The Nutrient Cycle

Compiled by:
Katharina Conradin (seecon international gmbh)

Executive Summary
The nutrient cycle describes how nutrients move from the physical environment into
living organisms, and subsequently are recycled back to the physical environment.
This movement of nutrients, essential for life, from the environment into plants and
animals and back again, is a vital function of the ecology of any region. In any
particular environment, the nutrient cycle must be balanced and stable if the
organisms that live in that environment are to flourish and be maintained in a
constant population (MARTIN 2010). Currently, large parts of humankind influence
the nutrient cycle in such a way that we remove nutrients from the land and discharge
them into aquatic environments. On the one hand, this leads to soil depletion on the
land, and on the other hand, an overabundance of nutrients and pollution of water
sources.

Nutrients — the Fuel of Life

Nutrients are chemical elements that all plants and animals require for growth. On the earth, there is
a constant and natural cycle how these elements are incorporated when an organism grows, and
degraded if an organism dies. The nutrients used in the largest amounts are the non-mineral elements,
i.e. carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). These elements are mainly taken up as carbon dioxide
(CO2) from the air, and water (H2O) by the roots (JOENSSON et al. 2004). They make up 95-98% of the
mass of all living beings (MAHENDRAPPA 2007). But they are, however, not sufficient for life to exist.
Further elements are important to fuel life on earth: Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K) as
well as Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) are highly important, in particular for plant growth and
agriculture. These elements are often referred to as macro nutrients. Their uptake is about 100 times
that of micro nutrients. Further nutrients, that plants take up in a much smaller amount and that are
essentially consumed by humans, include Boron (Bh), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Chloride (Cl), Manganese
(Mn), Molybdenum (Mo) and Zinc (Zn) and others. These are called micro nutrients(JOENSSON et al.
2004).

Natural Nutrient Cycles

The basic nutrient cycle. Source: USDA NRCS & NSTA (2010)

These nutrients – essentially chemical elements – are continuously in a circular movement,

the nutrient cycle. The nutrient cycle is hence a general term that describes how nutrients move from
the physical environment into living organisms, and are subsequently recycled back to the physical
environment (MARTIN 2010). Nutrients in the soil are taken up by plants, which are consumed by
humans or animals, and excreted again by them — or they are released back into the environment
when organisms die (e.g. plants lose their leaves). Microorganisms in the soil break this matter down,
and again make nutrients available in their mineral form, which makes it possible for plants to take
them up again (see also nutrient requirements of plants).
Essentially, all nutrients that plants and also human beings require to survive are cycled in this way. In
relation to water management and sanitation, it is mainly N, P and K that are of high priority. They are
the most important nutrients to sustain plant growth and agriculture, and thus humanity.

How Humans Influence Nutrient Cycles

Nutrient removal by harvesting crops. Source: (unknown) 

As described above, nutrients are continuously recycled in a natural ecosystem. In recent decades,

population growth and resulting human activities such as large-scale farming have caused some
significant changes in nutrient cycles.
With harvesting crops, nutrients are removed from the soil. For centuries, dung from animals has been
used as a fertiliser to restore the nutrients back to the soil, and in many cultures – e.g. in Europe, or
also in China, also human excreta have been recycled back to agricultural fields.
Hence, nutrients went back into the soil at roughly the rate they had been withdrawn. However, with
the introduction of water-borne sewage, this cycle was interrupted and replaced by a linear system
that transports nutrients away from soils and into watercourses (see also water pollution).

Degraded Soils. Source: REKACEWICZ (2002)

Furthermore, agriculture also influences the nutrient cycle in another way: agriculture accelerates

