20.12.

STATIONWARE INTERFACE

Figure 20.12.14: Device context menu

Figure 20.12.28 shows the dialog settings.

Figure 20.12.15: Log on dialog

• press OK.

The connection procedure may take some seconds. If the server could be accessed and the user could
be authenticated a success message is printed into the output window

DIgSI/info - Established connection to StationWare server

’http://192.168.1.53/psmsws/PSMSService.asmx’(version 4.2.5332) as user
’Administrator’

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Otherwise an error dialog pops up. Correct the connection settings until the connection is successfully
created. The reference section (Section 20.12.7) explains the connection options in detail.

Having established a connection to the server, a browser dialog pops up which displays the location
hierarchy as known from the StationWare HTML interface. The dialog is shown in Figure 20.12.16.

• navigate to the Getting Started substation,

• select the Getting Started Relay 1 device,

• press OK.

Figure 20.12.16: Browser dialog

Now the PowerFactory relay is “connected” to the StationWare device.

• in the same way select Getting Started Relay 2 for the second PowerFactory relay.

Export and Import Settings

Having linked PowerFactory to StationWare devices, the transfer between both systems can be started.

• mark the relays with the mouse and right-click to get the relay context menu as shown in Fig-
ure 20.12.14.
• select the Export. . . item in the StationWare menu entry

A ComStationware dialog is shown which allows to specify the export options (See Figure 20.12.17.
See Export and Import Settings in the Section 20.12.7 Reference section for all export options).

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Figure 20.12.17: ComStationware dialog

• select PowerFactory as Life cycle Phase,

• press Execute.

After a few seconds the relay settings are transferred to the server, and the output window contains the
message

DIgSI/info - Exported 2 of 2 device settings successfully

The result can now be observed in the StationWare HTML interface.

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Figure 20.12.18: Device detail page

• navigate to the relay detail view of the Getting Started Relay 2 relay (see Fig. 20.12.18)

Observe the new created PF setting. The phase of this setting is PowerFactory.

• switch to the settings detail page of the new PF setting (see Fig. 20.12.19).

Figure 20.12.19: Setting detail page

The setting values should correspond to the relay state in PowerFactory. In the same way the Getting

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Started Relay 1 relay has a new PF setting.

Now try the opposite direction and import a setting from StationWare into PowerFactory.

• modify the PF settings in StationWare by entering some other values

• in PowerFactory mark the relays with the mouse and right-click to get the relay context menu as
shown in Figure 20.12.14.
• select the Import. . . item in the StationWare menu entry.

Again the ComStationware dialog (see Figure 20.12.17) pops up as known from the export.

• leave the default settings,

• press Execute.

Again the result of the settings transfer is reflected in the output window:

DIgSI/info - Imported 2 of 2 device settings successfully

• find ElmRelay object parameters changed according to the changes on the StationWare side

All import options are described in detail in the reference section : Export and Import Settings.

20.12.5.2 Import/Export of the Additional Attributes

Additional attributes represent additional information which users may find useful for a location, device
or settings within a device. These are not directly part of a settings record but are user-defined. For
example, a common additional attribute that is useful for a feeder or substation location is the nominal
voltage level in kV. Primary elements such as lines do not posses settings but instead parameters.
Parameters such as length or impedance are then presented by the use of additional attributes.

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Figure 20.12.20: Additional attributes on the Substation page

The following information for additional attributes can be imported/exported:

• Name of the attribute

• Description
• Unit
• Value (Bool, String, Integer, Real, Enumeration, Data Time)

• Type (Attribute, Propagate, Overall Status, Revision Number)

Import/export of additional attributes also requires that the DPL script be saved in the appropriate place
(see Section 20.12.5). All actions are similar to those described for settings (see Section 20.12.5.1) .

20.12.5.3 Export of the calculation results

Calculation results data exchange is only possible in one direction: from PowerFactory to StationWare .
It is important to know that PowerFactory stores calculation results in attributes of temporary so-called
“calculation objects” (see 20.12.21).

This data will be exchanged between “calculation objects” and StationWare process objects.

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Figure 20.12.21: Calculation results in the “Flexible Data” tab

Preparation of StationWare for importing result data

Inside a StationWare project, define the process lifecycle, category and type. This process object should
be configured to be capable of result data storage and presentation (e.g. “ArcFlashLabel Type” see
20.12.22).

Important: Process lifecycle must posses a phase named “PowerFactory ” of type “Planning”.

Figure 20.12.22: Process types page in StationWare

After being defined, the process should be created and have a device assigned to it.

Figure 20.12.23: Location page where process is created

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Preparing PowerFactory for export of result data

In PowerFactory it is important to have the DPL transfer script created and saved in a proper place
inside the project library folder (see Section 20.12.5). It is necessary to use separate scripts for each
calculation type and for each PowerFactory object class.

Connection of PowerFactory and StationWare

Please refer to Section 20.12.5.1.

Export of results
Please refer to similar section 20.12.5.1.

20.12.6 DPL Scripts

20.12.6.1 Export script

Independent of the usage of the script (export of settings data, additional attribute data or calculation
result), all scripts must posses:

• The same name “PsmsExport”

• They must have two “External Objects”:

– Object: refers to a concrete object when exporting.
– Map: the script uses this object to write export data into.
• One result parameter: Result, whose value has to be set on OK at the end of the script.

Figure 20.12.24: DPL export script

Example Code

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• Settings export (see Figure 20.12.25 and Figure 20.12.26)

Object1=Object.GetSlot(’Z1P’);
Map.SetString(’x1.Z1P.chapter’,’1’);
Map.SetString(’x1.Z1P.displayname’,’Z1P’);
Map.SetString(’x1.Z1P.range’,’0.05-64’);
Map.SetString(’x1.Z1P.unit’,’ohma sec.’);
Map.SetString(’x1.Z1P.description’,’Impedance Reach: Zone 1’);
Map.SetString(’x1.Z1P.type’,’Real’);
Map.SetDouble(’x1.Z1P.value’,Object1:Zm);
Result = ’OK’;

Export code: SWGroupID.SWName.x, ’value of the x attribute’,

e.g. Settings.x1303.x
x: value, index, range, type, description, displayname, chapter, unit

• Additional Attribute Export

Map.SetString(’Attribute.PSMS.Custom.Attributes.Desc.value’, Object:desc);
Result = ’OK’;
Export code: Attribute.SWName.x
x: type, unit, value

• Calculation result data

Map.SetString(’ProcessType’, ’PSMS.ProcessModel.ArcFlashLabel.Process’);
Map.SetDouble(’Label.ArcFaultCurrent.value’, Object:m:Iarc);
Map.SetDouble(’Label.FaultClearingTime.value’, Object:m:Tarc);
Map.SetInt(’Label.PPECategory.value’, Object:m:PPE_cat);
Result = ’OK’;

Figure 20.12.25: StationWare Relay data

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Figure 20.12.26: PowerFactory Relay data

20.12.6.2 Import script

As in the case of export scripts, all import scripts (independent of whether they are importing settings
or additional attributes) must posses:

• The same name “PsmsImport”,

• Two “External Objects” (map and object),

• A result object “Result”.

The import script should take the value out of the map object and put it into the object.
Object:parameter= Map.GetDouble(’StationWareGroupID.StationWareName.value’)

for example:
- Additional Attribute import
Object:desc=Map.GetString(’Attribute.PSMS.Custom.Attributes.Desc.value’)
- Settings import
Object:Zm=Map.GetDouble(’x1.Z1P.value’);

20.12.7 Reference

This section describes all options and features concerning the StationWare interface.

The Device Context Menu

Almost all functionality can be accessed by the device context menu. Mark one or more objects which
supports the StationWare transfer e.g. ElmRelay

• in the object filter (Figure 20.12.14)

• in the data manager as shown in Figure 20.12.27.

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Figure 20.12.27: Device context menu

The StationWare submenu contains the entries as follows:

Import X. . . opens the ComStationware dialog and sets the device selection according to the
above selected device objects. The ComStationware dialog settings are explained in detail in
section 20.12.7 : The ComStationware Object.

Export X. . . does the same for the export direction.

Select Device ID. . . starts the Browser dialog (Figure 20.12.31) to link this device to a Station-
Ware device. The dialog is subject of section 20.12.7 : The Browser dialog.

Reset Device ID resets the device ID.

Connect. . . terminates the current StationWare session if it’s already existing. Shows a Log On
dialog. The connection settings are covered by Section 20.12.7. This may be useful when you
are using several StationWare accounts and want to switch between them.

Disconnect terminates the StationWare session

Connection

Similar to the HTML interface the StationWare interface in PowerFactory is session - oriented: when a
user logs on to the system by specifying a valid StationWare account (username and password) a new
session is created. Only inside such a session StationWare can be used. The account privileges restrict
the application functionality e.g. an administrator account is more powerful than a usual user account.

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Figure 20.12.28: Log on dialog

Working with PowerFactory for the first time, the StationWare server is required, and the Logon dialog
isf as shown in Figure 20.12.28.

The StationWare connection options are stored in the user settings (Figure 20.12.29). After each
successful logon the user settings are updated.

Figure 20.12.29: Log on dialog

As mentioned in the Architecture section (Section 20.12.2) StationWare is a client-server application.

The StationWare server component is located on a server machine in the internet. The client component
is the PowerFactory application which is running on a client machine.

The technology PowerFactory and StationWare use to communicate is called web services and is stan-
dardised like many other internet technologies (HTML, HTTP). The server computer (or more exactly
the StationWare service application on the server computer) has a ’name’ by which it can be accessed.
This ’name’ is called service endpoint and resembles a web page URL:

http://the.server.name/psmsws/PSMSService.asmx

or

http://192.168.1.53/psmsws/PSMSService.asmx

http denotes the protocol, the.server.name is the computer name (or DNS) of the server computer and
psmsws/psmsws.asmx is the name of the StationWare application.

The connection options are as follows:

Service Endpoint The Service Endpoint denotes the StationWare server ’name’ as described
above

Username/Password Username and Password have to be valid user account in StationWare . A

StationWare user account has nothing to do with the PowerFactory user account.

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The very same StationWare account can be used by two different PowerFactory users. The privileges
of the StationWare account actually restrict the functionality. For device import the user requires read-
access rights. For exporting additionally write-access rights are required.

The Browser Dialog

As mentioned in the Concept description (see Section 20.12.3: Device) the StationWare device ID
is stored as Foreign Key in the e.g. ElmRelay object dialog (Description page) as shown in Fig-
ure 20.12.30.

Figure 20.12.30: ElmRelay dialog

A more convenient way is to use the Browser dialog shown in Figure 20.12.31. The dialog allows to
browse through the StationWare location hierarchy and select a device. The hierarchy data is cached to
minimise network accesses. Due this caching it’s possible that there may exist newly created locations
or devices which are not displayed in the browser dialog. The Refresh button empties the cache and
enforces PowerFactory to re-fetch the correct data from the server.

The ComStationware Object

In PowerFactory almost everything is an object: relays are ElmRelay objects, users are IntUser objects,
and grids are ElmNet objects, . . .

What may be on the first sight confusing is the fact that actions are objects as well: for a short-circuit
calculation a ComShc object is created. The calculation can be performed with several options e.g.
3-Phase, single phase, or 3 Phase to Neutral.

Figure 20.12.31: Browser dialog

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You can even specify the fault location. All these calculation options are stored in the ComShc object.
Every action object has an Execute button which starts the action. In fact there is a large number of
parametrised actions like load flow calculation (ComLdf ), simulation (ComSim), there is even a ComExit
object that shuts down PowerFactory. All objects which can ’do’ something have the Com prefix.

Since the StationWare interface is actually ’doing’ something (it does import data, it does export data) it
is implemented as a ComStationware object.

The ComStationware object is used both for the import and the export. It is located in the project’s study
case according to PowerFactory convention.

By default the study case of a new project contains no ComStationWare object. It is automatically
created when it is first needed, as well as the ComShc object is instantiated at the time when the first
short-circuit calculation is performed.

Import/Export Options

The ComStationware dialog provides import/export options as follows (Figure 20.12.32):

Transfer Mode select Import/Export from StationWare as Transfer Mode

Transfer Data select Import/Export Data from StationWare (Attributes, Settings, Results of last
calculation)

Check only Plausibility if the Check only Plausibility flag is enabled the import is only simulated
but not really executed.

Life cycle Phase/Time stamp A list of available life cycle phases is shown.

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Figure 20.12.32: ComStationware import options

• PowerFactory selects the current setting with PowerFactory phase as source setting.
• if Applied is selected the current Applied setting is transferred. If additionally a Timestamp value
is entered the setting that was applied at this time is transferred which may either be Applied or
Historic.

The Timestamp format is in ISO format: e.g. 2005-02-28 22:27:16

The time part may be omitted. Then 00:00:00 AM is assumed.

All Devices If All Devices is enabled, all calculation-relevant devices are imported/exported.

Device Selection Unless All Devices is enabled, the Device Selection provides a more subtle
way to specify which devices are to be transferred.

The Device Selection is automatically set if the Device Context Menu mechanism (Section 20.12.7
: The Device Context Menu) is used.

All Settings Groups/Group Index This parameter specifies how multiple settings groups (MSG)
are handled.

The import/export transfer is started by pressing Execute.

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20.13 API (Application Programming Interface)

For a detailed description on the API, a reference document is available in the DIgSILENT download
area: http://www.digsilent.de/index.php/downloads.html

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Power System Analysis Functions

Chapter 21

Load Flow Analysis

21.1 Introduction

Whenever evaluating the operation and control of power systems, the electrical engineer is typically
encountered with questions such as:

• Are the voltages of every busbar in the power system acceptable?

• What is the loading of the different equipment in the power system? (transformers, transmission
lines, generators, etc.)
• How can I achieve the best operation of the power system?

• Does the power system have a weakness (or weaknesses)? If so, where are they located and
how can I countermeasure them?

Although we may consider that the above questioning would arise only when analysing the behaviour
of “existing” power systems; the same interrogations can be formulated when the task relates to the
analysis of “future” systems or “expansion stages” of an already existing power system; such as evalu-
ating the impact of commissioning a transmission line or a power plant, or the impact of refurbishment
or decommissioning of equipment (for example shutting down a power plant because it has reached its
life expectancy).

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Figure 21.1.1: Power System Analysis: System Operation and System Planning

Taking into account these two aspects: 1) Present operation and 2) Future operation, is how power
should be analysed. From one side, an operation or control engineer requires relevant information to
be available to him almost immediately, meaning he must be able to obtain somehow the behaviour
of the power system under different configurations that can occur (for example by opening or closing
breakers in a substation); on the other side, a planning engineer requires obtaining the behaviour of
the system reflecting reinforcements that have not yet been built while considering the corresponding
yearly and/or monthly load increase. Regardless of the perspective, the engineer must be able to
determine beforehand the behaviour of the power system in order to establish, for example, the most
suitable operation configuration or to detect possible weakness and suggest solutions and alternatives.
Figures 21.1.2 and 21.1.3 illustrate the system operation and planning aspects.

Figure 21.1.2: Power system operation example

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Figure 21.1.3: Power system planning example

Load flow calculations are used to analyse power systems under steady-state non-faulted (short-circuit-
free) conditions. Where steady-state is defined as a condition in which all the variables and parameters
are assumed to be constant during the period of observation. We can think of this as “taking a picture” of
the power system at a given point in time. To achieve a better understanding let us refer to Figure 21.1.4.
Here a 24 hour load demand profile is depicted. The user can imagine this varying demand to be the
demand of a specific area or region, or the demand of a whole network. In this particular case the load
is seen as increasing from early in the morning until it reaches it’s maximum at around 18:00 hrs. After
this point in time, the total load then begins to decrease. A load flow calculation is stated to be a steady-
state analysis because it reflects the system conditions for a certain point in time, such as for instance
at 18:00 hrs (maximum demand). As an example, if we require determining the behaviour of the system
for every hour of the day, then 24 load flows need to be performed; if the behaviour for every second is
required then the number of load flow calculations needed would amount to 86 400. In PowerFactory
, the active power (and/or reactive power) of the loads can be set with a Characteristic so they follow
a certain profile (daily, weekly, monthly, etc.). By doing so, the active power will change automatically
according to the date ant time specified. For more information please refer to Chapter 16(Parameter
Characteristics, Load States, and Tariffs).

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Figure 21.1.4: Example of a Load Demand Curve

A load flow calculation will determine the active and reactive power flows for all branches, and the
voltage magnitude and phase for all nodes.

The main areas for the application of load flow calculations can be divided in normal and abnormal
(Contingency) system conditions as follows:

Normal System Conditions

• Calculation of branch loadings, system losses and voltage profiles.

• Optimisation tasks, such as minimising system losses, minimising generation costs, open tie
optimisation in distributed networks, etc.
• Calculation of steady-state initial conditions for stability simulations or short-circuit calculations
using the complete superposition method.

Abnormal System Conditions

• Calculation of branch loadings, system losses and voltage profiles.

• Contingency analysis, network security assessment.
• Optimisation tasks, such as minimising system losses, minimising generation costs, open tie
optimisation in distributed networks, etc.
• Verification of system conditions during reliability calculations.
• Automatic determination of optimal system resupplying strategies.
• Optimisation of load-shedding.

• Calculation of steady-state initial conditions for stability simulations or short-circuit calculations

using the complete superposition method (special cases).

Regarding the above definitions of ”normal” and ”abnormal” system conditions, a distinction should be
made in terms of the manner simulations should be performed:

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Simulation of normal operating conditions: Here, the generators dispatch as well as the loads are
known, and it is therefore sufficient for the load flow calculation to represent these generators
dispatch and to provide the active and reactive power of all loads. The results of the load flow
calculation should represent a system condition in which none of the branch or generator limits
are exceeded.
Simulation of abnormal operating conditions: Here a higher degree of accuracy from the models
is needed. It can no longer be assumed that the entire system is operating within limits. The
models must be able to correctly simulate conditions which deviate from the normal operating
point. Hence the reactive power limits of generators or the voltage dependency of loads must be
modelled. Additionally, in many applications, the active power balance cannot be established with
a single slack bus (or machine). Instead, a more realistic representation of the active and reactive
power control mechanisms have to be considered to determine the correct sharing of the active
and reactive power generation.

Besides the considerations regarding abnormal conditions presented above, the assumption of bal-
anced systems may be inappropriate for certain distribution networks. State of the art computational
tools for power systems analysis must be therefore able to represent unbalanced networks for load flow
calculations as well.

The calculation methods and the options provided by PowerFactory ’s load flow analysis function allow
the accurate representation of any combination of meshed 1-, 2-, and 3-phase AC and/or DC systems.
The load flow tool accurately represents unbalanced loads, generation, grids with variable neutral
potentials, HVDC systems, DC loads, adjustable speed drives, SVSs, and FACTS devices, etc., for
all AC and DC voltage levels. With a more realistic representation of the active and reactive power
balance mechanisms, the traditional requirement of a slack generator is left optional to the user.

The most considerable effect of the resistance of transmission lines and cables is the generation of
losses. The conductor resistance will at the same time depend on the conductor operating temperature,
which is practically linear over the normal range of operation. In order to carry out such type of analysis,
PowerFactory offers a Temperature Dependency option, so that the conductor resistance is corrected
according to the specified temperature value.

For very fast and reliable analysis of complex transmission networks, where only the flow of active power
through the branches is considered, PowerFactory offers an additional load flow method, namely “DC
load flow (linear)”, which determines the active power flows and the voltage angles within the network.

The following sections introduce the calculation methods and the options provided with PowerFactory ’s
load flow tool. This information is a guide to the configuration of the PowerFactory load flow analysis
command

21.2 Technical Background

This section presents the general aspects of the implementation of PowerFactory ’s load flow calculation
tool. An understanding of the concepts introduced here should be sufficient background to manage the
options presented in the load flow analysis command dialogue. Further technical details related to the
models (Network Components) implemented in PowerFactory for load flow calculations are provided in
the Appendix C: Technical References of Models.

21.2.1 Network Representation and Calculation Methods

A load flow calculation determines the voltage magnitude (V) and the voltage angle (𝜗) of the nodes,
as well as the active (P) and reactive (Q) power flow on branches. Usually, the network nodes are
represented by specifying two of these four quantities. Depending on the quantities specified, nodes
can be classified as:

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• PV nodes: here the active power and voltage magnitude are specified. This type of node
is used to represent generators and synchronous condensers whose active power and voltage
magnitude are controlled (synchronous condensers P=0). In order to consider equipment limits
under abnormal conditions (as mentioned in the previous section), reactive power limits for the
corresponding network components are also used as input information.
• PQ nodes: here the active and reactive power are specified. This type of node is used to
represent loads and machines with fixed values. Loads can also be set to change (from their
original Po and Qo values at nominal voltage) as a function of the voltage of the node to which
the load itself is connected. Elements specified as PQ (for example synchronous machines, static
generator’s PWM converters or SVS’s) can be ”forced” by the algorithm so that the P and Q
resulting from the load flow are always within limits.
• Slack node: here the voltage magnitude and angle are fixed. In traditional load flow calculations
the slack node (associated with a synchronous generator or an external grid) carries out the
balancing of power in the system.
• Device nodes: special nodes used to represent devices such as HVDC converters, SVSs, etc.,
with specific control conditions (for example the control of active power flow at a certain MW
threshold in a HVDC converter, or the control of the voltage of a busbar by an SVS).

Note: In traditional load flow calculations, asynchronous machines are represented by PQ nodes,
assuming that the machine operates at a certain power factor, independent of the busbar voltage.
Besides this traditional representation, PowerFactory offers a more accurate “slip iteration” (AS)
representation based on the model equivalent circuit diagrams. For further information please
refer to the corresponding Technical Reference in the Appendix C.

In contrast to other power system calculation programs, PowerFactory does not directly define the
node characteristic of each busbar. Instead, more realistic control conditions for the network elements
connected to these nodes are defined (see the Load Flow page of each element’s dialogue). For
example, synchronous machines are modelled by defining one of the following control characteristics:

• Controlled power factor (cos(𝜗)), constant active and reactive power (PQ);
• Constant voltage, constant active power (PV) on the connected bus;
• Secondary (frequency) controller (slack, SL).

It is also important to note that in PowerFactory the active and reactive power balance of the analysed
networks is not only possible through a slack generator (or external grid). The load flow calculation tool
allows the definition of more realistic mechanisms to control both active and reactive power. For further
information please refer to Section 21.2.2.

AC Load Flow Method

In PowerFactory the nodal equations used to represent the analysed networks are implemented using
two different formulations:

• Newton-Raphson (Current Equations).

• Newton-Raphson (Power Equations, classical).

