column
- Dorsal – vertebral bone (back bone)
- Anterior (ventral) – position of the face
- Ventral– belly/abdominal region
- Superior (cranial) – above
- Inferior (caudal) – going down/below
Body planes
Draw imaginary lines to section/divide the body into regions or sides
Sagittal plane – divides the body into left and right portions
a. Midsagittal / median – draw imaginary line exactly at the midline , equal R and L
b. Parasagittal / Sagittal – there is an unequal side of the left and right portion
Middle reference structure in the body –navel/ umbilical cord
Coronal Plane – divides body into anterior and posterior portion / dorsal & ventral
Reference point – in front of the ears or anterior to the tragus of the ear, coronal suture
Transverse Plane – divides body into superior and inferior portion
Reference point – navel, umbilical cord
Body Cavities
Any space or compartment, or potential space, in an animal body. Cavities accommodate organs and other structures;
cavities as potential spaces contain fluid. The two largest human body cavities are the ventral body cavity, and the dorsal
body cavity.
Sinus – circulation of air, mucus
Dorsal Column
a. Cranial column
- Skull
o brain
b. Vertebral column / vertebral bones
- Spinal column
Dorsal Cavity – houses the central nervous system
- Foramen magnum – opening in the skull
o superior to foramen magnum – brain
o Inferior to foramen magnum – vertebral cavity
- Axial skeletal system
o skull
o vertebral bones
Ventral Cavity (front)
- Thoracic cavity
Divided into 2 smaller
o Pleural cavity (Right & left pleural)
Lungs
o Pericardial cavity
Heart
- Abdomino-pelvic cavity
Divided into 2:
o Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
- Reference point/anatomical landmark that divides the abdominal to pelvic region: Ilium / iliac crest
- Diaphragm - a thin muscle that separates thoracic and abdomino-pelvic cavity
Terms related to position/directional terms
Upper & lower extremity
Proximal – nearer to the reference point
Distal – away
Reference point: point of attachment
Ex: elbow is proximal to the wrist
The wrist is distal to the elbow
Superficial vs Deep -> The reference point is the surface whether it is near or far from the surface
- Used when describing layers
- Superficial – near
- Deep – far
o Ex: The skin is superficial to the muscle
The skin is nearer to the surface comparing to the muscle (Translation)
External vs Internal -> Reference point: Center of the body in a cross section
- Used when describing position of internal organs
- External – far from the center
- Internal - near the center
For the foot & hand:
1. Palmar - palm
2. Dorsal –back of the hand
3. Plantar – sole of the foot
4. Dorsal
BASIC STRUCTURES
Lecture 2
BASIC STRUCTURES IN THE BODY
Layers:
- Skin
- Fascia
- Muscles
- Bones
Connected to the structures:
- Nerves
- Blood vessels
- Lymphatic drainage
1. Skin
Two major layers:
a. Epidermis – made of stratified epithelium
b. Dermis – made of dense connective tissue
- Connected to underlying fascia
Skin creases – thinner than elsewhere
- Firmly tethered to underlying structures by strong bands of fibrous tissue
Flexion Creases
Michelin – tire syndrome
Skin : Hair
o Grow out of follicles
- Invaginations of the epidermis into the dermis
- Lie obliquely to the skin surface
o Hair bulbs
- Expanded extremities
- Penetrate to the deeper part of the dermis
o Hair papilla
- Vascular connective tissue found in the concavity of each hair bulb
o Arrector pili
- Connects to the undersurface of the follicle to the superficial part of the dermis
- Innervated by sympathetic nerve fibers
Skin : Glands
- Sebaceous Gland / oil gland
o Secretes sebum
- Sweat Gland
o Secretes sweat
o Related to thermoregulation
Accessory organs
- Arrector Pili Muscle / Erector pili muscle – a smooth mucle
o Responsible for goosefleshing activity
- Hair
- Exocrine glands
o Sebaceous and Sweat Gland
- Blood vessels
Epidermal ridge / Dermal ridge – responsible for visible lines
Directional Terms
Directional terms describe the positions of structures relative to other structures or locations in the body.
Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; upper (example, the hand is part of the superior extremity).
Inferior or caudal - away from the head; lower (example, the foot is part of the inferior extremity).
Anterior or ventral - front (example, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the leg).
Posterior or dorsal - back (example, the shoulder blades are located on the posterior side of the body).
Medial - toward the midline of the body (example, the middle toe is located at the medial side of the foot).
Lateral - away from the midline of the body (example, the little toe is located at the lateral side of the foot).
Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part (example, the proximal end of the femur joins with
the pelvic bone).
Distal - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or origin of a part (example, the hand is located at the distal
end of the forearm).
It refers to the layer inferior to the dermis. – hypodermis
Sebaceous gland - The oiliness of the skin and hair is directly associated with this
gland.
Navel - It serves as an anatomical landmark for transverse plane.
Surface anatomy - It is an approach in anatomy which uses external parts to identify
internal structures.
Human anatomical position - It refers to a reference posture which serves as guide for
overall body description.
Skull - Encloses the cranial cavity
Pleural cavity - This specific body cavity contains the lungs.
Dorsal - It is the direction opposite plantar direction.
Palpation - This technique uses sense of touch to identify underlying structures.
Ovaries – major organ reproductive
Anterior - In human anatomical position, ventral is synonymous to this anatomical term.
In upper extremity , this serves as anatomical landmark for the distal and proximal
direction.
Thoracic cavity - This is the body cavity superior to the diaphragm.
Sweat gland - This exocrine gland helps in thermal regulation.
cardiovascular system - This system functions for the distribution of oxygen to different
parts of the body.
Smooth muscle - It refers to the type of muscle found in internal hollow organs.
Deep - It is an anatomical term opposite superficial.
Small intestine - It is the major organ of the digestive system.
Sagittal - This body plane divides the body into equal right and left side.
Ilium - It is anatomical landmark which separates abdominopelvic cavity.
LABORATORY
A is proximal to C
E is inferior to F
C is distal to A