land erosion — because ploughing and tilling disturb and expose the soil — so more nutrients drains
away with runoff (see also soil degradation). And flood control contributes to disrupting the
natural nutrient cycle. Typically river floods would redistribute nutrient-rich sediments to lower lands
where it is again available for ecosystems. Instead dams trap sediment or embankments confine it to
the river until it washes out to sea. So too much nutrients from eroded soil and from human and animal
waste ends up in lakes and oceans, where it spurs massive, uncontrolled blooms of algae. Once they
die and fall to the bottom, their decaystarves other organisms of oxygen, creating “dead zones” and
contributing to the depletion of fisheries (VACCARI 2009).
Essentially, the human alterations to the nutrient cycle leads to an excess of nutrients in aquatic
ecosystems and a serious lack of nutrients in agriculture. Worldwide, more and more soils are deplete
of nutrients, with serious consequences to agricultural production and food security.
The lack of nutrients in agriculture is often made up by applying artificial fertilisers. However there
are several problems related to this strategy:
 Artificial fertilisers usually contain only the most important macro nutrients nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium and lack other essential trace elements. This eventually leadsto a soil
deplete in micro nutrients.
 Phosphorus is a finite resource. "China, Morocco and the United States alone currently produce
almost two thirds of global phosphate. Estimates on the remaining amount of phosphorus vary, as
do projections about how long it will take to deplete the irreplaceable resource entirely. Figures
for easily exploitable reserves range from 60-130 years (TIESSEN 1995; STEEN 1998), but all sources
agree that continued phosphorus production will decline in quality and increase in cost. It
imperative that we begin recycling phosphorusand returning it to the soil to decrease the need for
mined phosphorus as artificial fertiliser. Within a half century, the severity of this crisis will result
in increasing food prices, food shortages and geopolitical rifts."
 Nitrogen, on the other hand, is available abundantly. 78% of the air is composed of nitrogen.
However, the process of producing nitrogen is highly energy consuming and relies mostly on fossil
fuels – which, on the other hand, are finite.
 The element potassium is available abundantly, and reserves are predicted to last for a long
time. However, most of the potassium is contained in small proportions in a large number of
mineral formations which makes extraction laborious.
 

Essentially, the problem with the human alterations to natural nutrient cycle is the one that we are
extracting nutrients from the soil, and discharging them essentially in aquatic environment –
this leads to a heavy imbalance with severe consequences.

Consequences

Sites with dead zones, February 2008. As visible on the picture, the problem is crucial In particular in the so
called "developed countries" in North America and Europe - where sewer-based wastewatermanagement is
common. Source: AHLENIUS (2008)

These human-induced alterations in the nutrientcycles lead to an imbalance in the availability

of nutrients, whose consequences, in particular with regard to water, are grave:
 Depletion of soils: The accumulation of nutrients in the seas means that they are depleted
elsewhere, i.e., to a large extent from soils. This leads to the fact that many of the fruit and
vegetables that animals and humans are consuming, essentially contain less nutrients, minerals,
vitamins etc. that they have some decades ago. Applying more artificial fertilisers is not the
solution: it is energy and cost intensive; it can lead to salinisation, and, because artificial
fertilisers which are mainly based on the three main components Nitrogen, Phosphorus and
Potassium, are essentially incomplete. Furthermore, soils that do not contain adequate amounts
of organic material (e.g. from compost, dead plant material etc.), are not able to adsorb much of
the nutrients added, and also have a low water holding capacity.
 Depletion of nutrient sources: While nitrogen can be gained from the air, it is
an energyintensive process that is mainly based on the use of fossil fuels. Other components
of artificial fertiliser, are based on fossil resources, such as phosphorus. The amount that is easily
mined, is limited (see above). If these easily mineable resources are deplete, this means
that phosphorus prices will increase drastically.
 Affordability & food security: "Fertilisers are bound to world market prices which are already
substantially high for many farmers from developing countries. An increase in price, as is to be
expected in the case of phosphorus, will make them unavailable for many farmers. This may make
agricultural products, especially in developing countries, more expensive and thus lead to a
decreased food security." (CONRADIN 2007).
 Eutrophication of waterways and dead zones: "Fertiliser runoff and wastewaterdischarge
contribute to eutrophication, uncontrolled blooms of algae in rivers, lakes and oceans, feeding
on nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilisers. When they die, their decomposition depletes the
 water of oxygen and slowly chokes aquatic life, producing “dead zones.” The largest dead zone in
American waters, topping 20,000 square kilometres in July 2008, is off the Mississippi delta. More
than 400 dead zones now exist worldwide, covering a combined area of more than 245,000 square
kilometres." (CASTELVECCHI 2009) (see also water pollution).

Outlook
At the moment, humans influence natural nutrient cycles in an unsustainable way, and in a one-way
direction. Too many nutrients end up in the sea, and are lacking on the land, leading to the above
mentioned consequences. A new approach in nutrient management is needed, essentially incorporating
a new way to look at what we commonly call wastewater too: this is, not to consider wastewater as a
waste, but as a resource, full of nutrients that can be recycled and reused (see  recharge and reuse).

References 
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