In both formulations, the resulting non-linear equation systems must be solved by an iterative method.
PowerFactory uses the Newton-Raphson method as its non-linear equation solver. The selection of
the method used to formulate the nodal equations is user-defined, and should be selected based on
the type of network to be calculated. For large transmission systems, especially when heavily loaded,
the standard Newton-Raphson algorithm using the “Power Equations” formulation usually converges

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best. Distribution systems, especially unbalanced distribution systems, usually converge better using
the “Current Equations” formulation.

In addition to the Newton-Raphson iterations, which solve the network nodal equations, PowerFactory
applies an outer loop when the control characteristic of automatic transformer tap changers and/or
switchable shunts is considered. Once the Newton-Raphson iterations converge to a solution within the
defined tolerance (without considering the setpoint values of load flow quantities defined in the control
characteristic of the tap changers/switchable shunts (see Figure 21.2.1)), the outer loop is applied in
order to reach these target values. The actions taken by the outer iterative loop are:

• Increasing/decreasing discrete taps;

• Increasing/decreasing switchable shunts; and

• Limiting/releasing synchronous machines to/from max/min reactive power limits.

Once the above-listed actions are taken, a new Newton-Raphson load flow iteration takes place in order
to determine the new network operating point.

Figure 21.2.1: Setting of the Control Mode for an Automatic Tap Changer

In the classical load flow calculation approach, the unbalance between phases are neglected. For the
analysis of transmission networks this assumption is generally admissible. In distribution networks this
assumption may be inappropriate depending on the characteristics of the network. PowerFactory allows
for the calculation of both balanced (AC Load Flow, balanced positive sequence) and unbalanced (AC
Load Flow Unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC)) load flows according to the descriptions above.

DC Load Flow Method

In addition to the “AC” load flow calculations presented in this section, PowerFactory offers a so-called
“DC” load flow calculation method. The DC load flow should not be interpreted as a method to be used
in case of DC systems given that it basically applies to AC systems.

Some occasions we may require performing fast analysis in complex transmission networks where only
a reasonable approximation of the active power flow of the system is needed. For such situations the DC
load flow can be used. Other applications of the DC load flow method include situations where the AC
load flow has trouble converging (see Section 21.5: Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculation Problems).

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In this particular method, the non-linear system resulting from the nodal equations is simplified due to
the dominant relation that exists between voltage angle and active power flow in high voltage networks.
By doing so a set of linear equations is thereby obtained, where the voltage angles of the buses are
directly related to the active power flow through the reactance of the individual components. The DC
load flow does not require an iterative process and the calculation speed is therefore considerably
increased. Only active power flow without losses is considered. Summarising, the DC load flow method
has the following characteristics:

• The calculation requires the solving of a set of linear equations.

• No iterations required, therefore fast, and also no convergence problems.
• Approximate solution:
– All node voltage magnitudes fixed at 1.0 per unit.
– Only active power and voltage angles calculated.
– Losses are neglected.

21.2.2 Active and Reactive Power Control

Active Power Control

Besides the traditional approach of using a slack generator to establish the power balance within the
system, PowerFactory ’s load flow calculation tool provides other active power balancing mechanisms
which more closely represent the reality of transmission networks (see selection in the Active Power
Control page of the load flow command). These mechanisms are implemented in the steady-state
according to the control processes that follow the loss of large power stations:

• As Dispatched: As mentioned at the beginning of this section, the conventional approach in

load flow calculations consists assigning a slack generator, which will establish the power balance
within the system. Besides this traditional approach, PowerFactory offers the option of balancing
by means of a single or a group of loads (Distributed Slack by Loads). Under such assumptions,
the active power of the selected group of loads will be modified so that the power balance is once
again met; while leaving the scheduled active power of each generator unchanged. Other methods
of balancing include considering the participation of all synchronous generators according to their
scheduled active power (Distributed Slack by Generation).
• According to Secondary Control: If an unbalance occurs between the scheduled active power
values of each generation unit and the loads plus losses, primary control will adapt (increase/de-
crease) the active power production of each unit, leading to an over- or under-frequency situation.
The secondary frequency control will then bring the frequency back to its nominal value, re-
establishing cost-efficient generation delivered by each unit. Secondary control is represented
in PowerFactory ’s load flow calculations by network components called Power Frequency Con-
trollers (ElmSecctrl). If the Active Power Control option According to Secondary Control is se-
lected, the generators considered by the Power Frequency Controllers establish the active power
balance according to their assigned participation factors (for further information, please refer to
the corresponding Technical Reference in the Appendix C).
• According to Primary Control: Shortly following a disturbance, the governors of the units partic-
ipating in primary control will increase/decrease their turbine power and drive the frequency close
to its nominal value. The change in the generator power is proportional to the frequency deviation
and is divided among participating units according to the gain (𝐾𝑝𝑓 ) of their primary controllers
and which is depicted in Figure 21.2.2. If the Active Power Control option According to Primary
Control is selected in PowerFactory ’s load flow command, the power balance is established by
all generators (synchronous generators, static generators and external grids) having a primary
controller gain value different than zero (parameter Prim. Frequency Bias in the Load Flow page

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- Figure 21.2.3). The modified active power of each generator is then calculated according to the
following equation:

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖−𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ + ∆𝑃𝑖 (21.1)

where,
𝑃𝑖 is the modified active power of generator 𝑖, 𝑃𝑖−𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ is the initial active power dispatch of
generator 𝑖 and ∆𝑃𝑖 is the active power change in generator 𝑖.
The active power change of each generator (∆𝑃𝑖 ) will be determined by its corresponding primary
controller gain value (𝐾𝑝𝑓 −𝑖 ) and the total frequency deviation.

∆𝑃𝑖 = 𝐾𝑝𝑓 −𝑖 · ∆𝑓 (21.2)

where,
𝐾𝑝𝑓 −𝑖 is the primary controller gain parameter of generator 𝑖 and ∆𝑓 is the total frequency
deviation. The total frequency deviation (∆𝑓 ) can be obtained according to:

∆𝑃𝑇 𝑜𝑡
∆𝑓 = ∑︀ (21.3)
𝐾𝑝𝑓

where ∆𝑃𝑇 𝑜𝑡 corresponds to the active power change sum of every generator:

𝑛
∑︁
∆𝑃𝑇 𝑜𝑡 = ∆𝑃𝑗 (21.4)
𝑗=1

Figure 21.2.2: Primary Frequency Bias

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Figure 21.2.3: Primary Frequency Bias (𝐾𝑝𝑓 ) Setting in the Load Flow Page of the Synchronous
Machine Element (ElmSym)

• According to Inertias: Immediately following a disturbance, the missing/excess power is deliv-

ered from the kinetic energy stored in the rotating mass of the turbines. This leads to a deceler-
ation/acceleration and thus to a decrease/increase in the system frequency. The contribution of
each individual generator towards the total additional power required is proportional to its inertia. If
the Active Power Control option According to Inertias is selected in PowerFactory ’s load flow com-
mand, the power balance is established by all generators. Individual contributions to the balance
are proportional to the inertia/acceleration time constant of each generator (defined on the RMS-
Simulation page of the synchronous generator type’s dialogue and depicted in Figure 21.2.4). This
relation can be mathematically described as follows:

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖−𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ + ∆𝑃𝑖 (21.5)

where,
𝑃𝑖 is the modified active power of generator 𝑖, 𝑃𝑖−𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ is the initial active power dispatch of
generator 𝑖 and ∆𝑃𝑖 is the active power change in generator 𝑖.
The active power change of each generator (∆𝑃𝑖 ) will be determined by its corresponding inertia
gain (𝐾𝑝𝑓 −𝑖 ) and the total frequency deviation, as follows:

∆𝑃𝑖 = 𝐾𝑝𝑓 −𝑖 · ∆𝑓 (21.6)

where,
∆𝑓 is the total frequency deviation and 𝐾𝑝𝑓 −𝑖 is the inertia gain parameter of generator i, which
can be calculated as:

𝐾𝑝𝑓 −𝑖 = 𝐽 · 𝜔𝑛 · 2𝜋 (21.7)

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with

𝑇𝑎𝑔𝑠
𝐽 = 𝑆𝑛 · (21.8)
𝜔𝑛2

where,
𝐽 is the moment of Inertia,
𝜔𝑛 is the rated angular velocity,
𝑆𝑛 is the generator nominal apparent power and
𝑇𝑎𝑔𝑠 is the acceleration time constant rated to 𝑆𝑛

Figure 21.2.4: Inertia/Acceleration Time Constant Parameter of the Synchronous Machine Type
(TypSym). RMS-Simulation Page

Figure 21.2.5 illustrates the different type of active power control.

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Figure 21.2.5: Frequency Deviation Following an Unbalance in Active Power

Note: The Secondary Control option will take into account the participation factors of the machines de-
fined within a Power-Frequency Controller (ElmSecctrl) in order to compensate for the frequency
deviation. In such a case, the final steady state frequency is considered to be the nominal value
(number 1 in Figure 21.2.5). The Primary Control option will take into account the frequency droop
(MW/Hz) stated in every machine in order to determine the active power contribution. Depending
on the power unbalance, the steady state frequency will deviate from the nominal value (number
2 in Figure 21.2.5). The According to Inertias option will take into account the inertia/acceleration
time constant stated in every machine in order to determine its active power contribution. In this
case, depending on the power unbalance, the steady state frequency will deviate from the nominal
value (number 3 in Figure 21.2.5).

Reactive Power Control

The reactive power reserves of synchronous generators in transmission networks are used to control the
voltages at specific nodes in the system and/or to control the reactive power exchange with neighbouring
network zones. In PowerFactory ’s load flow calculation, the voltage regulator of the generators has a
voltage setpoint which can be set manually (defining a PV bus type as introduced in Section 21.2.1), or
from an Automatic Station Controller (ElmStactrl). This Automatic Station Controller combines several
sources of reactive power to control the voltage at a given bus. In this case the relative contribution
of each reactive power source (such as generators and SVSs) is defined in the Station Controller
dialogue. For further details about the use and definition of Automatic Station Controllers please refer
to Appendix C: Technical References of Models, section C.5.1: Station Controller (ElmStactrl).

21.2.3 Advanced Load Options

Voltage Dependency of Loads

All non-motor loads, as well as groups of non-motor loads that conform a sub-system, for example, a
low-voltage system viewed from a medium voltage system, can be modelled as a “general load”.

Under “normal conditions” it is permissible to represent such loads as constant PQ loads. However
under “abnormal conditions”, for example during voltage collapse situations the voltage-dependency of
the loads should be taken into account.

Under such assumptions, PowerFactory uses a potential approach, as indicated by Equations (21.9)
and (21.10). In these equations, the subscript 0 indicates the initial operating condition as defined in
the input dialogue box of the Load Type.

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(︃ (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑎𝑃 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑏𝑃 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑐𝑃 )︃

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑃 = 𝑃0 𝑎𝑃 · + 𝑏𝑃 · + (1 − 𝑎𝑃 − 𝑏𝑃 ) · (21.9)
𝑣0 𝑣0 𝑣0

where,

𝑐𝑃 = (1 − 𝑎𝑃 − 𝑏𝑃 )

(︃ (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑎𝑄 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑏𝑄 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑐𝑄 )︃

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑎𝑄 · + 𝑏𝑄 · + (1 − 𝑎𝑄 − 𝑏𝑄) · (21.10)
𝑣0 𝑣0 𝑣0

where,

𝑐𝑄 = (1 − 𝑎𝑄 − 𝑏𝑄)

By specifying the particular exponents (e_aP, e_bP, e_cP and e_aQ, e_bQ, e_cQ) the inherent load
behaviour can be modelled. For example, in order to consider a constant power, constant current or
constant impedance behaviour, the exponent value should be set to 0, 1 or 2 respectively. In addition,
the relative proportion of each coefficient can be freely defined using the coefficients aP, bP, cP and aQ,
bQ, cQ. For further information, please refer to the General Load technical reference in the Appendix C.

Note: These factors are only considered if the “Consider Voltage Dependency of Loads” is checked in
the Load-flow Command window. If no Load Type (TypLod) is assigned to a load, and the load
flow is performed considering voltage dependency then the load will be considered as Constant
Impedance.

Feeder Load Scaling

In radially operated distribution systems the problem often arises that very little is known about the
actual loading of the loads connected at each substation. The only information sometimes available
is the total power flowing into a radial feeder. To be able to still estimate the voltage profile along the
feeder a load scaling tool is used. In the simplest case the distribution loads are scaled according to
the nominal power ratings of the trans-formers in the substations. Of course, more precise results are
obtained by using an average daily, monthly or annual load.

The previous is explained in Figure 21.2.6. Here, the measured value at the beginning of the feeder is
stated to be 50 MW. Throughout the feeder there are three loads defined, of which only for one of them
the load is precisely known (20 MW). The other two loads are estimated to be at around 10 MW each.
PowerFactory ’s load flow analysis tool offers a special Feeder Load Scaling option so that the selected
groups of loads (scalable loads) are scaled accordingly in order to meet the measured value.

Figure 21.2.6: Radial Feeder. Feeder Load Scaling Option

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In PowerFactory the following options for Feeder Load Scaling are available:

• No scaling.
• Scaling to measured apparent power.
• Scaling to active power.
• Scaling to measured current.
• Scaling Manually.
• Scaling to measured reactive power.
• Scaling to measured power factor.

Furthermore, the previous options can be combined; for example, scaling a selected groups of loads in
order to meet a measured active power and power factor.

Note: Loads that are to be scaled must be marked as such (Adjusted by Load Scaling), also the load
scaling must be enabled in the load flow command option (Feeder Load Scaling).

The feeder load scaling process also can take into account the different type of load behaviour rep-
resented. Figure 21.2.7 illustrates just this. Here, a radial feeder consisting of three different type of
loads is depicted (constant power, constant current and constant impedance). Under such assumptions,
performing a load flow calculation with the option Consider Voltage Dependency of Loads (see previous
Section), will result in calculated base quantities according to the type of load specified; for example,
Ibase for the constant current load and Zbase for the constant impedance load. If in addition to the
voltage dependency of loads, the Feeder Load Scaling option is enabled, the calculated scaling factor
𝑘 is applied according to the type of load defined in the feeder.

Figure 21.2.7: Feeder Load Scaling Factor Considering Different Behaviour of Loads

In PowerFactory , the amount of Feeder definitions is not limited to the amount of radial paths repre-
sented in the model. This means that the user can define more than one feeder element (ElmFeeder )
along the same radial path, as indicated in Figure 21.2.8 In this particular example, both Feeder 1 and
2 have the same specified orientation (→ Branch). While Feeder 1 is defined from the beginning of the
radial path, Feeder 2 is defined after load L2. This particular type of feeder representation is termed as
Nested Feeders. Since Feeder 1 is defined from the beginning of the radial path, every load (L1, L2, L3
and L4), as well as every feeder (Feeder 2) along this path will be considered as part of its definition.
Since Feeder 2 is along the path defined for Feeder 1; Feeder 2 is nested in Feeder 1.

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In such cases, executing the load flow (with the option Feeder Load Scaling) will treat the two feeders as
independent. Although nested, Feeder 1 will only try to scale loads L1 and L2 according to its setting,
while Feeder 2 will scale loads L3 and L4. If Feeder 2 is placed Out of Service, then Feeder 1 will scale
all the loads along the radial path (L1, L2, L3 and L4).

Figure 21.2.8: Nested Feeder Definition

For further information on Feeder definitions please refer to Chapter 13, Section 13.5 (Feeders).

Load Scaling Factors

Loads can be scaled individually by adjusting the Scaling Factor parameter located in the Load Flow
page of the Load Element.Together with the scaling factor, the actual load is calculated as follows:

𝑃 = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 · 𝑃0 (21.11)

𝑄 = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 · 𝑄0 (21.12)

If voltage dependency of loads is considered then Equations (21.9) and (21.10) become;

(︃ (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑎𝑃 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑏𝑃 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑐𝑃 )︃

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑃 = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 · 𝑃0 𝑎𝑃 · + 𝑏𝑃 · + (1 − 𝑎𝑃 − 𝑏𝑃 ) · (21.13)
𝑣0 𝑣0 𝑣0

(︃ (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑎𝑄 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑏𝑄 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑐𝑄 )︃

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑄 = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 · 𝑄0 𝑎𝑄 · + 𝑏𝑄 · + (1 − 𝑎𝑄 − 𝑏𝑄) · (21.14)
𝑣0 𝑣0 𝑣0

Note: In order to consider a load in the feeder-load-scaling process, the option Adjusted by Load
Scaling has to be enabled. In this case, the individual Scaling Factor of the load is not taken
into account but overwritten by the feeder-scaling factor.

Additionally, loads can be grouped in zones, areas or boundaries so the scaling factor can be easily
edited. In case of zones, there will be an additional Zone Scaling Factor.

Coincidence of Low Voltage Loads

In a low voltage system every load may consist of a fixed component with a deterministic amount
of power demand plus a variable component comprising many different, small loads, such as lights,
refrigerators, televisions, etc., whose power varies stochastically between zero and a maximum value.
Under such conditions, PowerFactory uses a probabilistic load flow calculation, which is able to calculate

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both maximum and average currents as well as the average losses and maximum voltage drops.
The probabilistic load flow calculation used by PowerFactory can be applied to any system topology,
including meshed low-voltage systems.

PowerFactory ’s probabilistic load flow calculation uses low voltage loads comprised of several cus-
tomers with fixed and variable (stochastic) demand components. The maximum value of the variable
component (which is dependent upon the number of customers, n) is described by the following formula:

𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑛) = 𝑛 · 𝑔(𝑛) · 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 (21.15)

Where 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum variable load per connection (customer) and the function 𝑔(𝑛) describes
the maximum coincidence of loads, dependent upon the number of connections, 𝑛. If a Gaussian
distribution is assumed, the coincidence function is:

1 − 𝑔∞
𝑔(𝑛) = 𝑔∞ + √ (21.16)
𝑛

The average value of the variable component is:

𝑔(𝑛) = 𝑔∞ · 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 (21.17)

Note: Low voltage loads can be represented in PowerFactory by Low Voltage Load (ElmLodlv ) ele-
ments which can be directly connected to terminals or by Partial Low Voltage Loads (ElmLodlvp)
which are defined along transmission lines/cables (see the Definition of Line Loads section on the
Load Flow page of transmission line/cable elements - ElmLne).

21.2.4 Temperature Dependency of Lines and Cables

The most important effect of the resistance of transmission line and cable conductors is the generation
of losses (I2 R). Resistance will also affect the voltage regulation of the line due to voltage drop (IR).

The resistance of a conductor is mainly affected by the operating temperature, and its variation can be
considered practically linear over the normal range of operation (an increase in temperature causes an
increase in resistance). In PowerFactory , the load flow calculation has two options for considering the
Temperature Dependency of resistance for lines and cables:

• at 20∘ C: When this option is selected, the load flow calculation uses the resistances (lines and
cables) stated in the Basic Data page of the corresponding component (TypLne, TypCon, TypCab).

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Figure 21.2.9: Specification of the Resistance at 20řC in the Basic Data page of the line type (TypLne)

• at Maximum Operational Temperature: When this option is selected, the load flow calculation
uses the corrected value of resistance, which is obtained with the following equation:

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅20 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 20∘ 𝐶)] (21.18)

where,

𝑅20 is the resistance at temperature 20∘ C (Basic Data page of the corresponding type)

𝛼 is the temperature coefficient in 𝐾 −1

𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum operational temperature (Load Flow page of the corresponding type)

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the resistance at temperature 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥

Figure 21.2.10: Temperature Dependency Option Setting in the Load Flow page of the line type (TypLne)

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Additionally, the resistance temperature dependency can be defined by specifying either the resistance
at maximum operational temperature, the temperature coefficient (1/K) or the conductor material (Alu-
minium, Copper or Aldrey).

Table 21.2.1indicates the electrical resistivities and temperature coefficients of metals used in conduc-
tors and cables referred at 20∘ C/68∘ F (taken from IEC 60287-1 standard).

Material Resistivity (Ω-m) Temperature coefficient [𝐾 −1 ]

Aluminium 2.8264 · 10−8 4.03 · 10−3
Copper 1.7241 · 10−8 3.93 · 10−3

Table 21.2.1: Electrical Resistivities and Temperature coefficients of Aluminium and Copper

21.3 Executing Load Flow Calculations

A load flow calculation may be initiated by:

• Pressing the icon on the main toolbar;

• Selecting the Calculation → Load Flow ... option from the main menu.

An example of the load flow command dialogue is shown in Figure 21.3.1.

Figure 21.3.1: Load Flow Command (ComLdf ) Dialogue

The following pages explain the load flow command options. Following this, some hints are given
regarding what to do if your load flow cannot be solved.

The following pages describe the different load flow command (ComLdf ) options. for more detail
technical background regarding the options presented here, please refer to Section 21.2.

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21.3.1 Basic Options

Calculation Method

AC Load Flow, balanced, positive sequence: Performs load flow calculations for a single-
phase, positive sequence network representation, valid for balanced symmetrical networks. A
balanced representation of unbalanced objects is used (for further details please refer to Sec-
tion 21.2.1).

AC Load Flow, unbalanced, 3 Phase (ABC): Performs load flow calculations for a multi-phase
network representation. It can be used for analysing unbalances of 3-phase systems, e.g.
introduced by unbalanced loads or non-transposed lines, or for analysing all kinds of unbalanced
system technologies, such as single-phase- or two-phase systems (with or without neutral return).
For further details please refer to Section 21.2.1.

DC Load Flow (linear): Performs a DC load flow based on a set of linear equations, where the
voltage angles of the buses are strongly related to the active power flow through the reactance of
the individual components (for further details please refer to Section 21.2.1).

Reactive Power Control

This option is available only for AC load flow calculations.

Automatic Tap Adjust of Transformers: Adjusts the taps of all transformers which have the
option Automatic Tap Changing enabled on the Load Flow page of their element dialogues. The
tap adjustment is carried out according to the control settings defined in the transformer element’s
dialogue (for further information please refer to the corresponding Technical Reference in the
Appendix C).

Automatic Shunt Adjustment: Adjusts the steps of all switchable shunts that have the option
Switchable enabled on the Load Flow page of the shunt’s element dialogue (for further information
please refer to corresponding Technical Reference in the Appendix C).

Consider Reactive Power Limits: Considers the reactive power limits defined by generators and
SVSs. If the load flow cannot be solved without exceeding the specified limits, a convergence
error is generated. If this option is not enabled, PowerFactory will print a warning message if any
of the specified limits are exceeded.

Consider Reactive Power Limits Scaling Factor: This option is only available if Consider
Reactive Power Limits is enabled. If selected, the reactive power limits of generators are scaled
by the relaxation factors: Scaling factor (min) and Scaling factor (max) which are set on the
Load Flow page of the generator element’s dialogue. Note that the reactive power limits of
generators are also defined on the Load Flow page of the generator element’s dialogue by one
of the following: maximum/minimum values, or according to the generator’s assigned type.

Temperature Dependency: Line/Cable Resistances

...at 20∘ C: The resistance of each line, conductor and cable will be according to the value stated
in the Basic Data page of their corresponding type (at 20∘ C).

...at Maximum Operational Temperature: The resistance of each line, conductor and cable will
be adjusted according to the equation (21.18) described in Section 21.2.4 and the Temperature
Dependency option stated in its corresponding type (TypLne, TypCon, TypCab).

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Load Options

Consider Voltage Dependency of Loads: The voltage dependency of loads with defined volt-
age dependency factors (Load Flow page of the general- and complex load types) will be consid-
ered.

Feeder Load Scaling: Scales loads with the option Adjusted by Feeder Load Scaling enabled on
the Load Flow page of their element dialogue by the Scaling Factor specified in the Load Scaling
section of the feeder element. In this case, the Scaling Factor specified on the Load Flow page
of load element dialogue is disregarded.

Consider Coincidence of Low-Voltage Loads: Calculates a ’low voltage load flow’ as described
in Sections 21.2.3 and 21.3.7, where load coincidence factors are considered, so as to produce
maximum branch currents and maximum voltage drops. Since coincidence factors are used,
the result of low voltage analysis will not obey Kirchhoff’s current law. After the load flow has
been successfully executed, maximum currents (Imax), maximum voltage drops (dumax) and
minimum voltages (umin, Umin) are displayed in every branch element and at every busbar. The
usual currents and voltages represent here average values of voltages and currents. Losses are
calculated based on average values, and maximum circuit loading is calculated using maximum
currents.

Scaling Factor for Night Storage Heaters: This is the factor by which the night storage heater
power (as found in Low Voltage Load elements) is multiplied for all low voltage loads.

21.3.2 Active Power Control

Active Power Control

As explained in Section 21.2.2, PowerFactory ’s load flow calculation offers several options for maintain-
ing power balance within the system under analysis. These options are:

as Dispatched: If this option is selected and no busbar is assigned to the Reference Busbar
(Reference Bus and Balancing section of the Active Power Control tab), the total power balance
is established by one reference generator/external grid (“slack”-generator). The slack generator
can be directly defined by the user on the Load Flow page of the target element. The program
automatically sets a slack if one has not been already defined by the user.

according to Secondary Control: Power balance is established by all generators which are
considered by a “Secondary Controller” as explained in Section 21.2.2. Active power contribution
is according to the secondary controller participation factors.

according to Primary Control: Power balance is established by all generators having a Kpf -
setting defined (on the Load Flow page of a synchronous machine element dialogue), as ex-
plained in Section 21.2.2. Active power contribution is according to the droop of every generator.

according to Inertias: Power balance is established by all generators, and the contribution of
each is according to the inertia (acceleration time constant) as explained in Section 21.2.2.

Consider Active Power Limits: Active power limits for generators (as defined on the element’s
Load Flow tab) participating in active power balance, will be applied. If this option is disabled,
the active power output limits may be violated, in which case a warning is issued. This option is
not available when the Active Power Control option is set to either as Dispatched or according to
Inertias.

Balancing

If as Dispatched is selected in the Active Power Control section of the tab, further options regarding the
power balancing method are available:

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by Reference Machine: For each isolated area, the reference machine will balance the active
power.

by Load at Reference Bus: This option is valid only when the reference bus bar has been
defined. The load with highest active power injection at the reference bus will be selected as the
slack (such as to balance the losses).

by Static Generator at Reference Bus: As in the case of Balancing by Load, this option is valid
only when the reference bus bar has been defined. The static generator with the highest nominal
apparent power at the reference bus will be selected as the slack (i.e. to balance the losses).

Distributed Slack by Loads: When this option is selected, only the loads which have the option
Adjusted by Load Scaling enabled in the isolated area will contribute to the balancing. The
distribution factor calculated for a load is determined by the following equation:

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖,𝑖
𝐾𝑖 = 𝑛 (21.19)
∑︁
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖,𝑗
𝑗=1

where,

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖 is the initial active power of the load.

Figure 21.3.2: Adjusted by Load Scaling option in the Load Flow page of the Load element (ElmLod)

Distributed Slack by Generation (Synchronous Generators): All the synchronous generators

in the isolated area will contribute to the balancing. As in the Distributed Slack by Loads option,
the distribution factor calculated for a generator is determined by the following equation:

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖,𝑖
𝐾𝑖 = 𝑛 (21.20)
∑︁
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖,𝑗
𝑗=1

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where,

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖 is the initial dispatched power of the generator.

Reference Bus

Reference Busbar: A different busbar to the one connecting the slack machine (or network) can
be selected as a reference for the voltage angle. In this case the user must specify the value of
the voltage angle at this selected reference bus, which will be remotely controlled by the assigned
slack machine (or network).

Angle: User-defined voltage angle for the selected reference busbar. The value will be remotely
controlled by the slack machine (external grid). Only available if a Reference Busbar has been
selected.

Interchange Schedule:

This option is available only when the Distributed Slack by Loads or Distributed Slack by Generation is
selected. It allows the loads or generation in a region to be scaled up or down to control the interchange
of this region. The type of the region could be:

Grids: Available for both distributed load slack and distributed generation.

Boundaries: Only available for distributed load slack.

In the load flow page of the grid or boundary elements, the following operational parameters are
available:

Consider Interchange Schedule: Enables or disables the Interchange Schedule for this region.
By default this option is not selected.

Scheduled active power interchange: States the expected interchange of the grid, zone or
boundary.

Figure 21.3.3: Consider Interchange Schedule option in the Load Flow page of the Grid element
(ElmNet)

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21.3.3 Advanced Options

Load Flow Method

As explained in Section 21.2.1, the nodal equations used to represent the analysed networks are
implemented using two different formulations:

• Newton-Raphson (Current Equations)

• Newton-Raphson (Power Equations, classical)

In both formulations, the resulting non-linear equation systems must be solved using an iterative method.
PowerFactory uses the Newton-Raphson method as its non-linear equation solver. The selection of the
method used to formulate the nodal equations is user-defined, and should be selected based on the
type of network to be calculated. For large transmission systems, especially when heavily loaded, the
classical Newton-Raphson algorithm using the Power Equations formulation usually converges best.
Distribution systems, especially unbalanced distribution systems, usually converge better using the
Current Equations formulation.

Load Flow Initialisation

No Topology Rebuild: Will speed up large sets of consecutive load flow calculations. Enabling
this option means that the topology of the system will not be rebuilt when calculating the next load
flow. If no topological changes will be made to the system between these consecutive load flow
calculations, then this option may be enabled.

No Initialisation (no flat-start): Initialises a load flow from a previously convergent solution (no
flat-start).

Consideration of transformer winding ratio: Sets the manner in which voltage initialisation
takes place at nodes. This option, enabled by default, means that PowerFactory will automatically
consider off nominal transformer ratios as part of the initialisation process.

Tap Adjustment

Method: The direct method will include the tap controller models in the load flow calculation (i.e.
in the internal loop involving the Newton-Raphson iterations). The new tap positions will then be
calculated directly as a variable and are therefore known following a single load flow calculation.
The stepped method will calculate a load flow with fixed tap positions, after which the required
tap changes are calculated from the observed voltage deviations and the tap controller time
constants. The load flow calculation is then repeated with the new tap positions, until no further
changes are required. These tap adjustments take place in the outer loop of the calculation.

Min. Controller Relaxation Factor: The tap controller time constants are used in the automatic
tap changer calculations to determine the relative speed of the various tap controllers during the
load flow iterations. The relaxation factor can be used to slow down the overall controller speeds
(in case of convergence problems, set a factor of less than 1.0), or to speed them up (for a faster
load flow, set a factor of greater than 1.0).
Reducing the relaxation factor results in an increased number of iterations, but yields greater
numerical robustness.

Station Controller

Available on Advanced tab of the Advanced Options page. The options presented in this field determine
the reactive power flow from generators participating in station controllers (ElmStactrl). Please refer to
Appendix C.5.1 (Station Controller (ElmStactrl)) for information on station controllers and their control
modes.

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Modelling Method of Towers

with in/output signals: The equations of the lines are modelled in the tower. It should be noted
that selecting this option will result in slower performance.

ignore couplings: Inter-circuit couplings are ignored.

equations in lines: The constant impedance and admittance matrices are calculated by the
tower and used to develop the equations of the lines. The equations involving coupling are
modelled in the lines; consequently, using this option results in faster performance than using
option with in/output signals.

Use this load flow for initialisation of OPF

The results of this load flow calculation are used to initialise the OPF calculation.

21.3.4 Iteration Control

The options on this page relate to the non-linear equation solver and are therefore only available for
PowerFactory ’s AC load flow calculation methods.

Max. Number of Iterations for

The load flow calculation comprises an inner loop involving the Newton-Raphson method (see Sec-
tion 21.2.1), and an outer loop to determine changes to tap settings and to consider generator reactive
power limits. Default values for the maximum number of iterations for these two loops are 25 iterations
for the inner loop, and 20 iterations for the outer loop.

Newton-Raphson Iteration: The inner loop of the load flow involves the Newton-Raphson
iterations. This parameter defines the maximum number of iterations (typically 25).

Outer Loop: The outer loop of the load flow calculation will determine changes to the tap
changer (depending on the tap adjustment method selected), and considers reactive power limits
of generators, etc. These are adjusted in the outer loop and then a new iteration of the inner loop
is started again (see Section 21.2.1). The maximum number of outer loop iterations (typically 20)
is set by this parameter.

Number of Steps: Problematic load flows with slow convergence may be improved by starting a
load flow calculation for a low load level, and then increasing the load level in a number of steps.
This is achieved by setting the Number of Stairs to a value greater than one. For example, nsteps
= 3 begins a load flow at a load/generation level of 1/3 and the increases the power to 100% over
two further steps.

Max. Acceptable Load Flow Error for

A higher precision or a faster calculation can be obtained by changing the maximum allowable error (i.e.
tolerance). The values of the calculated absolute error for nodes, or the calculated relative errors in the
model equations, e.g. voltage error of voltage controlled generators, are specified here.

Nodes: Maximum Iteration Error of Nodal Equations (typical value: 1 kVA).

Model Equations: Maximum Error of Model Equations (typical value: 0.1%).

Convergence Options

automatic adaptation: default option.

fixed relaxation: When this option is selected, a Relaxation Factor can be entered. A Newton-
Raphson relaxation factor smaller than 1.0 will slow down the convergence speed of the load
flow calculation, but may result in an increased likelihood of convergence for systems which are

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otherwise difficult to solve.

Automatic Model Adaptation for Convergency: The PowerFactory load flow calculation will
always first try to find a solution using non-linear mathematical power system models. If a solution
cannot be found, and this option is enabled, an adaptive algorithm will change these models
slightly to make them more linear, until a solution is found. Any model adaptations are reported
in the output window.

Iteratively, starting from Level 1 up to Level 4, some types of models are adjusted in order to find
a solution. The adaptations of the models for each level are the following:

• Level 1

– Loads: All voltage dependency factors are set to minimum 0.5

– Generators and external grids: Reactive power limits are disabled
– Transformers: tap control is disabled
– Motors: The rotor resistance is not allowed to vary

• Level 2
– Loads: All voltage dependency factors are set to minimum 0.8
– Generators and external grids: Reactive power limits are disabled
– Transformers: tap control is disabled
– Motors: The rotor resistance is not allowed to vary
• Level 3
– Loads: All voltage dependency factors are set to minimum 2
– Generators and external grids: Reactive power limits are disabled
– Transformers: tap control is disabled
– Motors: The rotor resistance is not allowed to vary
• Level 4
– Loads: All voltage dependency factors are set to minimum 2
– Generators and external grids: Reactive power limits are disabled and voltage equation are
linearised
– Transformers: tap control is disabled
– Motors: The rotor resistance is not allowed to vary

The models are not only linearised but also simplified. If the user reached Level 4, he should
better switch to the DC load flow method.

21.3.5 Outputs

Show Outer Loop messages

Will print a report concerning the outer loop iterations, which may be used to solve convergence
problems.

Show Convergence Progress Report

Will print a detailed report throughout the load flow calculation. When enabling this option the Number
of reported buses/models per iteration can be stated. As a result, the required number of buses and
models with the largest error will be reported (e.g. by stating 3, the 3 buses and models with the largest

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error will be printed out in the output window). As in the case of Outer Loop messages, this information
can be useful in solving convergence problems.

Show Verification Report

Produces a table in the output window with a list of overloaded power system elements and voltage
violations, according to the following values:

Max. Loading of Edge Element: Reference value of the maximum loading used by the Verifica-
tion Report.

Lower Limit of Allowed Voltage: Reference value for the minimum allowed voltage used by the
Verification Report.

Upper Limit of Allowed Voltage: Reference value for the maximum allowed voltage used by the
Verification Report.

Output: Displays the report format definition that will be used. The arrow button can be
pressed to edit or inspect the report settings.

Check Control Conditions

This option is selected by default and lists all elements in the output window whose control conditions
(e.g. reactive power limits, etc) have not been fulfilled. The arrow button allows the user to select
which control devices should be checked:

• Generator
• Transformer
• Shunt and SVC
• Station Controller
• Tap Controller
• Others

21.3.6 Load/Generation Scaling

On this page it is possible to define global scaling factors for loads, generators and motors that will be
used only during the execution of the Load Flow Calculation.

Load Scaling Factor

The active/reactive power of the following elements is scaled by the Load Scaling Factor:

• General Load (ElmLod)

• MV Load, load part (ElmLodmv )
• LV Load (ElmLodlv )

Generation Scaling Factor

The active/reactive power of the following elements is scaled by the Generation Scaling Factor:

• Static Generator (ElmGenstat)

• Synchronous Generator (ElmSym), when connected as a Generator

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• Asynchronous Generator (ElmAsm), when connected as a Generator

• DFIG Generator (ElmAsmsc), when connected as a Generator

• MV Load (ElmLodmv ), generation part

Motor Scaling Factor

The active/reactive power of the following models is scaled by the Motor Scaling Factor:

• Synchronous Motor (ElmSym), when connected as a Motor

• Asynchronous Motor (ElmAsm), when connected as a Motor

• DFIG Motor (ElmAsmsc), when connected as a Motor

21.3.7 Low Voltage Analysis

As explained in Sections 21.2.3 and 41.4.1, low voltage loads (ElmLodlv and ElmLodvp) are modelled
in PowerFactory with fixed and variable (stochastic) components. The parameters which define these
fixed and variable components are set in both the load flow command dialogue (i.e. globally), and in the
load types’ dialogues (i.e. locally) according to the settings defined below.

Definition of Fixed Load per Customer

The fixed load is the non-stochastic component of the load, which is not subject to coincidence factors.
The active and reactive power defined in this field, multiplied by the number of customers (defined in the
load element itself), are added to the fixed load component defined for each low voltage load (ElmLodlv
and ElmLodvp). For further information about LV loads please refer to the corresponding technical
references in the Appendix C.

Definition of Variable Load per Customer

The variable component of low voltage loads can be globally defined using the parameters in this section
or by specifically defining LV load types for the target loads.

The Max. Power per Customer is the independent maximum kVA per customer. This value, multiplied
by the Coincidence Factor (ginf) (see Section 21.2.3), gives the “Average Power” per customer, which
is used in load flow calculations.

The ’total’ maximum variable power per load is calculated using the Max. Power per Customer, the
Coincidence Factor (ginf ), and the number of customers (defined in the load element itself) as described
in Section 21.2.3.

Note: The factors defined in the section Definition of Variable Load per Customer are used as global
data for the load flow calculation. If specific LV load types are defined, the locally-defined data
in the type is used by the corresponding loads. For all other LV loads with no type assigned, the
global data from the load flow command is used.

Voltage Drop Analysis

For the consideration of the stochastic nature of loads, PowerFactory offers two calculation methods:

• Stochastic Evaluation
• Maximum Current Estimation

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The Stochastic Evaluation method is the more theoretical approach, and can also be applied to meshed
network topologies. The Maximum Current Estimation method applies stochastic rules only for the
estimation of maximum branch flows. Based on the maximum current flow in each branch element,
maximum voltage drops are calculated and added along the feeder. Obviously, this method has its
limitations in case of meshed LV networks.

21.3.8 Advanced Simulation Options

This page, as shown in Figure 21.3.4, is not only important for load flow but also for other calculation
functions such as transient simulation. Utilising the options on this page can result in improved perfor-
mance; i.e. the speed of a transient simulation may improved when protection devices are neglected in
the calculation.

Figure 21.3.4: Advanced Simulation Options in the load flow command dialogue

Consider Protection Devices

Calculates the tripping times for all modelled relays and fuses. This will also show the load
currents in the overcurrent plots and/or the measured impedance in the R-X diagrams. Disabling
this option will speed up the calculations.

Ignore Composite Elements

Disables all controller models. The panes Models Considered and Models Ignored are used to
disable specific groups of controller models. Model names can be moved between these panes
by either double-clicking on them or by selecting them and using the arrow buttons. Enabling this
option may result in faster convergence, or an increased likelihood of convergence for systems
which are otherwise difficult to solve.

21.4 Result Analysis

In PowerFactory the results can be displayed directly in the single line diagram, in tabular form or by
using predefined report formats. Also available are several diagram colouring options in other to have a
“quick” overview of the results.

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21.4.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram

Once a load flow calculation has been successfully executed, the result boxes shown in the single-line
diagram will be populated. There is a result box associated with each “side” of an element. So for
example a load has one result box, a line two result boxes, and a three-winding transformer three result
boxes. In PowerFactory these elements are collectively called edge elements. In addition, there are
result boxes for nodes or buses.

The information shown inside a result box depends on the element to which it is associated. There
are a few predefined formats for edge elements and a few predefined formats for buses. In order to
see the selection, first perform a load flow, then, from the main menu, select Output → Results for
Edge Elements or Output→ Results for Buses. These menu options will show the list of available result
box formats. Alternatively, you can select (click) inside a result box on the single-line diagram, then
right-click and from the context sensitive menu choose Format for Edge Elements or in case of a node
Format for Nodes. Figure 21.4.1 serves as an example.

Figure 21.4.1: Selecting the Result Box from the Single Line Diagram.

Besides these predefined formats the result boxes can be formatted in order to display selected vari-
ables.

By right-clicking on one of the result boxes and selecting the option Edit Format for Edge Elements
and afterwards pressing the Input Mode button three options will be available: Predefined Variables,
User Selection or Text Editor. The “User Selection” option will allow the selection of any of the available
variables.

21.4.2 Flexible Data Page

Once a load flow calculation has been successfully executed, pressing the Edit Relevant Objects for
Calculation button ( ) located on the main menu will prompt a submenu with icons for all classes
that are currently used in the calculation. Clicking any of the class-icons will open a browser with all
elements of that class that are currently used in the calculation. The left-most tab-page at the bottom of
the browser is the Flexible Data tab page. Click on this tab page to show the flexible data. To change
the columns in the flexible page, press the Define Flexible Data button ( ). This will bring a selection
window where the set of variables can be edited. In the left pane the available variables will be shown
while the right pane will list the selected variables. Pressing the or buttons will move the selected
variable from the one pane to the other pane.

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21.4.3 Predefined Report Formats (ASCII Reports)

In PowerFactory there are predefined report formats also called ASCII reports, available to the user.
These ASCII reports can be created by pressing the Output Calculation Analysis button ( ) located on
the main menu (a load flow must be calculated first). This will bring a selection window in which the user
can select a specific type of report. Some reports like the “Complete System Report” will have various
options which the user can set. The report selection window also shows the report definition which will
be used for the selected report. Pressing Execute will write the report to the output window. Although
the reports are already predefined, the user has the possibility of modifying the reports if required (by
clicking on the blue arrow pointing to the right of the used format definition).

A Verification Report can be also printed out automatically each time a load flow calculation is executed
(see Section 41.4.2).

21.4.4 Diagram Colouring

When performing load flow calculations, it is very useful to colour the single line-diagram in order to have
a quick overview of the results, for example if elements have a loading above 90% or if the voltages of
the busbars are outside the specified limits. In PowerFactory there is the option of selecting different
colouring modes according to the calculation performed. If a specific calculation is valid, then the
selected colouring for this calculation is displayed. As an example, if the user selects the colouring
mode Zones for No Calculation and Low and High Voltage/Loadings for the load flow calculation, then
the initial colouring will be according to Zones. However, as soon as the load flow is calculated, the
diagram will be coloured according to Low and High Voltage/Loadings. If the load flow calculation is
reset or invalid, the colouring mode switches back to Zones.

The Diagram Colouring has also a 3-priority level colouring scheme also implemented, allowing colour-
ing elements according to the following criteria: 1𝑠𝑡 Energising status, 2𝑛𝑑 Alarm and 3𝑟𝑑 “Normal”
(Other) colouring.

Energising Status

If this check box is enabled “De-energised” or “Out of Calculation” elements are coloured accord-
ing to the settings in the “Project Colour Settings”. The settings of the “De-energised” or “Out of
Calculation” mode can be edited by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

Alarm

If this check box is enabled a drop down list containing alarm modes will be available. It is
important to note here that only alarm modes available for the current calculation page will be
listed. If an alarm mode is selected, elements “exceeding” the corresponding limit are coloured.
Limits and colours can be defined by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

“Normal” (Other) Colouring

Here, two lists are displayed. The first list will contain all available colouring modes. The second
list will contain all sub modes of the selected colouring mode. The settings of the different
colouring modes can be edited by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

Every element can be coloured by one of the three previous criteria. Also, every criterion is optional and
will be skipped if disabled. Regarding the priority, if the user enables all three criterions, the hierarchy
taken into account will be the following:

“Energising Status” overrules the “Alarm” and “Normal Colouring” mode. The “Alarm” mode overrules
the “Normal Colouring” mode.

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21.4.5 Load Flow Sign Convention

By default, PowerFactory has the following load flow sign convention (Mixed Mode):

Branches:

Power Flow going out of the Busbar is positive while going into the busbar is negative.

Loads:

Power Flow going out of the Busbar is positive while going into the busbar is negative. Here, the
term load considers “General Loads”, “Low-Voltage Loads”, “Motors”, “Shunts/Filters” and “SVS”.
A synchronous machine stated as a “Motor” will have also this sign convention.

Generation:

Power Flow going out of the Busbar is negative while going into the busbar is positive. Here,
the term Generation considers “Generators”, “External Grids”, “Static Generators” and “Current
and Voltage Sources”. An asynchronous machine stated as a “Generator” will have also this sign
convention.

21.5 Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculation Problems

In general, if a solution can be found (in other words, the network is mathematically solvable), Pow-
erFactory will find a solution. In some cases the user may have made an error which will not allow a
solution to be found; such as a large load causing a voltage drop so large that a voltage collapse results.
In a real-world power system the same problem would be found.

When creating a network for the first time it is best to enter the data for only a small part or ’path’ of the
network and solve the network by calculating a load flow. PowerFactory has a data verification process
in which certain checks are performed, such as whether a line is connected between nodes of the same
voltage; and the correct voltage orientation of transformers, etc.

Typical reasons for non-convergence in the load flow are:

• Data model problem.

• Too many inner loop iterations.

• Too many outer loop iterations.
• Excessive mismatch.
• Tap hunting.

Clearly this is not an exhaustive list of problems, but these are the main causes of non-convergence
and that will be discussed in this section.

21.5.1 General Troubleshooting

The place to search for the causes of the non-convergence problem is in the PowerFactory output
window. Here, there can be three different types of messages printed out, which are the following:

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Info messages (green/blue):

Information detailing the load flow convergence (inner and outer loop iterations). Information of
generators with reactive power compensation at output limit. Information on the total number of
isolated areas (see 21.5.3).

Warning messages (dark red):

Warning messages do not need to be corrected for the load flow to solve, however they could
give you an indication of where the problem is. Take note of the warning messages and evaluate
them in terms of your system. Important warnings, such as “Exceeding Mvar limit range” may not
be acceptable. “Unsupplied Areas” messages indicate that an isolated area with “Consumers”
(such as loads and motors) is without a generator, power source or external supply.

Error messages (red):

Error messages must be corrected for a load flow to solve. Error messages could be generated
by PowerFactory ’s data checking function, which include messages such as DIgSI/err - missing
type! In most cases the messages have links to the data base and graphic. The following options
can be performed in order to trace errors:

• Use the Network Data Assessment tool ( ).

• Once errors have been detected, open the problematic element dialogue window by double
clicking on the name directly from the output window. Or alternatively, right click mouse button
over the name and select edit, or edit and browse, or mark in graphic.

The amount of information being printed to the PowerFactory output window can be changed by the
user. Once error messages have been analysed and corrected and the load flow still does not solve,
the user may want to print more detailed information on the convergence progress.

Tick the Show Convergence Progress Report option found in the Outputs page of the load flow dialogue
(refer to Section 41.4.2).

This will print messages to the output window that can provide clues as to where the convergence
problems may lie.

The single line graphic can also be coloured to show low and high voltages and overloadings. This will
also provide a good indication of possible problems. Look at the undervoltage nodes and overloaded
elements and investigate why they are overloaded; look at load setpoints, line lengths and line type data
(the impedances may be too high, for example).

Note: As explained above, there are 3 different types of messages that are printed to the output window:
warning, error and information messages. Only error messages must be corrected for a load flow
to solve. Take note of the warning messages and evaluate them in terms of your system, however
these do not need to be corrected for the load flow to solve. “Unsupplied Areas” means that an
isolated area with “Consumers” is without a generator, power source or external supply.

If there is still no convergence then set the option Out of Service for most of the elements (see each
elements Basic Data tab). Following this, bring these elements back into service, one at a time, from
the source element downwards, performing a load flow calculation each time.

When experiencing large unbalances, such as when there are a number of single or dual phase
elements, or when using power electronics elements, select the Newton-Raphson (Current Iteration)
option on the Advanced page of the load flow dialogue.

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21.5.2 Data Model Problem

In PowerFactory , there are three different levels of data verification implemented:

Parameter Level:

Checks the consistency of the input parameter; for example, entering a negative value in the
length of the line will prompt an error message. Other verifications implemented include checking
if the parameter imputed is within certain limits.

Object Level:

Checks the consistency of the data being imputed from the component itself; for example, check-
ing if the magnetising losses of a transformers are less that the total magnetising apparent power
(i.e. magnetising current), checking if the inputting of the manufacture’s data results in a feasible
torque-slip characteristic, etc.

System Level:

Checks the consistency of the data being imputed from a system point of view; for example,
checking if lines/cables are connected between the same voltage levels, checking if the HV/MV/LV
side of transformers is compatible with the voltage level of busbars, checking if there are missing
types, etc.

Data model problems can normally be fixed easily as the output window message refers directly to the
element causing the problem.

Typical cases of data model problems are:

DIgSI/err - missing type!:

It indicates that input data (electrical data defined in types) is missing. In most cases the
messages have links to the data base and graphic.

DIgSI/err - Check control conditions!:

It normally appears when more than one controller (for example a station controller) is set to
control the same element, such as the same busbar. PowerFactory will print the name of the con-
trolled element to the output window. Starting from the controlled element, access the controllers
to fix the problem.

DIgSI/err - Line connected between different voltage levels!

21.5.3 Some Load Flow Calculation Messages

DIgSI/info - Grid split into 182 isolated areas

An “isolated area” indicates that a busbar or a group of busbars are not connected to the slack
busbar. An isolated generator or an isolated external grid forms an isolated area. An isolated
area refers basically to nodes. Each isolated area is assigned an index (Parameter name b:ipat
under ElmTerm Basic) and needs a load flow reference (slack) of its own. These busbars can
be found colouring the single line graphic according to isolated grids.

DIgSI/wrng - 2 area(s) are unsupplied

An “unsupplied area” is an isolated area with “Consumers” (such as loads and motors) without
a generator, power source or external supply. That is U=0 and I=0. Unsupplied areas belong to
the group of isolated areas. The unsupplied areas can be identified by displaying the following
parameter in the “Consumers” components (loads, synchronous/asynchronous motors):

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• 𝑟 : 𝑏𝑢𝑠1𝑏 : 𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡. Gives the Index of the isolated area

• 𝑟 : 𝑏𝑢𝑠1 : 𝑏 : 𝑖𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 0. Indicates there is no slack in the isolated area therefore indicating its
unsupplied.
• 𝑟 : 𝑏𝑢𝑠1 : 𝑏 : 𝑖𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 > 0. Indicates the area is supplied.

DIgSI/err - Outer loop did not converge. Maximum number of

iterations reached

Fore some hints on this type of error please refer to Section 21.5.5.

21.5.4 Too many Inner Loop Iterations

Too many inner loop iterations are “normally” related to voltage stability (voltage collapse) problems.
For example, a large load causing voltage drops so high that a voltage collapse results. Also very weak
connections resulting from faults or outages may lead to voltage collapse during contingency analysis.

The problem will not only be found in the simulation but would be found in the real world as well!

The main causes leading to a voltage stability problem can be summarised as follows:

• Excessive active power demand leading to a high voltage drop.

• Lack of reactive power compensation.

Diagnosis and Solution:

The main source of Information is the output window. Enable the Show Convergence Progress Report
option found in the Outputs page of the load-flow dialogue. Analyse the convergence of the inner loop
iterations: check the progress in the load flow error for nodes and model equations:

• Are they increasing or decreasing?

• If the error is not continuously decreasing, it could be an indication of a voltage stability problem.
• Identify the element (load, generator) with high convergence error. Use the Mark in Graphic
option to identify the zone of the network having the problem.

Several possible countermeasures can be undertaken to fix the problem:

• Use the Iteration Control options on the load flow command (increasing the number of stairs as
the first option, typically to 3).
• Load shedding: disconnect the load identified as responsible for the high convergence error.
• Connect additional reactive power compensation.
• Using the flexible data page, check if there are any heavily loaded circuits, these indicate weak
connections.

Once the load flow converges, check if there are areas with voltages with high deviation from operating
voltages.

Excessive Mismatch

Where there is a large mismatch between demand and generation (> 15%) the load flow is unlikely to
converge. This is typified by a large number of iterations followed by warnings or errors such as:

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 21.5. TROUBLESHOOTING LOAD FLOW CALCULATION PROBLEMS

No convergence in load flow! Equation system could not

be solved. Check Control Conditions!

Depending on the size of the mismatch, the failure might occur during the initial Newton-Raphson
or during subsequent outer loop iteration. There may also be a large number of maximum/minimum
reactive power reached and transformer tap statements.

Solution:

• Set the option Show Convergence Progress Report on the Outputs page and observe which
elements are having the highest mismatches. These elements should be closely checked.
• Check the mismatch on the Reference machine by performing a DC load flow as Dispatched
allowing for normal losses. Rebalancing the network might alleviate convergence problems.

21.5.5 Too Many Outer Loop Iterations

Outer loops iterations are required to calculate discrete tap positions of transformers, number of steps
of switchable reactive power compensation, etc. in order to match the voltage profile or reactive power
control specified by the user.

Too many outer loop iterations is referring to a solution that is too far away from the starting point (default
tap positions) to converge in the allowed number of outer loop iterations.

Diagnosis and Solution: The outer-loop does the following:

• Increasing/Decreasing discrete taps.

• Increasing/Decreasing switchable shunts.

• Limiting/Releasing synchronous machines to/from max/min reactive power limits.

If the outer loop does not converge, it can have the following reasons:

• Tap upper and lower limits are too close, so that the voltage can never be kept in the desired
range.
• The same with switchable shunts.

• Other toggling effects, for example synchronous machine limits and tap positions don’t find a
stable solution.

The main source of Information is the output window. Check first the following:

• Is the number of messages reducing with each outer loop iteration?

The following messages in the output window may indicate a problem and lead to a non-convergent
solution.

Maximum/minimum tap position reached

DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------
DIgSI/pcl - ’$ \ $ .... $\ $Transformer.ElmTr2’:
DIgSI/pcl - Maximum Tap Position reached
DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------

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The message indicates that more/less reactive power is required at this location (the tap is at maxi-
mum/minimum position). The message indicates therefore an area in the network where a lack/excess
of reactive power is likely to happen.

Reactive power limit left

DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------
DIgSI/pcl - ’$ \ $.... $\ $ Generator.ElmSym’:
DIgSI/pcl - Reactive Power Limit left
DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------

This will lead to a convergence error. A load flow calculation without considering reactive power limits
may find a solution. Check then required reactive power at the generator.

Maximum/minimum reactive power reached.

DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------
DIgSI/pcl - ’$\ $....$ \ $ Generator.ElmSym’:
DIgSI/pcl - Maximum Reactive Power Reached
DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------

Basically means that there is no regulation margin in the specified generators.

In general the results from the last iteration should be available to view on the output window.

• Is the mismatch always in the same (or similar) location?

• How far away from the solution was the original starting point?

All actions (except for shunt switching) are displayed in the output window by blue messages. Observing
these messages allows to conclude what the reason for the convergence problem was, for example
if a synchronous machine toggles between limited/released, the problem is related to this particular
machine.

• If no toggling can be observed, increasing the maximum number of outer iteration loops may help.
• If the load flow converges, improve the convergence of subsequent calculations by saving the tap
positions ( ).

If the load flow does not converge after a large number of iterations then other methods of improving
convergence are:

• Use the direct method on the advanced options page of the load flow command.
• Set the maximum tap changes per iteration to be a small number, for example 1. This will result
in PowerFactory not changing all tap changers at once by several steps but only by maximum of 1
step at once. In larger networks this is often improving the convergence.
• Perform a load flow without automatic taps and shunt adjustment. If the load flow does not
converge in this case, it could be an indication that the load is exceeding the voltage stability
limits, thus the load is too high.

Tap Hunting

Tap hunting can be easily recognised when one or more transformers oscillate between tap positions
until the number of outer loop iterations is exhausted. This is normally due to the transformer (controller)
target voltage dead band being smaller than the transformer tap step size.

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 21.6. LOAD FLOW SENSITIVITIES

The messages below indicate an example of a single transformer Tap-Hunting:

Figure 21.5.1

This problem of no converging load-flow with the stepped tap changing method is caused by a slightly
different way of the iteration to reach the correct tap position and load-flow results. This might result in
a non-convergence in the outer loop, when the controller range (Vmax-Vmin) of the tap changer is near
to the value of the additional voltage per tap.

Solution:

• Change the minimum relaxation factor on the Advanced Options page of the load flow command
to a smaller value. This might help the load flow to converge.

• Check if the dead bands of the target or controlled busbars of the corresponding transformers are
correctly set. Also check if the tap changer data on the load flow page of the transformer type is
correct.
• Disable the automatic tap changing of the transformers where tap hunting occur. Run the load
flow (it should converge in this case!) and then check the sensitivity of the tap changer increasing
and decreasing the tap position by one step. Verify the results against the dead band of the target
busbar.

21.6 Load Flow Sensitivities

PowerFactory ’s Load Flow Sensitivities (ComVstab) command is shown in Figure 21.6.1. This com-
mand performs a voltage sensitivity analysis based on the linearisation of the system around the
operational point resulting from a load flow calculation (as explained in Section 21.6.3).

The ComVstab command is accessible by the following means:

• clicking on the Change Toolbox icon ( )and selecting Additional Tools and then clicking on the
ComVstab icon ( ); or
• right-clicking on a busbar/terminal or transformer and selecting Calculate → Load Flow Sensitiv-
ities... . In this case the command will be automatically set to calculate the sensitivity to power

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CHAPTER 21. LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

injections/tap changes on the selected busbar/transformer. The selected terminal/transformer will

be automatically set in the Busbar (or Transformer ) reference.

Figure 21.6.1: Load Flow Sensitivities Command (ComVstab) Dialogue

21.6.1 Load Flow Sensitivities Options

The options available for the Load Flow Sensitivities command (Figure 21.6.1) are:

Initialisation

Load Flow:

Displays which load flow command will be used to initialise the sensitivity analysis. If no load flow
calculation has been executed before opening the Load Flow Sensitivities (ComVstab) command,
or if the calculation has been reset, the Load Flow displays the most recently executed load flow
command in the active study case.

Sensitivities

Diagonal Elements Only:

The effect of the injections of ∆P and ∆Q at each busbar are evaluated for the busbar itself
(effect on voltage magnitude (𝜕𝑣𝑖 /𝜗𝑃𝑖 ),(𝜕𝑣𝑖 /𝜕𝑄𝑖 ), and on voltage angle (𝜕𝜙𝑖 /𝜕𝑃𝑖 ), (𝜕𝜙𝑖 /𝜕𝑃𝑖 ) for
each busbar) and the corresponding adjacent branches. In this mode, the calculated sensitivi-
ties (𝜕𝑃𝑛 /𝜕𝑃𝑖 ),(𝜕𝑄𝑛 /𝜕𝑃𝑖 ),(𝜕𝑃𝑛 /𝜕𝑄𝑖 ), and (𝜕𝑄𝑛 /𝜕𝑄𝑖 ) in the branches (index 𝑛) always refer to
derivations 𝜕/𝜕𝑃𝑖 and 𝜕/𝜕𝑄𝑖 of the adjacent buses (index 𝑖). This means that the sensitivities
are calculated for all busbars and for all branches, according to variations in power (∆P and ∆Q)
at the directly connected busbars.

Sensitivity to a Single Busbar:

The effect of the injections of ∆P and ∆Q at the selected busbar are calculated for the whole
network (i.e. for all buses and branches). The target busbar can be selected using the Busbar
button ( ) located at the bottom of the dialogue. Alternatively, the target bus can be selected
in the single line graphic by right-clicking on it and selecting Calculate → Load Flow Sensitivities

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 21.6. LOAD FLOW SENSITIVITIES

from the context-sensitive menu. The sensitivities of all busbars and branches are calculated
according to variations in power (∆P and ∆Q) at the selected busbar.

Sensitivity to a Single Transformer Tap Position:

This option evaluates the effect of changing the tap position of a selected transformer in the
network. The sensitivities 𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑡𝑎𝑝 [𝑀 𝑊/𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝], 𝑑𝑄/𝑑𝑡𝑎𝑝 [𝑀 𝑣𝑎𝑟/𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝] for branches, and
𝑑𝑝ℎ𝑖/𝑑𝑡𝑎𝑝 [𝑑𝑒𝑔/𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝], 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡𝑎𝑝 [𝑝.𝑢./𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝] for buses are calculated. The target transformer
can be selected using the Transformer button ( ) located at the bottom of the dialogue. Alterna-
tively, the target transformer can be selected in the single line graphic by right-clicking on it and
selecting Calculate → Load Flow Sensitivities from the context-sensitive menu.

Modal Analysis:

This option performs an eigenvalue calculation on the sensitivity matrix as explained in Sec-
tion 21.6.3. The number of eigenvalues to be calculated is defined in the Number of Eigenvalues
field at the bottom of the dialogue. The eigenvalues are always calculated in order of their
largest magnitude, so selecting n eigenvalues will display the n eigenvalues in descending order
according to magnitude (note that the larger the number of desired eigenvalues, the longer the
calculation will take). In the Display Results for Mode field, the user can specify the number of
a specific eigenvalue, for which the stability behaviour (i.e. the eigenvectors and participation
factors) is to be analysed. The algorithm then additionally calculates the (𝜕𝑃/𝜕𝑄) , (𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑄)
(branch sensitivities) and the (𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑄), (𝜕𝜙/𝜕𝑄) (bus sensitivities) which correspond to the mode
specified (see Section 21.6.3 for further technical background).

21.6.2 Load Flow Sensitivities Execution and Results

When the ComVstab command has been configured and the Execute button has been pressed, the
program calculates several sensitivity factors such as (𝜕𝑣𝑖 /𝜕𝑃𝑖 ) ,(𝜕𝑣𝑖 /𝜕𝑄𝑖 ) , (𝜕𝜙𝑖 /𝜕𝑃𝑖 ), (𝜕𝜙𝑖 /𝜕𝑄𝑖 ) etc.,
according to the selected options, for buses and branch elements.

Upon completion of the sensitivity factor calculation, the following message appears in the output
window:

DIgSI/info - Load Flow Sensitivities calculated!

The calculated results can be displayed via the Flexible Data Page (see Section 10.6) by selecting the
sensitivities from the load flow variables (Variable Set: Current, Voltages and Powers). The names of
the variables correspond to the calculated derivations, i. e. the result of the expression (𝜕𝜙𝑖 /𝜕𝑃𝑖 ) is
stored in the variable named 𝑑𝑣𝑑𝑃 ; and likewise the result of the expression (𝜕𝜙𝑖 /𝜕𝑄𝑖 ) is stored in the
variable 𝑑𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑑𝑄.

When the Modal Analysis option is selected, the calculated eigenvalues are displayed (in descending
order according to magnitude) in the output window. The eigenvectors and participation factors can be
displayed using the Flexible Data Page.

21.6.3 Technical Background

PowerFactory ’s Load Flow Sensitivities function (ComVstab) performs a static voltage stability calcula-
tion as described below.

Linearising the load flow equations around the actual operating point leads to the following equation
system:

[︂ ]︂ [︂ ]︂ [︂ ]︂
𝐽𝑃 𝜗 𝐽𝑃 𝑣 𝜕𝜗 𝜕𝑃
= (21.21)
𝐽𝑄𝜗 𝐽𝑃 𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑄

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CHAPTER 21. LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

The equation system in (21.21) shows that changes in the voltage magnitude and angle due to small
changes in the active and reactive power can be directly calculated from the load flow Jacobian matrix.
For example if ∆P is set to 0, the sensitivities of the type dv/dQ are calculated from (21.21) according
to:

−1
𝜕𝑣 = 𝐽̃︀𝑄𝑣 𝜕𝑄 = 𝑆𝑣𝑄 𝜕𝑄 (21.22)

where:

𝐽̃︀𝑄𝑣 = −𝐽𝑄𝜗 𝐽𝑃−1

𝜗 𝐽𝑃 𝑣 + 𝐽𝑄𝑣 (21.23)

As can be seen from (21.22), the variation of voltage magnitude at each busbar can be described by a
linear combination of small reactive power variations according to:

𝜕𝑣𝑖 = 𝑆𝑖1 𝜕𝑄1 + · · · + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜕𝑄𝑛 (21.24)

In this case the diagonal elements 𝑆𝑖1 of 𝑆 represent the voltage variation at bus i due to a variation
of reactive power at the same point. The non-diagonal elements 𝑆𝑖𝑗 describe the voltage variation at
busbar 𝑖 due to the variation in reactive power at a different point on the network.

Positive dv/dQ sensitivity indicates stable operation. High sensitivity means that even small changes in
reactive power cause large changes in the voltage magnitude; therefore the more stable the system,
the lower the sensitivity (high voltage sensitivities are indicative of weak areas of the network).

Note: Recall that in HV networks branches are predominantly reactive. Voltage magnitudes depend
primarily on reactive power flows and voltage angles depend on active power bus injections.

The sensitivity analysis can be extended in order to determine the active and reactive power variations
on branches (in the PowerFactory network model all components carrying a flow, i.e. lines, transformers,
generators are regarded as branches) due to variations in active and reactive power busbar injections.
In this case the sensitivities are calculated using the branch-node Jacobian matrix.

By applying a modal transformation to (21.22) the dV/dQ sensitivity can be expressed as an uncoupled
system of the form:

𝑣 = 𝑇 −1 𝑆𝑣𝑄 𝑇 𝜕 𝑄
𝜕̃︀ ̃︀ = 𝑆̃︀𝑣𝑄 𝜕 𝑄
̃︀ (21.25)

where:

𝑣 = 𝑇 𝑣̃︀ and 𝑄 = 𝑇 𝑄
̃︀ (21.26)

In (21.25), 𝑆̃︀𝑣𝑄 is a diagonal matrix whose elements correspond to the eigenvalues of the sensitivity
matrix, 𝑆𝑣𝑄 , from (21.22). Therefore, the voltage variation at each mode depends only on the reactive
power variation at the same mode:

𝜕 𝑣̃︀𝑖 = 𝜆𝑖 𝜕 𝑄
̃︁𝑖 (21.27)

The eigenvalues 𝜆𝑖 , which are real, provide the necessary information about the voltage stability of the
system. If 𝜆𝑖 is positive, the modal voltage increase and the modal reactive power variations are in
the same direction and the system is therefore stable. The magnitude of the eigenvalue indicates how
far/close one voltage mode is to instability.

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 21.6. LOAD FLOW SENSITIVITIES

In (21.25), 𝑇 = [𝜐1 . . . 𝜐𝑛] corresponds to the matrix of right eigenvectors of 𝑆𝑣𝑄 , while 𝑇 −1 corresponds
to the left eigenvectors matrix:

𝜔1𝑇
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ··· ⎥
𝑇 −1 =⎢ ⎥
⎣ ··· ⎦ (21.28)
𝜔𝑛𝑇

The participation factor of bus 𝑘 to mode 𝑖 is defined by the product of the 𝑘𝑡ℎ component of the left and
right eigenvector of mode 𝑖:

𝑃𝑖𝑘 = 𝜔𝑖𝑘 𝜐𝑖𝑘 (21.29)

The sum of the participation factors of all nodes corresponds to the scalar product of the left and right
eigenvector, and is therefore equal to one. In this sense, the participation factor gives an indication of
the extent of the influence the variation of active power on a node has on a voltage mode.

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Chapter 22

Short-Circuit Analysis

22.1 Introduction

Power systems as well as industrial systems are designed so that loads are supplied safely and reliably.
One of the major aspects taken into account in the design and operation of electrical systems is the
adequate handling of short-circuits. Although systems are designed to stay as free from short circuits
as possible, they can still occur. A short-circuit condition generally causes large uncontrollable current
flows, which if not properly detected and handled can result in equipment damage, the interruption of
large areas (instead of only the faulted section) as well as placing personnel at risk. A well-designed
system should therefore isolate the short-circuit safely with minimal equipment damage and system
interruption. Typical causes of short-circuits can be the following:

• Lightning discharge in exposed equipment such as transmission lines.

• Premature ageing of the insulation due mainly to permanent overloading, inappropriate ventilation,
etc.
• Atmospheric or industrial salt “Build-Up” in isolators.

• Equipment failure.
• Inappropriate system operation.

One of the many applications of a short-circuit calculation is to check the ratings of network equipment
during the planning stage. In this case, the planner is interested in obtaining the maximum expected
currents (in order to dimension equipment properly) and the minimum expected currents (to aid the
design of the protection scheme). Short-circuit calculations performed at the planning stage commonly
use calculation methods that require less detailed network modelling (such as methods which do not
require load information) and which will apply extreme-case estimations. Examples of these methods
include the IEC 60909/VDE 0102 method [11], the ANSI method and the IEC 61363 method [9] for AC
short circuit calculation and the IEC 61660 method [8] and ANSI/IEEE 946 method [5] for DC short
circuit calculation. A different field of application is the precise evaluation of the fault current in a specific
situation, such as to find out whether the malfunction of a protection device was due to a relay failure or
due to the consequence of improper settings (for example an operational error). These are the typical
applications of exact methods such as the superposition method (also known as the Complete Method),
which is based on a specific network operating point.

The short-circuit calculation in PowerFactory is able to simulate single faults as well as multiple faults
of almost unlimited complexity. As short-circuit calculations can be used for a variety of purposes,
PowerFactory supports different representations and calculation methods for the analysis of short-circuit
currents.

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CHAPTER 22. SHORT-CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

This chapter presents the handling of the short-circuit calculation methods as implemented in Power-
Factory. Further background on this topic can be found in Section 22.2.

22.2 Technical Background

Beside load flow calculations, short-circuit is one of the most frequently performed calculations when
dealing with electrical networks. It is used both in system planning and system operation.

Typical application examples of short-circuit analysis in system planning include:

• Ensuring that the defined short-circuit capacity of equipment is not exceeded with system expan-
sion and system strengthening.
• Co-ordination of protective equipment (fuses, over-current and distance relays).
• Dimensioning of earth grounding systems.

• Verification of sufficient fault level capacities at load points (e.g. uneven loads such as arc
furnaces, thyristor-driven variable speed drives or dispersed generation).
• Verification of admissible thermal limits of cables and transmission lines.

Example applications of short-circuit analysis in system operation include:

• Ensuring that short-circuit limits are not exceeded with system reconfiguration.

• Determining protective relay settings as well as fuse sizing.

• Calculation of fault location for protective relays, which store fault disturbance recordings.
• Analysis of system faults, e.g. misoperation of protection equipment.

• Analysis of possible mutual interference of parallel lines during system faults.

AC short circuit calculation quantities available in PowerFactory are shown in Figure 22.2.1, also a
graphical representation of the AC short-circuit current time function is illustrated in Figure 22.2.2. Note
that the quantities relating to the IEC 61363 standard [9] and DC short-circuit quantities calculated in
DC short circuit standards IEC 61660 and ANSI/IEEE 946 are not shown in Figure 22.2.1.

Note: The current waveform for a DC short circuit calculation is dependent on the type of DC current
source(s), for more information please refer to Section 22.2.5 and Section 22.2.6 and the relevant
IEC and ANSI/IEEE standards.

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 22.2. TECHNICAL BACKGROUND

Figure 22.2.1: Areas of Application of Short-Circuit Calculations

According to IEC 60909 [11] the definition of the currents and multiplication factors shown in Fig-
ure 22.2.1 are as follows:

• 𝐼𝑘𝑠𝑠 initial symmetrical short-circuit current (RMS),

• 𝑖𝑝 peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value),

• 𝐼𝑏 symmetrical short-circuit breaking current (RMS),
• 𝐼𝑡ℎ thermal equivalent short-circuit current (RMS),
• 𝜅 factor for the calculation of the peak short-circuit current,

• 𝜇 factor for the calculation of the symmetrical short-circuit breaking current,

• 𝑚 factor for the heat effect of the d.c. component,
• 𝑛 factor for the heat effect of the a.c. component, besides the above currents, the Complete
Method introduces the following current definition:

• 𝑖𝑏 peak short-circuit breaking current (instantaneous value).

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CHAPTER 22. SHORT-CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Figure 22.2.2: Short-Circuit Current Time Function

The fundamental difference between the assumptions used by the calculation methods is that for
system planning studies the system operating conditions are not yet known, and therefore estimations
are necessary. To this end, the IEC (and VDE) methods which use an equivalent voltage source at
the fault location have become generally accepted in countries using IEC based standards. For AC
fault calculation, the IEC 60909 [11] (and VDE 0102) methods work independently of the load flow
(operating point) of a system. The methods are based on the nominal and/or calculated dimensions
of the operating point of a system and uses correction factors for voltages and impedances, to give
conservative results. For the calculation of minimum and maximum short-circuit currents, different
correction factors are applied. However, it should be mentioned that both IEC 60909 and VDE 0102 do
not deal with single phase elements (except single phase elements in the neutral conductor).

Another very similar method for AC fault calculation is the ANSI method, predominately used in North
America but accepted in other countries as well. The ANSI method is based on the IEEE Standards
C37.010 [1] which is for equipment applied in medium and high voltage systems (greater than 1000
Volts) and C37.13 [4] which is for power circuit breakers in low voltage systems (less than 1000 Volts).

Other short circuit calculation methods available in PowerFactory include:

• IEC 61363 [9]: Calculation of short-circuit currents on marine or offshore electrical systems such
as ships.
• IEC 61660 [8]: IEC standard for the calculation of short-circuit currents in DC auxiliary systems in
power plants and substations.
• ANSI/IEEE 946 [5]: ANSI/IEEE standard for the calculation of short-circuit currents in DC auxiliary
systems in power plants and substations.

For AC and DC short-circuit calculations in a system operation environment, the exact network operating
conditions are well-known. If the accuracy of the calculation according to approximation methods such
as IEC 60909 [11] is insufficient - or to verify the results of these methods - the superposition method
can be used. The superposition method calculates the expected short-circuit currents in the network
based on the existing network operating condition. If the system models are correct, the results from
this method are always more exact than the results of the approximation method (such as IEC 60909).
Often the system analyst must, however, ensure that the most unfavourable conditions are considered
with respect to the sizing of plant. This may require extensive studies when using a superposition
calculation method.

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 22.2. TECHNICAL BACKGROUND

22.2.1 The IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method

The IEC 60909/VDE 0102 [11] method uses an equivalent voltage source at the faulted bus and is a
simplification of the superposition method (Complete Method). It is illustrated in Figure 22.2.3. The goal
of this method is to accomplish a close-to-reality short-circuit calculation without the need for the pre-
ceding load-flow calculation and the associated definition of actual operating conditions. Figure 22.2.3
illustrates how the equivalent voltage source method can be derived from the superposition method.
The main simplifications are as follows:

• Nominal conditions are assumed for the whole network, i.e. 𝑈 𝑖 = 𝑈 𝑛,𝑖
• Load currents are neglected, i.e. 𝐼𝑂𝑝 = 0.
• A simplified simulation network is used, i.e. loads are not considered in the positive and negative
sequence network.
• To ensure that the results are conservatively estimated, a correction factor, c, is applied to the
voltage at the faulted busbar. This factor differs for the calculation of the maximum and the
minimum short-circuit currents of a network.

The short-circuit calculation based on these simplifications may be insufficient for some practical ap-
plications. Therefore, additional impedance correction factors are applied to the physical impedances
of the network elements. This method is described in detail in the following section. Please note in
addition that both IEC 60909 [11] and VDE 0102 do not deal with single phase elements (expect single
phase elements in the neutral conductor).

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Figure 22.2.3: Illustration of the IEC 60909/VDE 0102(shcgrafiec.gif) Method

As illustrated in Figure 22.2.1, IEC 60909 requires the calculation of the initial symmetrical short circuit
current in order to derive the rest of the physical quantities, each of which is a function of the following:

• R/X ratio,
• Machine characteristics
• Synchronous generator type of excitation system,
• Contact parting time,
• Type of network (if it’s radial or meshed),
• Determination if the contribution is “near to” or “far from” the short-circuit location,

Regarding the type of network, IEC 60909 describes three methods for the calculation of (peak short-
circuit current) in meshed networks which are defined as follows:

Method A: Uniform Ratio R/X The 𝜅 factor is determined based on the smallest ratio of R/X of
all the branches contributing to the short-circuit current.

Method B: Ratio R/X at the Short-Circuit Location For this method the 𝜅 factor is multiplied by
1.5 to cover inaccuracies caused by using the ratio R/X from a network reduction with complex
impedances.

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Method C: Equivalent Frequency An equivalent impedance 𝑍𝑐 of the system as seen from

the short-circuit location is calculated assuming a frequency 𝑓𝑐 = 20𝐻𝑧 (for a nominal frequency
𝑓𝑐 = 50𝐻𝑧) or 𝑓𝑐 = 24𝐻𝑧 (for a nominal frequency 𝑓𝑐 = 60𝐻𝑧). This is the recommended Method
in meshed networks.

Note: In PowerFactory methods B and C are available to the user. Method C is the one recommended
in meshed networks. For more information please refer to Section 22.4.4

IEC Impedance Correction Factors

The IEC 60909 method uses only the rated parameters of network elements. This is advantageous in
that only little information is necessary to perform a short-circuit calculation. However, considering that,
for example, the short-circuit contribution of a synchronous generator depends heavily on the excitation
voltage and on the unit transformer tap changer position, the worst-case value of this impedance is
considered by applying a correction factor (< 1).

This idea is illustrated in Figure 22.2.4. The correction factor c should be determined so that 𝐼𝑘′′ =
′′
𝐼𝑘,𝐼𝐸𝐶 . The IEC 60909 standard defines an equation for the correction factor for each element type.

Figure 22.2.4: Principle of Impedance Correction (IEC/VDE Method)

As the IEC 60909 standard includes a worst-case estimation for minimum and maximum short-circuit
currents, some PowerFactory elements require additional data. These elements are:

Lines In their type, the maximum admissible conductor temperature (for minimum short-circuit currents)
must be stated (Figure 22.2.5). Line capacitances are not considered in the positive/negative sequence
systems, but must be used in the zero-sequence system.

Figure 22.2.5: Maximum End Temperature Definition in the Line Type (TypLne)

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Transformers Require a flag indicating whether they are unit or network transformers as shown in
Figure 22.2.6. Network transformers may be assigned additional information about operational limits
which are used for a more precise calculation of the impedance correction factor. Unit transformers are
treated differently depending on whether they have an on-load or a no-load tap changer (Figure 22.2.7).

Figure 22.2.6: Unit Transformer Definition in the Transformer Element (ElmTr2)

Figure 22.2.7: On-Load Tap Changer Definition in the Transformer Type (TypTr2)

Synchronous Machines Subtransient impedances are used. Additionally, information regarding the
voltage range must be given as seen in Figure 22.2.8

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Figure 22.2.8: Voltage Range Definition in the Synchronous Machine Element (ElmSym)

Asynchronous Machines The ratio of starting current to rated current is used to determine the short-
circuit impedance (Figure 22.2.9)

Figure 22.2.9: Locked Rotor Current Definition in the Asynchronous Machine Type (ElmAsymo)

Please refer to the IEC 60909 standard to find detailed information regarding specific equipment models
and correction factors for each element.

22.2.2 The ANSI Method

ANSI provides the procedures for calculating short-circuit currents in the following standards:

• ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.010 [1], IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers
Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis.
• ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.13 [4] , IEEE Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers
Used in Enclosures.
• ANSI/IEEE Standard 141 [6], IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution of
Industrial Plants (IEEE Red Book).
• ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.5 [2], IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers
Rated on a Total Current Basis. (Standard withdrawn).

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ANSI C37.010 details the procedure for equipment applied in medium and high voltage systems consid-
ering a classification of the generators as either “local” or “remote” depending on the location of the fault,
as well as taking into account motor contribution. The procedure also covers first cycle and interrupting
time currents, with emphasis on interrupting time currents.

ANSI C37.13 details the procedure for power circuit breakers applied in low voltage systems (less than
1000 Volts), while mainly focusing on first-cycle currents, impedance of motors and the fault point X/R
ratio. Typically, fuses and low voltage circuit breakers begin to interrupt in the first half cycle so no
special treatment for interruptive current is given. It could be the case however, that nevertheless the
equipment test include a dc component specification.

Due to the differences in the high and low voltage standards, it would be understandable to say that
two first-cycle calculations are required. The first calculation would be for high voltage busbars and a
second calculation would be for low-voltage busbars.

In IEEE/ANSI Standard 141-1993 [6] (Red Book) a procedure for the combination of first cycle network is
detailed. There is stated that in order to simplify comprehensive industrial system calculations, a single
combination first-cycle network is recommended to replace the two different networks (high/medium-
voltage and low voltage). This resulting combined network is then based on the interpretation of the
ANSI C37.010 [1], ANSI C37.13 [4] and ANSI C37.5 [2] there given.

Total and Symmetrical Current Rating Basis of Circuit Breakers and Fuses according to ANSI
Standards

Depending on the circuit breaker year of construction different ratings are specified. High-voltage circuit
breakers designed before 1964 were rated on “Total” current rating while now a day’s high-voltage circuit
breakers are rated on a “Symmetrical” current basis. The difference between these two definitions is on
how the asymmetry is taken into account. While a “Total” current basis takes into account the ac and
dc decay, “Symmetrical” current basis takes into account only the ac decay. To explain further these
definitions please refer to Figure 22.2.10.

Figure 22.2.10: Asymmetrical Short-Circuit Current

The DC component “DC” is calculated according to the following equation:

𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝐷𝐶 = (22.1)
2

The RMS value of the ac component (RMS) is then calculated as:

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𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑅𝑀 𝑆 = (22.2)
2.828

The total interrupting current in RMS is then:

√︀
𝑇 𝑜𝑡 = 𝐷𝐶 2 + 𝑅𝑀 𝑆 2 (22.3)

From the above, Equation (22.2) corresponds to the “Symmetrical” current calculation and Equation
(22.3) to the “Total” current calculation. Some of the main ANSI guidelines for the calculation of short-
circuit currents are the following:

• The pre-fault busbar voltage is assumed to be nominal (1.0 p.u.).

• The fault point X/R ratio is calculated based on a separate resistance network reduction which is
latter used to calculate the peak and total asymmetrical fault current.
• Depending on the location of the fault, the generator currents being fed to the short circuit are
classified as “local” or “remote”. A remote source is treated as having only a dc decay, while a local
source is treated as having a dc and ac decay. Depending on this classification, corresponding
curves are used in order to obtain the multiplication factors.

According to ANSI standard, the following short-circuit currents are calculated:

• 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 symmetrical momentary (first cycle) short-circuit current (RMS),

• 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑖 symmetrical interrupting short-circuit current (RMS),
• 𝐼16𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 asymmetrical momentary (Close and Latch - Duty) short-circuit current (RMS). Obtained
by applying a 1.6 factor to 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚
• 𝐼27𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑚 peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value). Obtained by applying a 2.7 factor to
𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 ,
• 𝐼𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 asymmetrical momentary (Close and Latch - Duty) short-circuit current(RMS). Obtained
by applying a factor to 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 according to the calculated X/R ratio,
• 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑚 peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value). Obtained by applying a factor to 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 ,
according to the calculated X/R ratio.

22.2.3 The Complete Method

The complete method (sometimes also known as the superposition method) is, in terms of system
modelling, an accurate calculation method. The fault currents of the short-circuit are determined by
overlaying a healthy load-flow condition before short-circuit inception with a condition where all voltage
supplies are set to zero and the negative operating voltage is connected at the fault location. The
procedure is shown in Figure 22.2.11. The initial point is the operating condition of the system before
short-circuit inception (see Figure 22.2.11a). This condition represents the excitation conditions of the
generators, the tap positions of regulated transformers and the breaker/switching status reflecting the
operational variation.

From these pre-fault conditions the pre-fault voltage of the faulted busbar can be calculated. For the
pure fault condition the system condition is calculated for the situation where, the negative pre-fault
busbar voltage for the faulted bus is connected at the fault location and all other sources/generators are
set to zero (see Figure 22.2.11b). Since network impedances are assumed to be linear, the system
condition after fault inception can be determined by overlaying (complex adding) both the pre-fault and
pure fault conditions (see Figure 22.2.11c).

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Figure 22.2.11: Illustration of the Complete Method

The Complete Methodfor calculating short-circuits has been improved in PowerFactory Version 14 as
described below. Additionally, the quantities described below are shown in Figure 22.2.1.

• A more precise Peak Short-Circuit Current 𝑖𝑝 is calculated based on the accurate subtransient
short-circuit current (which is calculated using the complete method) and the R/X ratio (which is
based on the IEC 60909 standard[11]);
• The Short-Circuit Breaking Current 𝐼𝑏 (RMS value) is calculated based on the subtransient short-
circuit current and the transient short-circuit current (both of which are calculated by the complete
method);

• The Peak Short-Circuit Breaking Current 𝑖𝑏 is calculated from the RMS short-circuit breaking
current 𝐼𝑏 and the decaying d.c. component;
• The Thermal Equivalent Short-Circuit Current 𝐼𝑡ℎ is calculated based on the IEC standard, using
the m and n factors (see Figure 22.2.1). The n-factor calculation uses the transient current instead
of the steady-state current;

• Additionally, loads can have a contribution to the short-circuit current, which can be defined in the
load element (Fault Contribution section of Complete Short-Circuit tab).

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22.2.4 The IEC 61363 Method

The IEC 61363 standard [9]describes procedures for calculating short-circuit currents in three-phase
AC radial electrical installations on ships and on mobile and fixed offshore units.

The IEC 61363 standard [9]defines only calculation methods for three phase (to earth) short circuits.
Typically marine/offshore electrical systems are operated with the neutral point isolated from the hull
or connected to it through an impedance. In such systems, the highest value of short-circuit current
would correspond to a three phase short circuit. If the neutral point is directly connected to the hull,
then the line-to-line, or line-to ship’s hull short-circuit may produce a higher current. Two basic system
calculation approaches can be taken, “time dependent” and “non-time dependent”.

According to the IEC 61363 standard [9], PowerFactory calculates an equivalent machine that feeds di-
rectly into the short circuit location. This machine summarises all “active” and “non-active” components
of the grid.

The short-circuit procedure in IEC 61363 [9] calculate the upper envelope (amplitude) of the maximum
value of the time dependent short-circuit (see Figure 22.2.2). The envelope is calculated using particular
machine characteristics parameters obtainable from equipment manufacturers using recognised testing
methods, and applying the following assumptions:

• All system capacitances are neglected.

• At the start of the short-circuit, the instantaneous value of voltage in one phase at the fault point
is zero.
• During the short-circuit, there is no change in the short-circuit current path.
• The short-circuit arc impedance is neglected.

• Transformers are set at the main tap position.

• The short-circuit occurs simultaneously in all phases.
• For generator connected in parallel, all generators share their active and reactive load proportion-
ally at the start of or during the short-circuit.

• During each discrete time interval, all circuits components react linearly.

The exact guidelines on how this is achieved is specified in the standard.

Because the standard considers specific system components and models (“active” and “non-active”)
some of the models that can be used in PowerFactory will have no description according to the standard
(such as External Grids, Voltage Sources, Static Generators, etc.). How these elements are considered
and transformed to a replacement equivalent machine is described in the corresponding Technical
Reference (appendix C).

According to this method, the following short-circuit values are calculated:

• 𝐼”𝑘 initial symmetrical short-circuit current,

• upper envelope of short-circuit current 𝐼𝑘 (𝑡) ,
• 𝑖𝑑𝑐 (𝑡) decaying (aperiodic) component of short-circuit current,

• 𝑖𝑝 peak short-circuit current,

• 𝐼𝑘 steady-state short-circuit current.

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The calculating formulae and methods described produce sufficiently accurate results to calculate the
short-circuit current during the first 100 ms of a fault condition. It is assumed in the standard that during
that short time the control of the generators has no significant influence on the short circuit values. The
method can be used also to calculate the short-circuit current for periods longer than 100 ms when
calculating on a bus system to which the generators are directly connected. For time periods beyond
100 ms the controlling effects of the system voltage regulators may be predominant. Calculations
including the voltage regulator effects are not considered in this standard.

In PowerFactory besides the standard IEC 61363 [9] method, an EMT simulation method is available
which considers also the first 100 ms of a three phase short-circuit.

22.2.5 The IEC 61660 (DC) Method

The IEC 61660 standard [8] describes a detailed method for calculating short-circuit currents in DC
auxiliary systems in power plants and substations. The standard details considerations for voltages up
to 250 VDC. Such systems can be equipped with the following equipment, acting as short-circuit current
sources:

• rectifiers in three-phase AC bridge connection.

• stationary lead-acid batteries.

• smoothing capacitors.
• DC motors with independent excitation.

The IEC 61660 standard [8] defines equations and equivalent circuits which approximate the time-
dependent fault contribution of different DC current sources. The standard also defines correction
factors and approximation methods to determine the total DC short circuit current at the point of fault. A
graphical representation of the DC short-circuit current time function of different DC sources is illustrated
in Figure 22.2.12.

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Figure 22.2.12: DC Short-Circuit Current Time Function of different sources

In accordance with standard IEC 61660 [8], PowerFactory calculates the total DC fault current by
considering all of the DC current sources feeding in to the short circuit location. How different elements
are considered and modelled is described in the corresponding Technical Reference (appendix C).
Figure 22.2.13 shows the IEC 61660 standard approximation function which covers the different short
circuit current variations. The equations which describe the function are detailed in IEC 61660.

Figure 22.2.13: IEC 61660 standard DC short-circuit approximation function

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According to the IEC 61660 method, the following short-circuit values are calculated:

• 𝑖𝑝 peak short-circuit current

• 𝐼𝑘 quasi steady-state short-circuit current

• 𝑡𝑝 time to peak
• 𝜏𝑟 rise-time constant

• 𝜏𝑑 decay-time constant
• 𝑇𝑘 fault clearing time

22.2.6 The ANSI/IEEE 946 (DC) Method

The IEEE 946 standard [5] describes a recommended practice for the design of DC auxiliary power
systems for nuclear and non-nuclear power stations. The standard provides guidance on the selection
of equipment including ratings, interconnections, instrumentation, control and protection.

The IEEE 946 standard [5], is closely linked to General Electric’s Industrial Power Systems Data
Book [17]. The IEEE 946 standard includes examples for the calculation of short-circuit contribution
from a battery and a battery charger, whilst the GE Industrial Power Systems Data Book includes
a methodology for calculation of the DC fault contribution of Batteries, DC machines and Rectifiers.
The DC short circuit calculation in PowerFactory is in accordance with the approach taken in the IEEE
standard and the GE Industrial Power Systems Data Book. How different elements are specifically
considered and modelled is described in the corresponding Technical Reference (appendix C).

According to the IEEE 946 method, the following short-circuit values are calculated:

• 𝑖𝑝 peak short-circuit current

• 𝐼𝑘 quasi steady-state short-circuit current

• 𝑇𝑛 network time constant
• 𝑅𝑅 rate of rise of short-circuit current

22.3 Executing Short-Circuit Calculations

There are different methods of initiating the short-circuit calculation command ComShc in PowerFactory
, which may result in a different configuration of the command. These methods are described in
Sections 22.3.1 and 22.3.2.

22.3.1 Toolbar/Main Menu Execution

The short-circuit command may be executed from the toolbar or main menu in PowerFactory as follows:

• By pressing the icon on the main toolbar; or

• By selecting the Calculation → Short-Circuit ... option from the main menu.

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If the user is performing the short-circuit for the first time (by using one of the above options), the short-
circuit command will be configured in a certain manner by default; that is the command will be set by
default to execute a short-circuit calculation on all busbars/terminals in the network. If a short-circuit
calculation has been already performed (the command exists in the study case) the settings displayed by
the short-circuit command will be according to the most recent short-circuit calculation. As an example,
if the user performs a short-circuit calculation according to ANSI for only one busbar in the system, the
next time the user executes again the short-circuit, the command will have the most recent settings, that
is, in this case according to ANSI and for the specified busbar.

22.3.2 Context-Sensitive Menu Execution

The short-circuit command may be executed from the context-sensitive menu in PowerFactory by se-
lecting an element(s) in the single-line diagram, right-clicking and selecting one of the following options:

• Calculate → Short-Circuit: performs a short-circuit calculation for each element selected by the
user. It should be noted that the short-circuit calculation for each element is carried out completely
independently of the short-circuit calculation for each other element. For this calculation, only the
following combinations of elements may be selected:
– Single or multiple terminals/busbars; or
– A single line; or
– A single branch.
If several terminals/busbars are selected for analysis, the results of each individual short-circuit
calculation will be displayed together on the single-line graphic.
• Calculate → Multiple Faults: performs a short-circuit calculation according to the complete method,
for the ’simultaneous’ short-circuit of all elements selected by the user. Any combination of bus-
bars, terminals, lines and branches can be selected for this calculation. Additionally, switch/circuit
breaker open/close operations can also be included in the calculation. When this calculation is
selected, the option Multiple Faults in the ComShc dialogue will be automatically ticked.

22.3.3 Faults on Busbars/Terminals

The short-circuit command should first be called using one of the methods described in Sections 22.3.1
and 22.3.2. The simplest way to calculate several busbar/terminal short-circuits individually and to then
combine the results into one diagram is to select the option All Busbars (or alternatively, Busbars and
Junction/Internal Nodes) in the Fault Location section of the Short-Circuit Calculation ComShc dialogue,
as displayed in Figure 22.3.1. Note that to access this option, Multiple Faults in the dialogue must be
un-selected.

Figure 22.3.1: Short-Circuit Calculation Command ComShc Dialogue: Faults at All Busbars

If the user would instead like to select from the single-line diagram a single busbar/terminal, or multi-
select several busbars/terminals for calculation, the dialogue will be configured as follows:

• When only a single busbar/terminal is selected, and Calculate → Short-Circuit is chosen from
the context-sensitive menu, the Fault Location reference (bottom of dialogue) is set to the selected
element.

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• When two or more busbars/terminals are selected and Calculate → Short-Circuit is chosen from
the context-sensitive menu, the Fault Location reference (bottom of dialogue) is set to a so-called
“Selection Set” SetSelect object, which contains a list of references to the selected busbars/ter-
minals.

In either case, various options for the calculation can be modified. Please refer to Section 22.4 for a
detailed description of the options available. It should be noted that selecting or deselecting the option
Multiple Faults may change the selection of fault locations and may therefore lead to a calculation for
locations other than the busbars/terminals selected in the single line graphic. After pressing the Execute
button, the calculation is executed and, if successful, the results are displayed in the single line graphic.
In addition, a result report is available and may be printed out.

Once a selection of fault locations is made and the short-circuit calculation is performed, it is simple to
execute further calculations based on the same selection of elements. This can be done by the following
alternative means of executing the short-circuit calculation command:

• By pressing the icon on the main toolbar; or

• By selecting the Calculation → Short-Circuit ... option from the main menu.

The short-circuit setup dialogue then shows the previously selected busbars/terminals in the Fault
Location section under User Selection.

22.3.4 Faults on Lines and Branches

It is not only possible to calculate short-circuits on busbars and terminals, but also on lines and branches.
It should be noted, however, that only a single line or a single branch can be selected at a time, for each
short-circuit calculation. It is not possible to select multiple lines and/or branches for calculation. To
calculate a short-circuit on one of these types of elements, proceed as follows:

• From the single-line diagram, select a single line or a single branch where the fault should be
calculated.
• Right-click on the element and select Calculation → Short-Circuit .... The short-circuit command
ComShc dialogue opens and the user can then define the location of the fault relative to the ele-
ment’s length (see Figure 22.3.2), including which terminal the fault distance should be calculated
from. It should be noted that the Short-Circuit at Branch/Line section of this tab is only available
when a line or branch has been selected for calculation.
• Clicking the button located in the Short-Circuit at Branch/Line section of the tab will enable the
user to select whether the fault location is defined as a percentage or as an absolute value.

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Figure 22.3.2: Configuration of Line/Branch Faults in ComShc Dialogue

When a fault on a line/branch is calculated, a box containing the calculation results is displayed next to
the selected element.

22.3.5 Multiple Faults Calculation

Multiple faults involve the simultaneous occurrence of more than one fault condition in a network. This
option is only available for the complete method. To calculate simultaneous multiple faults, proceed as
follows:

• Select two or more elements (i.e. busbars/terminals, lines, ...) and right-click.
• Select the option Calculate → Multiple Faults. The Short-Circuits dialogue pops up, displaying
the short-circuit event list. A 3-phase fault is assumed by default at all locations in the event list.
Click OK. The Short-Circuit command dialogue then pops up. In this dialogue, the Multiple Faults
option is ticked in combination with the complete short-circuit method.

• Finally, press Execute to start the calculation.

In cases where the event list has to be adapted to reflect the intended fault conditions (that is, not
necessarily the calculation of 3-phase faults), please proceed as follows:

• Open the short-circuit events object using one of the following methods:
– In the Fault Location section of the short-circuit ComShc dialogue, press the Show button
(see Figure 22.3.3; or
– Press the icon located on the main tool bar (just besides the short-circuit command
button); or
– In a Data Manager window, open the IntEvtshc object from the current study case, also
denoted by the icon.

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Figure 22.3.3: Accessing the Short-Circuit Events List

• A window opens up which shows the list of events (that is short-circuits at the selected locations).
When double-clicking on one entry in this list (double-clicking on the entire row), a window with a
description of the event is opened.
• The short-circuit event settings can now be modified. The list of fault locations consists of a “Short-
Circuit Event List”(IntEvtshc) object, which holds one or more short-circuit events (EvtShc). Each
of these events has a reference to a fault location (a busbar/terminal, line, etc.) and displays a
short description of the fault type. An example is shown in Figure 22.3.4.
• The user could add more fault locations to the “Short-Circuit Event List” (IntEvtshc) object by right
clicking on addition elements in the single line diagram Add to.. → Multiple Faults.

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Figure 22.3.4: A Short-Circuit Event (EvtShc)

Note: To re-use the event list (IntEvtshc) later, this object can be copied to a user-defined folder in the
Data Manager. This will prevent it from being modified during future calculations. When repeating
the calculation with the same configuration, the reference in Calculate → Multiple Faults can be
set to this object. The other option would be to copy the events to the Fault Cases folder located
in the “Operational Library/Faults” folder of the project. The user would then need to press the
From Library button (22.3.3).

22.4 Short-Circuit Calculation Options

The following sections describe the options available in PowerFactory ’s short-circuit calculation com-
mand. Some of these options are dependent upon the selected calculation method, therefore separate
sections dedicated to each method are presented.

22.4.1 Basic Options (All Methods)

The options presented in this section are common to all implemented calculation methods and are used
to define the general settings of the short-circuit calculation. The specific options for each method are
presented below in separate sections.

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Figure 22.4.1: IEC Calculation - Basic Options

An example of the short-circuit command dialogue is shown in Figure 22.4.1 (IEC calculation in this
case). The sections of the dialogue which are common to all calculation methods are:

Method

PowerFactory provides the following calculation methods for short-circuit calculation:

• VDE 0102 [11] (the German VDE standard);

• IEC 60909 [11] (the International IEC standard);
• ANSI (the American ANSI/IEEE C37 standard);
• complete (superposition method which considers the pre-fault load-flow results (see Section 22.2.3);
• IEC 61363 [9];
• IEC 61660 (DC) [8]; (the International IEC standard for DC short circuit calculation)
• ANSI/IEEE 946 (DC) [5] (the ANSI/IEEE standard for DC short circuit calculation).

The specific options for each of these methods are available on the Advanced Options page of the
short-circuit command ComShc dialogue.

Fault Type

The following fault types are available:

• 3-Phase Short-Circuit
• 2-Phase Short-Circuit

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• Single Phase to Ground

• 2-Phase to Ground

• 1-Phase to Neutral
• 1-Phase Neutral to Ground
• 2-Phase to Neutral
• 2-Phase Neutral to Ground

• 3-Phase to Neutral
• 3-Phase Neutral to Ground
• 3-Phase Short-Circuit (unbalanced)

The fault types with a neutral conductor should only be used for systems which are modelled using
neutral conductors.

Fault Impedance (Except for IEC 61363)

The fault impedance corresponds to the reactance and the resistance of the fault itself (such as the
impedance of the arc or of the shortening path). This can be defined by means of an enhanced model,
where line to line (𝑋𝑓 (𝐿 − 𝐿), 𝑅𝑓 (𝐿 − 𝐿)) and line to earth 𝑋𝑓 (𝐿 − 𝐸), 𝑅𝑓 (𝐿 − 𝐸)) impedances are
regarded (note: requires option Enhanced Fault Impedance to be enabled). If the option Enhanced
Fault Impedance is not enabled, fault impedances are defined by their equivalent values, 𝑋𝑓 and 𝑅𝑓 .

Figures 22.4.2 to 22.4.4 illustrate the differences between the enhanced and the simplified represen-
tation of fault impedances for the following fault types: (i) 3-phase short-circuits; (ii) 2-phase faults to
ground; and (iii) 2-phase faults.

Figure 22.4.2: Fault Impedance Definition: 3-Phase Short-Circuit

Figure 22.4.3: Fault Impedance Definition: 2-Phase to Ground Fault

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Figure 22.4.4: Fault Impedance Definition: 2-Phase Fault

Show Output

A textual report is automatically written to PowerFactory ’s output window when the Show OutputShow
Output option of the dialogue is enabled. The command which generates this report is displayed in blue
text next to the Command button . The user can click on this button to select which type of report
will be printed out. Just below the Command button, blue text informs the user of the currently-selected
report type.

Fault Location

The fault location selection options are:

At User Selection: In this case a reference to a single terminal/ busbar/ line/ branch or to a
selection of busbars/ terminals SetSelect, as explained in Sections 22.3.3 and 22.3.4must be
given.

At Busbars and Junctions/ Internal Nodes: For every terminal (ElmTerm) in the network, a
short-circuit calculation is carried out, independently (one after the other).

At All Busbars: For every terminal (ElmTerm) in the network whose Usage is set to Busbar, a
short-circuit calculation is carried out, independently (one after the other).

If the option Multiple Faults has been ticked when the Complete Method is being used, a reference to
a set of fault objects (IntEvtshc), as explained in Section 22.3.5, must be set. This is done in the Fault
Location section of the dialogue; using the Short Circuits reference.

Note: Multiple faults will only be calculated for the Complete Method, when the option Multiple Faults is
enabled. When this option is enabled, a short-circuit calculation is carried out for each individual
fault location, simultaneously. When this option is disabled, cases where more than one fault loca-
tion have been selected (i.e. several busbars/terminals), a sequence of short-circuit calculations
is performed (i.e. each short-circuit calculation is carried out independently of each other short-
circuit calculation).

22.4.2 Verification (Except for IEC 61363, IEC 61660 and ANSI/IEEE 946)

When enabled (Verification Tab Page), the user can enter thresholds for peak, interrupting and thermal
maximum loading. The Verification option will then write a loading report to the output window with
all devices that have higher loadings than the defined max. values. This report shows the various
maximum and calculated currents for rated devices. Rated devices include, for instance:

• Lines which have a rated short-time current in their line type which is greater than zero; and
• Breakers or coupling switches which have a type with a valid rated current.

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22.4.3 Basic Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method)

The Basic Options page of the Short-Circuit Calculation dialogue is shown in the previous section in
Figure 22.4.1. In general, please note that the calculation according to IEC 60909 [11] and VDE 0102
does not take into account line capacitances, parallel admittances (except those of the zero-sequence
system) and non-rotating loads (e. g. ElmLod). Single phase elements are considered only if they are
located in the neutral conductor.

Published

This option offers a sub-selection for the selected Method, where the version of the standard to be
used can be selected according to the year in which it was issued. The most recent standard is 2001,
however 1990 is still available for the verification of documented results.

Calculate

The drop-down list offers the choice between the minimal or maximal short-circuit current. If external
grids are defined, the corresponding maximum or minimum value will be selected automatically. For
example if in the short circuit command you select “Calculate” according to “Maximum Short Circuit
currents”, the maximum short circuit value from the external grid is considered for the calculation. The
equivalent voltage source is based on the nominal system voltage and the voltage factor c. The voltage
factor c will depend on the voltage level and on the selection of the “Calculate according toĚ” stated in
the short-circuit command.

Max. Voltage tolerance for LV systems

In accordance with the IEC/VDE standard, this voltage tolerance is used to define the respective voltage
correction factor, 𝑐. The voltage tolerance is not used when a user-defined correction factor is defined.

Short-Circuit Duration

The value for the Breaker Time is used to calculate the breaking current of a circuit breaker. The value
for the Fault Clearing Time (Ith) is required for the equivalent thermal current.

Note: The fields Method, Fault Type, Fault Impedance, Output and Fault Location are described in
Section 22.4.1.

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22.4.4 Advanced Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method)

Figure 22.4.5: IEC calculation - Advanced Options

Generally, the Advanced Options page (shown in Figure 22.4.5) is used for settings to tune the various
short-circuit calculation methods. Familiarisation with the IEC/VDE standard before modifying these
options is strongly recommended.

Grid Identification

The calculation of the factor kappa is different in the cases of meshed or radial feeding of the short-
circuit. Normally PowerFactory will automatically find the appropriate setting. The option Always meshed
will force a meshed grid approach.

c-Voltage Factor

The standard defines the voltage factor c to be used for the different voltage levels. In special cases
the user may want to define the correction factor. In this case, activate the box User-Defined, then a
specific c-factor can be entered.

Asynchronous Motors

Whether the calculation considers the influence of asynchronous motors on short-circuit currents de-
pends on this setting, which may be Always Considered, Automatic Neglection, or Confirmation of
Neglection.

Conductor Temperature

When activating the User-Defined option, the initial (pre-fault) conductor temperature can be set man-
ually. This will influence the calculated maximum temperature of the conductors, as caused by the
short-circuit currents.

Decaying Aperiodic Component

Allows for the calculation of the DC current component, for which the decay time must be given.
According to the IEC/IEC standard, methods 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐶 ′ can be selected.

The following nomenclature is used:

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• 𝑇𝑏 ) Breaker Time (see Short-Circuit command)

• 𝑓 − 𝑛) Nominal frequency

• 𝐼𝑘 ”) Initial short-circuit current

Method B: Uses the complex calculated equivalent impedance of the network with a security
factor of 1.15: √ 𝑅
𝑖𝐷𝐶 = 2 · 𝐼𝑘” · 𝑒−𝜔·𝑇𝑏 · 𝑥 (22.4)

Method C Uses the R/X ratio calculated with the equivalent frequency method. The equivalent
frequency is dependent on the breaking time (see Table 22.4.1). This method is recommended
for maximum accuracy.

√ 𝑅
−𝜔·𝑇𝑏 · 𝑥 𝑓
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 2 · 𝐼”𝑘 · 𝑒 𝑓 (22.5)

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑐 𝑓𝑐
= · (22.6)
𝑋𝑓 𝑋𝑐 𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚

The ratio Rc/Xc is the equivalent impedance calculated at the frequency given by:

𝑓𝑐
𝑓𝑐 = · 𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 (22.7)
𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚

Method C’ Uses the R/X ratio as for the peak short-circuit current, thus selecting the ratio fc/fn
= 0.4. This option speeds up the calculation, as no additional equivalent impedance needs to be
calculated.

Peak Short-Circuit Current (Meshed network)

In accordance with the IEC/VDE standard, the following methods for calculating kappa can be selected:

Method B’ Uses the ratio R/X at the short-circuit location.

Method C(1) Uses the ratio R/X calculated at a virtual frequency of 40% of nominal frequency
(20 Hz for fn = 50 Hz, or 24 Hz for fn=60 Hz), based on the short-circuit impedance in the positive
sequence system.

Method (012) Like C(1), but uses the correct short-circuit impedance based on the positive-,
negative- and zero-sequence system.

Calculate Ik

The steady-state short-circuit currents can be calculated using different means to consider asynchronous
machines:

Without Motors Will disconnect all asynchronous motors before calculating the current 𝐼𝑘 .

DIgSILENTMethod Considers all asynchronous motors according to their breaker current. The
breaker opens after the maximum possible time.

𝑓𝑛 * 𝑇𝑏 <1 < 2.5 <5 < 12.5

𝑓𝑐 /𝑓𝑛 0.27 0.15 0.092 0.055

Table 22.4.1: Breaking Times

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Ignore Motor Contributions Considers asynchronous motor impedances during the calculation,
but will reduce the calculated results for motor contributions.

Consider Protection Devices

This option will calculate measured currents for all protection devices and will evaluate tripping times.
To increase the speed of the calculation, this option can be disabled when protection devices do not
need to be analysed.

Calculate max. Branch Currents = Busbar Currents

This option is used to check the rating of the circuit breakers against the system breaker currents.
Normally the breaker currents are calculated as maxIbus-Ibranch, Ibranch. If this option is activated,
the busbar short-circuit current is used as the breaker current, which is actually an over-estimation of
the currents.

Automatic Power Station Unit detection

The IEC/VDE standard forces a different impedance correction factor to be applied to separate genera-
tors and transformers than that applied to a unit/block (power station) consisting of a generator including
its step-up transformer. PowerFactory tries to detect power stations. When this option is disabled,
block transformers must be marked accordingly by setting the Unit Transformer option available in the
VDE/IEC Short-Circuit page of the transformer element dialogue (Figure 22.2.6).

22.4.5 Basic Options (ANSI C37 Method)

Figure 22.4.6: ANSI calculation - Basic Options

Prefault Voltage

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Value of the pre-fault voltage. In ANSI, the pre-fault voltage is the system rated voltage (1.0 p.u.).
Although a higher or lower voltage can be used in the calculation if operation conditions show otherwise.

Consider Transformer Taps

The ANSI standard optionally allows the current tap positions of the transformers to be considered. This
can be selected here.

NACD Mode

Depending on the location of the fault, ANSI classifies the different currents being fed to the short circuit
as “local” or “remote”. A remote source is treated as having only a dc decay, while a local source is
treated as having a dc and ac decay. Depending on this classification, corresponding curves are used
in order to obtain the multiplication factors.

In PowerFactory the ANSI short-circuit method has the option of selecting the NACD (No AC Decay)
mode.

The NACD factor is the ratio of remote current contribution to the total fault current: NACD = 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑒 /𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 .
This NACD factor is used to calculate the breaker currents, including the DC component of the current.
The remote current contribution required to evaluate the NACD factor is the sum of all remote generator
contributions (induction generators, synchronous machines, and external grids).

The calculation of the NACD factor can be very time consuming, as the contribution of each generator
is calculated individually. Therefore, different approximation methods can be selected, which represent
the most common interpretations of the ANSI standard:

Interpolated The NACD factor is calculated, and the correction factor for the asymmetrical fault
current is interpolated between the “dc decay only” and “AC/DC decay” curves with the following
equation: 𝑀 𝐹 = 𝐴𝐶/𝐷𝐶𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 + (𝐷𝐶𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 𝐴𝐶/𝐷𝐶𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟) * 𝑁 𝐴𝐶𝐷 If (NACD = 1) then only
the DC factor is used; if (NACD = 0) then only the AC/DC factor is used.

Predominant) The the NACD factor is calculated. If the resulting factor is greater than or equal
to 0.5, then the “dc decay only” curve is used, which means that the remote generation is higher
than the local generation.

All Remote All contributions are set to ’remote’; the NACD factor is not calculated, but assumed
equal to 1 and only the “dc decay only” curve is used.

All Local All contributions are set to ’local’; the NACD factor is not calculated, but assumed equal to 0
and only the “AC/DC decay” curve is used.

Current/Voltages for

The calculation mode for the currents and voltages to be evaluated:

LV/Momentary Evaluates the subtransient short-circuit currents.

LV/Interrupting Evaluates the breaker currents.

30 Cycle Evaluates the 30-cycle (steady-state) current.

Note: The fields Method, Fault Type, Fault Impedance, Output and Fault Location are described in
Section 22.4.1.

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22.4.6 Advanced Options (ANSI C37 Method)

Figure 22.4.7: ANSI Calculation - Advanced Options

Calculate

This option is used to select the various currents (according to the ANSI standard) which are to be
calculated. The options are as follows:

• Momentary Current (Close and Latch Duties)

• Interrupting Current

• 30 Cycle Current
• Low-Voltage Current

Bypass Series Capacitance

Series capacitances may be optionally bypassed for the ANSI short-circuit calculation, or bypassed
depending on the type of short-circuit being calculated. The series capacitor bypass options are as
follows:

• No Bypassing
• All Currents
• LV & Interrupting & 30 Cycle Current

• 30 Cycle Currents

X/R Calculation

The user may select between a complex number X/R ratio calculation, or a calculation which considers
R and X separately. The fault point X/R will determine the system dc time constant and consequently
the rate of decay of the transient dc current. Although in PowerFactory the X/R ration can be calculated
from the complex network reduction, using this approach will not insure a conservative result. In an
attempt to provide a conservative approach, ANSI C31.010 requires that the X/R ratio be determined
by a separate R network reduction.

Consider Protection Devices

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This option will calculate measured currents for the selected protection devices and will evaluate tripping
times. To increase the speed of the calculation, this option can be disabled when protection devices do
not need to be analysed.

Calculate max. Branch Currents = Busbar Currents

This option is used to check the rating of the circuit breakers against the system breaker currents.
Normally the breaker currents are calculated as maxIbus-Ibranch, Ibranch. If this option is activated,
the busbar short-circuit current is used as the breaker current, which is actually an over-estimation of
the currents.

22.4.7 Basic Options (Complete Method)

Figure 22.4.8: Complete Method - Basic Options

As opposed to the calculation methods according to IEC/VDE and ANSI, which represent short-circuit
currents by approximations, the complete method evaluates currents without using approximations. This
accurate evaluation of the currents takes into account the system conditions immediately prior to the
onset of the fault.

Load Flow

The pre-fault system condition used by the complete method can be determined either by the evaluation
of a load flow, or by means of a simplified method, which initialises the internal voltages of all compo-
nents that contribute to the short-circuit current with their nominal values, multiplied by a scaling factor,
𝑐.

The load flow command used to initialise the short-circuit calculation (when Load Flow Initialisation on
the Advanced Options page is selected, see Section 22.4.8) is displayed next to the button labelled
Load Flow ( ). The load flow command can be accessed and modified by pressing this button .
The load flow command displayed here is initially taken from the currently active study case.

Short-Circuit Duration

The value for the Break Time (when set to “Global”) is used to calculate the breaking current of circuit
breakers. Depending on the user selection, the value used for the break time within the calculation is:

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global When set to “Global”, the breaking current is calculated according to the Break Time
specified in the short-circuit command.

min. of local When set to “min. of local”, the breaking current is calculated according to
the shortest Break Time of all circuit breakers (defined in the Complete Short-Circuit page of
ElmCoup objects) connected to the busbars being studied.

local When set to “local” , the breaking current is calculated for each connected circuit-breaker
according to its own Break Time (defined in the Complete Short-Circuit page of ElmCoup ob-
jects), however, the busbar results will show the breaking current according to the shortest Break
Time of all circuit breakers.

Note: The fields Method, Fault Type, Fault Impedance, Output and Fault Location are described in
Section 22.4.1.

22.4.8 Advanced Options (Complete Method)

Figure 22.4.9: Complete Method - Advanced Options

Initialisation

The user may select to initialise the complete method by one of the following options:

• the load flow calculation referred to in the Load Flow field of the wordBasic Options tab; or

• the nominal voltages with a user-defined correction factor (c-Factor ). It should be noted that this
option is only available in the dialogue when Load Flow Initialisation is not selected.

Peak, DC Currents, R/X ratio (ip, ib, idc)

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This option allows the definition of the method used to determine the factor kappa (𝜅) and the 𝑅/𝑋𝑏
ratio, required for the calculation of the peak and the DC component of the short-circuit current. The
methods available correspond to those given in the IEC/VDE standard.

B Uses the ratio R/X at the short-circuit location. In this case both ratios (𝑅/𝑋𝑝 for the calculation
of 𝜅, and 𝑅/𝑋𝑏 ) are equal.

C(1) For 𝜅, the ratio 𝑅/𝑋𝑝 calculated at a virtual frequency of 40% (based on the short-circuit
impedance in the positive sequence system) is used. The 𝑅/𝑋𝑏 ratio is calculated according
to the equivalent frequency method, considering the breaking time and the positive sequence
impedance (as for Method C from the IEC standard, however it should be noted that the IEC
correction factors are not considered).

C(012) Like C(1) described directly above, but uses the correct short-circuit impedance based on
the positive-, negative- and zero-sequence system.

Consider Protection Devices

This option will calculate measured currents for all protection devices and will evaluate tripping times.
This option can be disabled to increase the calculation speed when protection devices do not need to
be analysed.

Calculate max. Branch Currents = Busbar Currents

This option is used to check the rating of the circuit breakers against the system breaker currents.
Normally the breaker currents are calculated as max(𝐼𝑏𝑢𝑠 −𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ , 𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ ). If this option is activated, the
busbar short-circuit current is used as the breaker current, which is an over-estimation of the currents.

Overhead Line Modelling: Phase Matrices

For the unbalanced short-circuit calculation, PowerFactory always uses the phase component matrix.
The following options define which phase matrix is used: Untransposed: the short-circuit calculation
uses the untransposed phase matrix. Symmetrically Transposed: the short-circuit calculation uses
the symmetrically transposed phase matrix for untransposed lines.

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22.4.9 Basic Options (IEC 61363)

Figure 22.4.10: IEC 61363 (EMT) - Basic Options

Calculate Using

In that section the user could select between the options:

• Standard IEC 61363 Method

• EMT Simulation Method

With the first option the short-circuit is calculated according to the IEC 61363 standard [9]this is outlined
in section 22.2.4. This short-circuit calculation method is only an approximation and therefore the results
are not exact. When selecting the EMT method PowerFactory calculates for each fault case a three
phase short-circuit with a fault impedance of 0 ohm on the selected locations. This additional, high
precision short-circuit calculation method provides further valuable information, and especially when
power systems objects must be considered, which are not covered by the IEC 61363 standard[9]. The
Break Time input parameter represents the contact separation time for circuit-breakers. The default
setting is 100 ms. If the EMT Simulation Method option is active the configuration of the Simulation and
also the Simulation Results are available. The Simulation option displays the *.ComSim dialogue that is
described in more detail in Chapter 26 (Stability and EMT Simulations). The simulation time is set per
default to 160 ms. This is necessary because the short circuit is started after phase A voltage crosses
zero and because the first 100 ms after the short-circuit are displayed as results.

The Simulation Results pointer indicates where the results of the EMT short-circuit simulation will be
stored (ElmRes). Typically no changes are required. In another note, this EMT simulation setup (Initial
Conditions and Run Simulation command) is stored separately from the normal EMT simulation in order
to avoid confusion.

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Fault Impedance

The Fault Impedance option is disabled since the IEC 61363 [9] standard considers the short-circuit
impedance to be zero.

Create Plots

By enabling the Create Plots option, the user can select between the following:

• Show only short-circuit currents at faulted terminal With this option selected, PowerFactory will
create automatically a time domain plot of the short-circuit current at the selected terminal, which
includes its upper envelope and DC component.

• Show all short-circuit current contributions With this option selected PowerFactory will create
automatically a time domain plot of the short-circuit current at the selected terminal and a plot
for all connected elements to the faulted terminal. Each created plot will consist of the short-circuit
current, the upper envelope and the DC component.

22.4.10 Advanced Options (IEC 61363)

The settings available on the advanced options page of the IEC 61363 dialogue will depend on the
selected calculation method.

Standard IEC 61363 [9]

With the standard calculation method the pre-load condition can be configured. The available options
are:

• use load flow initialisation If this option is selected, a load flow calculation is first carried out (a
reference to the low flow command is shown). If the load flow is successful, the results are then
used to calculate the short circuit.
• use rated current/power factor If this option is selected, the preload condition is obtained from the
rated values of the grid elements (no load flow calculation is executed).
• neglect preload condition If this option is selected, no preload information is used to calculate the
short circuit.

Furthermore, the user will notice the option ’Consider Transformer Taps’. According to the standard
however, all transformers should be considered with their main position, therefore this option should be
normally disabled.

EMT Simulation Method

If the short-circuit is calculated using the ’EMT simulation method’, in the Advanced Options page the
user will have the option to assume the inertia as infinite, meaning that if selected, the acceleration time
constant of all rotating machines will be set to 9999 seconds.

22.4.11 Basic Options (IEC 61660 Method)

The Basic Options page of the Short-Circuit Calculation dialogue provides options to set the fundamen-
tal settings of the IEC 61660 DC short circuit calculation. The calculation according to IEC 61660 [8]
can be undertaken considering minimum and maximum fault conditions and a DC fault impedance.

Calculate

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The drop-down list offers the choice between the minimum or maximum short-circuit current. For the
maximum short-circuit case the resistance of joints (in busbars and terminations) is ignored, the con-
ductor resistance is referred to 20∘ C, rectifier current limiting controls are disabled, decoupling diodes
are neglected and batteries are set to fully charged. For the minimum short-circuit case the conductor
resistance is referred to the maximum operating temperature, resistance of joints is considered, the
contribution of rectifiers is set at the rated short-circuit current, batteries operation is set at the minimum
voltage, decoupling diodes are considered and the current-limiting effects of fuses and other protective
devices are considered. The equivalent voltage source is based on the nominal system voltage and the
pre-fault voltage factor.

Short-Circuit Duration

The value for the Fault Clearing Time (Ith) is required for the equivalent thermal current. The default
values is set to 1 second.

Note: The fields Method, Fault Impedance, Output and Fault Location are described in Section 22.4.1.

22.4.12 Advanced Options (IEC 61660 Method)

Generally, the Advanced Options page contains settings applicable to the IEC 61660 calculation method.
Familiarisation with the IEC 61660 standard before modifying these options is strongly recommended.

Initialisation

The pre-fault voltage can be set via a load flow via checking the Load Flow Initialisation check-box.
Alternatively a user defined pre-fault voltage can be set using the Pre-fault voltage factor in accordance
with the IEC standard. If the minimum fault level calculation is selected the Joint Resistance of Busbars
input will become visible and a user-defined joint resistance for bus terminations can be specified.

22.4.13 Basic Options (ANSI/IEEE 946 Method)

The Basic Options page of the Short-Circuit Calculation dialogue provides options to set the fundamen-
tal settings of the IEEE 946 DC short circuit calculation. The calculation according to IEEE 946 [5] can
be undertaken considering minimum and maximum fault conditions and a DC fault impedance.

Calculate

The drop-down list offers the choice between the minimum or maximum short-circuit current. For the
maximum short-circuit case the following assumptions are applied:

• the resistance of joints (in busbars and terminations) is ignored.

• the conductor resistance is referred to 20𝑂 𝐶.
• rectifier current limiting controls are disabled.

• decoupling diodes are neglected.

• batteries are set to fully charged.

For the minimum short-circuit case:

• the conductor resistance is referred to the maximum operating temperature.

• the resistance of joints is considered.

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• the contribution of rectifiers is set by the rated short-circuit current.

• battery operation is set at the minimum voltage.

• decoupling diodes are considered.

• the current-limiting effects of fuses and other protective devices are considered.

The equivalent DC voltage source is based on the nominal system voltage.

Short-Circuit Duration

The value for the Fault Clearing Time (Ith) is required for the equivalent thermal current. The default
values is set to 1 second.

Note: The fields Method, Fault Impedance, Output and Fault Location are described in Section 22.4.1.

22.4.14 Advanced Options (ANSI/IEEE 946 Method)

Generally, the Advanced Options page contains settings applicable to the ANSI/IEEE 946 calculation
method. Familiarisation with the IEEE 946 standard before modifying these options is strongly recom-
mended.

Initialisation

The pre-fault voltage can be set via a load flow via checking the Load Flow Initialisation check-box.
Alternatively the pre-fault voltage is determined by the nominal bus voltage. The Joint Resistance of
Busbars input can be used to specify a user-defined joint resistance for bus terminations.

Using...

The calculation methodology can be defined with either the Approximation Calculation selection, which
performs the DC short circuit calculation according to the IEEE 946 standard or with the Superposition
Calculation selection, which performs a superposition calculation. In the case of the Superposition
Calculation, each DC source is treated individually and the contribution to the fault current is calculated
with other sources open circuit, the network is then represented by an equivalent resistance in series
with the source resistance. The Superposition Calculation method then determines the total fault current
using the superposition principal similar to the Complete Method (22.2.3).

22.5 Result Analysis

In PowerFactory the results can be displayed directly in the single line diagram, in tabular form or by
using predefined report formats. Also available are several diagram colouring options which facilitate a
simplified results overview.

22.5.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram

Once a load flow calculation has been successfully executed, the result boxes shown in the single-line
diagram will be populated. There is a result box associated with each “side” of an element. So for
example a load has one result box, a line two result boxes, and a three-winding transformer three result
boxes. In PowerFactory these elements are collectively called edge elements. In addition, there are
result boxes for nodes or buses.

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The information shown inside a result box depends on the element to which it is associated. There are
a few predefined formats for edge elements and a few predefined formats for buses. In order to see
the selection, first perform a short-circuit, then, from the main menu, select Output → Results for Edge
Elements or Output → Results for Short-Circuit Buses or Output → Results for Short-Circuit Buses.
These menu options will show the list of available result box formats. Alternatively, you can select (click)
inside a result box on the single-line diagram, then right-click and from the context sensitive menu
choose Format for Edge Elements or in case of a node Format for Nodes. Figure 22.5.1 serves as an
example.

Figure 22.5.1: Selecting the Result Box from the Single Line Diagram.

Besides these predefined formats the result boxes can be formatted in order to display selected vari-
ables.

By right-clicking on one of the result boxes and selecting the option Edit Format for Edge Elements and
afterwards pressing the “Input Mode” button two options will be available: “User Selection” or “Format
Editor”. The “User selection” option will allow the selection of any of the available variables.

22.5.2 Flexible Data Page

Once a short-circuit calculation has been successfully executed, pressing the Edit Relevant Objects
for Calculation button ( ) located on the main menu will prompt a submenu with icons for all classes
that are currently used in the calculation. Clicking any of the class-icons will open a browser with all
elements of that class that are currently used in the calculation. The left-most tab-page at the bottom of
the browser is the Flexible Data tab page. Click on this tab page to show the flexible data. To change
the columns in the flexible page, press the Define Flexible Data button ( ). This will bring a selection
window where the set of variables can be edited. In the left pane the available variables will be shown
while the right pane will list the selected variables. Pressing the or buttons will move the selected
variable from the one pane to the other pane.

22.5.3 Predefined Report Formats (ASCII Reports)

In PowerFactory there are predefined report formats also called ASCII reports, available to the user.
These ASCII reports can be created by pressing the Output Calculation Analysis button ( ) located
on the main menu (a short-circuit must be calculated first). This will bring a selection window in which
the user can select a specific type of report. Some reports like the “Currents/Voltages” will have various
options which the user can set. The report selection window also shows the report definition which will

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be used for the selected report. Pressing Execute will write the report to the output window. Although
the reports are already predefined, the user has the possibility of modifying the reports if required
(by clicking on the blue arrow pointing to the right of the User Format definition). A Show Output and
Verification Report can be also printed out automatically each time a short-circuit calculation is executed
(see Section 22.4.1 and 22.4.2).

22.5.4 Diagram Colouring

When performing short-circuit calculations, it is very useful to colour the single line-diagram in order
to have a quick overview of the results, for example if elements have a loading above rated short-time
current or if peak short-circuit currents are higher than the specified values. In PowerFactory there is
the option of selecting different colouring modes according to the calculation performed. If a specific
calculation is valid, then the selected colouring for this calculation is displayed. As an example, if the
user selects the colouring mode “Areas” for “No Calculation” and “Loading of Thermal/Peak Short-
Circuit Current” for the short-circuit calculation, then the initial colouring will be according to “Areas”.
However, as soon as the short-circuit is calculated, the diagram will be coloured according to “Loading
of Thermal/Peak Short-Circuit Current”. If the short-circuit calculation is reset or invalid, the colouring
mode switches back to “Areas”. The Diagram Colouring has also a 3-priority level colouring scheme
also implemented, allowing colouring elements according to the following criteria: 1st Energising status,
2nd Alarm and 3rd “Normal” (Other) colouring.

Energising Status If this check box is enabled “De-energised” or “Out of Calculation” elements
are coloured according to the settings in the “Project Colour Settings”. The settings of the “De-
energised” or “Out of Calculation” mode can be edited by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

Alarm If this check box is enabled a drop down list containing alarm modes will be available. It
is important to note here that only alarm modes available for the current calculation page will be
listed. If an alarm mode is selected, elements “exceeding” the corresponding a limit are coloured.
Limits and colours can be defined by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

"Normal" (Other) Colouring Here, two lists are displayed. The first list will contain all available
colouring modes. The second list will contain all sub modes of the selected colouring mode. The
settings of the different colouring modes can be edited by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

Every element can be coloured by one of the three previous criteria. Also, every criterion is optional and
will be skipped if disabled. Regarding the priority, if the user enables all three criterions, the hierarchy
taken account will be the following:

“Energising Status” overrules the “Alarm” and “Normal Colouring” mode. The “Alarm” mode overrules
the “Normal Colouring” mode.

22.6 Capacitive Earth-Fault Current

In medium-voltage networks, resonant grounding can be used for suppressing transient ground-fault
currents, thereby continuing power supply during single-phase earth faults. The dimensioning of the arc
suppression coil (Petersen coil) depends on the capacitive earth-fault current of the grounded network
area. The exact compensation of the capacitive earth-fault current by an inductive coil current of equal
magnitude results in a minimum residual fault current.

In PowerFactory the capacitive earth-fault current of lines and cables in relation to the grounding device
impedance and its rated current can be displayed for each grounding area in the network model in a
pre-defined tabular report. Starting from a substation or node, a grounding area subsumes all parts of
the network that are connected in the zero-sequence system to this substation or node.

To access this functionality in PowerFactory :

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• Open the Network Data Assessment command ( ) and select “Reports”

• Select “Capacitive earth current”

• Press Execute to generate the tabular report

For each grounding area, the following results are shown in individual columns:

Grounding Area : the starting point for the search of connected components in the zero-sequence
system
Number of lines : the number of lines belonging to the grounding area
Ice [A]: the lumped-sum capacitive earth-fault current of the lines for each grounding area
Number of grounding devices : the number of grounding devices for each grounding area

Effective grounding : the type of effective grounding (isolated, compensated or solid)

Grounding device : the grounding devices for each grounding area are listed
Re [Ohm]: the grounding resistance for each grounding device

Xe [Ohm]: the grounding reactance for each grounding device

𝑈𝑟
Ir [A]: the rated current for each grounding device 𝐼𝑟 = √
3|𝑅𝑒 +𝑗𝑋𝑒 |
.

To output these results to Excel or to HTML click the icon and select either Export as HTML for
HTML output in the default web browser, or Export to Excel to export the results to an Excel workbook.

Note: If network element data is modified, the report is not automatically updated. The option Refresh
available via the icon must be used to update the report.

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Chapter 23

Power Quality and Harmonics

Analysis

23.1 Introduction

One of the many aspects of power quality is the harmonic content of voltages and currents. Har-
monics can be analysed in either the frequency domain, or in the time-domain with post-processing
using Fourier Analysis. The PowerFactory harmonics functions allow the analysis of harmonics in the
frequency domain. The following functions are provided by PowerFactory :

• 23.2 Harmonic Load Flow (including harmonic load flow according to IEC 61000-3-6 [7] and flicker
analysis according to IEC 61400-21 [14])
• 23.3 Frequency Sweep

PowerFactory ’s harmonic load flow calculates harmonic indices related to voltage or current distortion,
and harmonic losses caused by harmonic sources (usually non-linear loads such as current converters).
Harmonic sources can be defined by either a harmonic current spectrum or a harmonic voltage spec-
trum. In the harmonic load flow calculation, PowerFactory carries out a steady-state network analysis
at each frequency at which harmonic sources are defined.

A special application of the harmonic load flow is the analysis of ripple-control signals. For this applica-
tion, a harmonic load flow can be calculated at one specific frequency only.

The harmonic load flow command also offers the option of calculating long- and short-term flicker
disturbance factors introduced by wind turbine generators. These factors are calculated according to
IEC standard 61400-21 [14], for wind turbines generators under continuous and switching operations.

In contrast to the harmonic load flow, PowerFactory ’s frequency sweep performs a continuous frequency
domain analysis. A typical application of the frequency sweep function is the calculation of network
impedances. The result of this calculation facilitates the identification of series and parallel resonances
in the network. These resonance points can identify the frequencies at which harmonic currents cause
low or high harmonic voltages. Network impedances are of particular importance in applications such
as filter design.

PowerFactory provides a toolbar for accessing the different harmonic analysis commands. This tool-
bar can be displayed (if not already active) by clicking the Change Toolbox button and selecting
Harmonics/Power Quality.

The Harmonics/Power Quality toolbar provides icons to access four pre-configured command dia-
logues:

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• Harmonic Load Flow

• Impedance Frequency Characteristic (Frequency Sweep)

• Flickermeter

• Connection Request Assessment

These command dialogues can also be accessed via PowerFactory ’s main menu:

• Calculation → Harmonics/Power Quality → Harmonic Load Flow. . .

• Calculation → Harmonics/Power Quality → Impedance Frequency Characteristic. . .

• Calculation → Harmonics/Power Quality → Flickermeter. . .

• Calculation → Harmonics/Power Quality → Connection Request Assessment. . .

Additionally, following the calculation of a harmonic load flow, the icon Filter Analysis on this toolbar
is activated. This icon is used to open the Filter Analysis (ComSh) command dialogue. This command
analyses results from the most recent harmonic load flow calculation and outputs results to PowerFac-
tory ’s output window. The Harmonic Load Flow, Frequency Sweep and Connection Request functions
and their usage are described in this chapter. The Flickermeter function is described in Chapter 24
(Flickermeter).

23.2 Harmonic Load Flow

To calculate a harmonic load flow, click on the Calculate Harmonic Load Flow icon to open the
dialogue for the Harmonic Load Flow (ComHldf ) command as shown in Figure 23.2.1.

Figure 23.2.1: Harmonic Load Flow Command (ComHldf )

For a detailed description of how harmonic injections are considered by PowerFactory, refer to Sec-
tion 23.5 (Modelling Harmonic Sources), in which the analysis and the harmonic indices are described.
The following sections describe the options available in the harmonic load flow command.

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23.2.1 Basic Options

Network Representation

Balanced In the case of a symmetrical network and balanced harmonic sources, characteristic
harmonics either appear in the positive sequence component (7th, 13th, 19th, etc.), or in the
negative sequence component (5th, 11th, 17th harmonic order, etc.). Therefore, at all frequencies
a single-phase equivalent (positive or negative sequence) can be used for the analysis.

Unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC) For analysing non-characteristic harmonics (3rd-order, even-order,

inter-harmonics), unbalanced harmonic injections, or harmonics in non-symmetrical networks,
the Unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC) option for modelling the network in the phase-domain should be
selected.

Calculate Harmonic Load Flow

Single Frequency Selecting this option will perform a single harmonic load flow calculation at the
given Output Frequency (parameter name: fshow) or at the given Harmonic Order (parameter
name: ifshow). A common application for this input mode is the analysis of ripple control systems.
The results of the analysis are shown in the single line diagram, in the same way as for a normal
load flow at the fundamental frequency.

All Frequencies Selecting this option will perform harmonic load flow calculations for all frequen-
cies for which harmonic sources are defined. These frequencies are gathered automatically prior
to the calculation. The results for all frequencies are stored in a result file, which can be used
to create bar chart representations of harmonic indices (see also Section 17.5.2 (Plots)). The
results of the analysis at the given Output Frequency are shown in the single line diagram.

Nominal Frequency, Output Frequency, Harmonic Order

Nominal Frequency The harmonics analysis function in PowerFactory can only calculate har-
monics of AC-systems with identical fundamental frequencies. The relevant nominal frequency
must be entered here (usually 50Hz or 60Hz).

Output Frequency This is the frequency for which results are displayed in the single-line graphic.
In the case of a Single Frequency calculation, this is the frequency for which a harmonic load flow
is calculated. When option All Frequencies is selected, this parameter only affects the display
of results in the single line diagram. It does not influence the calculation itself. In this case, the
results displayed in the single line diagram are for the defined Output Frequency. A change made
to the Output Frequency will cause the Harmonic Order to be automatically changed accordingly.

Harmonic Order This is the same as the Output Frequency but input as the Harmonic Order
(f/fn). The Harmonic Order multiplied by the Nominal Frequency always equals the Output
Frequency. Both floating-point and integer values are valid as inputs. A change made to the
Harmonic Order will cause the Output Frequency to be automatically changed accordingly.

Calculate Flicker

Calculate Flicker When selected, the long- and short-term flicker disturbance factors are calcu-
lated according to IEC standard 61400-21. See Section 23.6 (Flicker Analysis (IEC 61400-21))
for more detailed information.

Calculate Sk at Fundamental Frequency

Calculate Sk at Fundamental Frequency When selected, the short-circuit power, Sk, and
impedance angle, psik, are calculated at the point of common coupling (PCC) for all 3-phase
buses in the network being analysed. This calculation is only performed at the fundamental
frequency. For an unbalanced harmonic load flow, impedance ratios (as described in Sec-
tion 23.7.2.1 (Calculation of Impedance Ratios)) at 3-phase buses are also calculated. See
Section 23.7 (Short-Circuit Power Sk) for more detailed information.

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Result Variables and Load Flow

Result Variables This option is available if Calculate Harmonic Load Flow option All Frequencies
has been selected, and is used to select the target result object for storing the results of the har-
monic load flow. See Section 23.9 (Definition of Result Variables) for more information regarding
specifying and defining result variables.

Load Flow This displays the load flow command used by the calculation. Click on the arrow
button to inspect and/or adjust the load flow command settings.

23.2.2 IEC 61000-3-6

Treatment of Harmonic Sources

The alpha exponent values on this page will only be considered by the harmonic load flow (that is to
say that the calculation will be carried out according to the IEC 61000-3-6 standard [7]) if at least one
harmonic source in the network is defined as IEC 61000 (see Section 23.5.1 (Definition of Harmonic
Injections)). On this page, if According to IEC 61000-3-6 is selected, these tables display the alpha
exponent values as given in the IEC 61000-3-6 standard, as read-only values. If User Defined is
selected, the definition of the alpha exponent values is user-definable in terms of integer and/or non-
integer harmonic orders.

23.2.3 Advanced Options

Calculate HD and THD

Based on fundamental frequency values All values are based on fundamental frequency
values, as defined by various standards. See Section 23.5.3 for mathematical descriptions of
the calculated indices.

Based on rated voltage/current All values are based on the rated voltage/current of the buses
and branches in the network, respectively. See Section 23.5.3 for mathematical descriptions of
the calculated indices.

Max. harmonic order for calculation of THD and THF The harmonic order up to which RMS values
are summed in the calculation of THD and THF.

Calculate Harmonic Factor (HF) The calculation of the harmonic factor is optional as it requires
extra processing time. Leave unticked if performance is critical. See Section 23.5.3 for mathematical
descriptions of the calculated indices.

Calculate R,X at output frequency for all nodes Calculates the impedance for all buses at the defined
output frequency. Leave unticked if performance is critical.

Calculation of Factor-K (BS 7821) for Transformers Exponent used in calculation of factor-K (accord-
ing to BS 7821) for transformers. This exponent depends on the construction of the transformer and is
usually available from the manufacturer. Typical values lie between 1.5 - 1.7.

23.3 Frequency Sweep

To calculate frequency dependent impedances, the impedance characteristic can be computed for a
given frequency range using the Frequency Sweep command (ComFsweep). This function is available
by clicking on the Calculate Frequency Impedance Characteristic icon ( ) available in the Harmonics
toolbar. The harmonic frequency sweep command is shown in Figure 23.3.1.

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Figure 23.3.1: Frequency Sweep Command (ComFsweep)

Harmonic analysis by frequency sweep is normally used for analysing self- and mutual- network impedances.
However, it should be noted that not only self- and mutual-impedances can be analysed and shown. The
voltage source models (ElmVac, ElmVacbi) available in PowerFactory allow the definition of any spectral
density function. Hence, impulse or step responses of any variable can be calculated in the frequency
domain. One common application is the analysis of series resonance problems. The following sections
describe the options available in the harmonic frequency sweep command.

23.3.1 Basic Options

Network Representation

Balanced, positive sequence This option uses a single-phase, positive sequence network rep-
resentation, valid for balanced symmetrical networks. A balanced representation of unbalanced
objects is used.

Unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC) This option uses a full multiple-phase, unbalanced network repre-
sentation.

Impedance Calculation
The frequency sweep will be performed for the frequency range defined by the Start Frequency and
the Stop Frequency, using the given Step Size. The Automatic Step Size Adaptation option allows an
adaptive step size. Enabling this option will normally speed up the calculation, and enhance the level of
detail in the results by automatically using a smaller step size when required. The settings for step size
adaptation can be changed on the Advanced Options tab.

Nominal Frequency, Output Frequency, Harmonic Order

Nominal Frequency This is the fundamental frequency of the system, and the base frequency
for the harmonic orders (usually 50Hz or 60Hz).

Output Frequency This is the frequency for which the results in the single line diagram are
shown. This value has no effect on the actual calculation.

Harmonic Order This is the harmonic order equivalent of the Output Frequency. The Harmonic
Order multiplied by the Nominal Frequency always equals the Output Frequency. Both floating-
point and integer values are valid as inputs.

Result Variables and Load Flow

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Result Variables Used to select the target result object which will store the results of the har-
monic frequency sweep. See Section 23.9 (Definition of Result Variables) for more information
regarding specifying result variables.

Load Flow This displays the load flow command used by the calculation. Click on the arrow
button to inspect and/or adjust the load flow command settings.

The results of PowerFactory ’s frequency sweep analysis are the characteristics of the impedances over
the frequency range.

23.3.2 Advanced Options

Selecting the option Automatic Step Size Adaptation on the Basic Data page of the frequency sweep
command is one way to increase the speed of the calculation. This option enables the use of the step
size adaptation algorithm for the frequency sweep. With this algorithm, the frequency step between two
calculations of all variables is not held constant, but is adapted according to the shape of the sweep.
When no resonances in the impedance occur, the time step can be increased without compromising
accuracy. If the impedance starts to change considerably with the next step, the step size will be reduced
again. The frequency step is set such that the prediction error will conform to the two prediction error
input parameters, as shown below:

Maximum Prediction Error errmax (typical value: 0.01)

Minimum Prediction Error errinc (typical value: 0.005)
Step Size Increase Delay ninc (typically 10 frequency steps)

Calculate R, X at output frequency for all nodes Normally, PowerFactory calculates the equivalent
impedance only at selected nodes. When this option is selected, following the harmonic calculation, the
equivalent impedance is calculated for all nodes.

23.4 Filter Analysis

The Filter Analysis command is a special form of the Output of Results command (ComSh), whose
function is to generate a report. It analyses the results from the previous harmonic load flow and
outputs results to the PowerFactory output window. It outputs a summary of the harmonics for the
terminals/busbars and branch elements at the frequency specified in the Output Frequency field of the
harmonic load flow command. It also reports the parameters and different variables for the installed
filters.

The filter analysis command can be activated using the Filter Analysis button or by using the Output
Calculation Analysis button on the main menu (see also Section 17.2.3: Output of Results). This will
open the same dialogue as that used for the reporting of harmonic results, as displayed in Figure 23.4.1.
This command can alternatively be launched from the single line graphic, after selecting one or more
elements, and right-clicking and selecting Output Data. . . → Results. Results will then be output for
the selected elements. It should be noted that elements should be selected according to the type of
report being generated. This means that for Busbars and Branches only terminals and branches should
be selected, for Busbars/Terminals only terminals should be selected; and for Filter Layout and Filter
Results only shunts should be selected. In the dialogue, the Output Frequency specified in the harmonic
load flow command is displayed in red text (see top of dialogue in Figure 23.4.1).

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Figure 23.4.1: Filter Analysis Report Command (ComSh)

There are four different reports available for selection:

Busbars and Branches This displays the results of the harmonic load flow for all node and branch
elements in the network. The distortion for various electrical variables is printed and summarised.

Busbars/Terminals For the electrical nodes, the rated voltage, the voltage at the calculation frequency,
as well as RMS values and distortion at the nodes are displayed.

Filter Layout The filter layout of all active filters in the network is calculated for the given frequency. The
rated values and impedances of the filter as well as the type and vector group are printed to the output
window. Additionally, the currents through the different components are shown, as are the losses.

Filter Results The filter results show the main layout of all filters in the network for the calculation
frequency. For a set of frequencies, the voltages and currents through the filter are tabulated.

Use Selection Results will only be reported for elements defined in a selection. A selection of elements
can be defined by selecting them either in the single line graphic or in the Data Manager, right-clicking
and choosing Define. . . → General Set. This General Set then exists in the Study Case and can be
selected when the Use Selection option is activated.

The default format used for the report in the output window is defined in the Used Format section on the
second page ( )of the dialog and can be set or changed by clicking on the Filter Layout arrow button
.

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23.5 Modelling Harmonic Sources

Every switched device produces harmonics and should therefore be modelled as a harmonic source. In
PowerFactory , harmonic sources can be either current sources or voltage sources. The following mod-
els can be used to generate harmonics (the PowerFactory element names are given in parentheses):

• General loads (ElmLod);

• Thyristor rectifiers (ElmRec, ElmRecmono);
• PWM-converters (ElmVsc, ElmVscmono), which can be modelled as sources of harmonic volt-
ages or harmonic currents;

• AC voltage sources (ElmVac, ElmVacbi), which may also be used for ripple control applications;
• AC current sources (ElmIac, ElmIacbi);
• Static generators (ElmGenstat);

• Static var systems (ElmSvs);

• External grids (ElmXnet);
• Synchronous machines (ElmSym).

See Section 23.5.1 (Definition of Harmonic Injections) for information on how to define harmonic injec-
tions for these sources.

Note: Harmonic injections can be modelled in EMT simulations using the Fourier source object. For
further details please refer to the Technical References in Appendix C.

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23.5.1 Definition of Harmonic Injections

Element Definition of Harmonics Remarks

General load Harmonic Sources type Must be defined as a Current Source on
(ElmLod) (TypHmccur ) the Harmonics/Power Quality page of the
load’s assigned Type
Thyristor rectifier ”
(ElmRec, ElmRecmono)
PWM-converter ”
(ElmVsc, ElmVscmono)
AC current source ”
(ElmIac, ElmIacbi)
Static generator ”
(ElmGenstat)
Static var system ”
(ElmSvs)
External grid On Harmonics/Power
(ElmXnet) Quality page of element
itself
AC voltage source On Harmonics/Power
(ElmVac, ElmVacbi) Quality page of element
itself
Synchronous machine Harmonic voltages type Must be defined as either a Thevenin
(ElmSym) (TypHmcvolt) Equivalent or Ideal Voltage Source on the
Harmonics/Power Quality page of the ele-
ment itself

Table 23.5.1: Summary of Harmonic Definitions

When defining the spectrum via the Harmonic Sources type object, the harmonic infeeds can be entered
according to one of three options: Balanced, Phase Correct or Unbalanced, Phase Correct (shown
in Figures 23.5.1 and 23.5.2, respectively), or IEC 61000 (shown in Figure 23.5.3). The Harmonic
Sources object is a PowerFactory ’type’ object, which means that it may be used by many elements
who have the same basic type. Multiple current source loads may, for example, use the same Harmonic
Sources object. Note that PowerFactory has no corresponding element for this type.

Phase Correct Harmonic Sources

For the Balanced, Phase Correct harmonic sources option, in both balanced and unbalanced harmonic
load flows, the magnitudes and phases of positive and negative sequence harmonic injections at integer
harmonic orders can be defined, as shown in Figure 23.5.1.

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Figure 23.5.1: Balanced, Phase Correct Harmonic Sources Type (TypHmccur )

For the Unbalanced, Phase Correct harmonic sources option, the magnitudes and phases of positive
and negative sequence harmonic injections at integer and non-integer harmonic orders can be defined,
as shown in Figure 23.5.2. In the case of a balanced harmonic load flow, harmonic injections in the zero
sequence are not considered, and harmonic injections at non-integer harmonic orders are considered
in the positive sequence. In the case of an unbalanced harmonic load flow, harmonic injections in the
zero sequence and at non-integer harmonic orders are considered appropriately. See Table 23.5.3 for
a complete summary.

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Figure 23.5.2: Unbalanced, Phase Correct Harmonic Sources Type (TypHmccur )

IEC 61000 Harmonic Sources

The IEC 61000-3-6 standard [7] describes a “second summation law”, applicable to both voltage and
current, which is described mathematically as:
⎯
⎸ 𝑁
⎸ ∑︁
𝑈ℎ = ⎷𝛼
𝑈ℎ,𝑚 𝛼 (23.1)
𝑚=0

where 𝑈ℎ is the resultant harmonic voltage magnitude for the considered aggregation of 𝑁 sources at
order ℎ, and 𝛼 is the exponent as given in Table 23.5.2 [7].

The Harmonic Sources type set to option IEC 61000 (as shown in Figure 23.5.3) allows the definition of
integer and non-integer harmonic current magnitude injections. In the case of balanced and unbalanced
harmonic load flows, zero sequence order injections and non-integer harmonic injections are considered
in the positive sequence. This is summarised in Table 23.5.3. It should be noted that in order to execute
an harmonic load flow according to IEC 61000-3-6, at least one harmonic source in the network
must be defined as IEC 61000 (i.e. as shown in Figure 23.5.3).

Alpha Exponent Value Harmonic Order

1 ℎ<5
1.4 5 <= ℎ <= 10
2 ℎ > 10

Table 23.5.2: IEC 61000-3-6 Summation Exponents According to Harmonic Order

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Figure 23.5.3: IEC 61000 Harmonic Sources Type (TypHmccur )

Table 23.5.4 describes the consideration of the sequence components of the harmonic orders for the
AC voltage source (ElmVac, ElmVacbi), external grid (ElmXnet) and synchronous machine (ElmSym).

Additionally, the voltage source allows the following to be input for use in the Frequency Sweep calcula-
tion:

• Spectral density of voltage magnitude;

• Spectral density of voltage angle;
• Frequency dependencies (in the form of a Frequency Polynomial Characteristic). See Section 23.5.4
(Frequency Dependent Parameters) and Chapter 16 (Parameter Characteristics,
Load States, and Tariffs) for further details.

Background Harmonics

PowerFactory facilitates the modelling of background harmonics. This is done using either the external
grid element (ElmXnet) or the AC voltage source element (ElmVac, ElmVacbi), on their respective
Harmonics/Power Quality pages. If only the harmonic voltage amplitude is known (and not the angle),
the IEC 61000 option can be selected. Table 23.5.4 describes the consideration of the sequence
components of the harmonic orders for the AC voltage source and external grid.

Selection of Type of Harmonic Sources

The Harmonic Sources object (TypHmccur ) is independent of the whether the harmonic source is
either a voltage source or a current source. The decision as to whether harmonic sources are fed
into the system as harmonic voltages or as harmonic currents is made exclusively by the element to
which the Harmonic Sources object is assigned. The consideration by the calculation of the sequence
components of harmonic injections is given in Table 23.5.3.

Magnitudes and Phase Values

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The quantities of the spectrum type are rated to current/voltage at the fundamental frequency in the
balanced case. Hence, in the case of a harmonic current source, the actual harmonic current at
frequency 𝑓ℎ is calculated by:

𝐼 ℎ = 𝑘ℎ · 𝑒Δ𝜙ℎ · 𝐼1 · 𝑒𝜙1 (23.2)

where ⎧
⎪
⎪ 𝐼ℎ /𝐼1 if balanced
⎪
𝐼𝑎ℎ /𝐼𝑎1 if unbalanced phase a
⎨
𝑘ℎ = (23.3)
⎪
⎪
⎪ 𝐼𝑏ℎ /𝐼𝑏1 if unbalanced phase b
⎩
𝐼𝑐ℎ /𝐼𝑐1 if unbalanced phase c

⎧
⎪
⎪ 𝜙ℎ − 𝜙1 if balanced
⎪
𝜙𝑎ℎ − 𝜙𝑎1 if unbalanced phase a
⎨
∆𝜙ℎ = (23.4)
⎪ 𝜙𝑏ℎ − 𝜙𝑏1
⎪ if unbalanced phase b
⎪
⎩
𝜙𝑐ℎ − 𝜙𝑐1 if unbalanced phase c

The values at the fundamental frequency, 𝐼1 and 𝜙1 , are taken from a preceding load flow calculation.
A normal load flow calculation is therefore required prior to a harmonic load flow calculation.

In the case of balanced systems in which only characteristic harmonics of orders 5, 7, 11, 13, 17,
etc. occur, the option Balanced, Phase Correct should be selected in the Type of Harmonics Sources
section (as shown in Figure 23.5.1). In this context, ’Balanced’ refers to characteristic harmonics. In the
balanced case, the harmonic frequencies are determined by the program (note that in the unbalanced
case, the harmonic frequencies can be freely-defined).

For harmonic sources which produce non-characteristic, unbalanced or inter-harmonics, the option Un-
balanced, Phase Correct should be set in the Type of Harmonics Sources section. In the Unbalanced,
Phase Correct case, the harmonic frequency, magnitude and phase angle of each phase can be chosen
individually for each harmonic frequency. This mode therefore caters for every possible kind of harmonic
source.

The problem commonly arises as to how one can represent the harmonic content in a system which
differs to the native modal system (positive, negative or zero sequence system). The following example
illustrates how to represent the 3rd harmonic in a positive or negative sequence system (as opposed to
the native zero sequence system).

In the symmetrical case, the phase shift between the three phases is:

𝐴 : 0∘
𝐵 : −120∘
𝐶 : +120∘ (−240∘ )

For harmonics of order 𝑛:

𝐴 : 0∘
𝐵 : −𝑛 * 120∘
𝐶 : +𝑛 * 120∘

Taking the 3rd harmonic as an example:

𝐴 : 0∘ (= 0∘ )
𝐵 : −360∘ (= 0∘ )
𝐶 : +360∘ (= 0∘ )

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Consequently, the 3rd harmonic in the ideally balanced case is only in the zero sequence component,
as their native modal system. For representing 3rd harmonics (and multiples thereof) in the positive
sequence system, the following phase correction needs to be entered:

𝐴 : 0∘
𝐵 : +(𝑛 − 1) * 120∘
𝐶 : −(𝑛 − 1) * 120∘

Again taking the 3rd harmonic as an example:

𝐴 : 0∘ (= 0∘ )
𝐵 : −360∘ + 240∘ (= −120∘ )
𝐶 : +360∘ − 240∘ (= +120∘ )

Harmonic Harmonic Current Sequence Components of Harmonic Injections

Load Flow Source Type
Command
Setting

Balanced Balanced, • Positive (i.e. 4, 7, 10, ...), negative (i.e. 2, 5, 8, ...);

Phase Correct
• Integer orders only.

Unbalanced, • Positive, negative;

Phase Correct
• Triplen harmonics (i.e. 3, 6, 9, ...) are ignored and non-
integer harmonic orders (i.e. 5.5, 6.2, 8.35, ...) are in the
positive sequence.

IEC 61000 • Positive, negative;

• Triplen harmonics and non-integer harmonics are in the

positive sequence.

Unbalanced Balanced,
• As for balanced harmonic load flow.
Phase Correct

Unbalanced, • Positive, negative, zero;

Phase Correct
• Integer and non-integer harmonics.

IEC 61000
• As for balanced harmonic load flow.

Table 23.5.3: Consideration of Sequence Components of Harmonic Injections for TypHmccur

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Harmonic ElmVac/ElmXnet/ Sequence Components of Harmonic Injections

Load Flow ElmSym Setting
Command
Setting

Balanced
Phase Correct • Positive (i.e. 4, 7, 10, ...), negative (i.e. 2, 5, 8, ...);
• Non-integer harmonic orders (i.e. 5.5, 6.2, 8.35, ...) are
considered in the positive sequence.
• Triplen harmonics (i.e. 3, 6, 9, ...) are ignored (with
warning).

IEC 61000 • Positive, negative;

• Triplen harmonics and non-integer harmonics are in the
positive sequence.

Unbalanced
Phase Correct • Positive, negative, zero;
• Non-integer harmonics are considered.

IEC 61000
• As for balanced harmonic load flow.

Table 23.5.4: Consideration of Sequence Components of Harmonic Injections for AC Voltage Source,
External Grid and Synchronous Machine

23.5.2 Assignment of Harmonic Injections

The assignment of harmonic injections to the following elements is done via the individual element’s
dialogue on the Harmonics page. This is illustrated in Figure 23.5.4 for the case of a general load.

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Figure 23.5.4: Assignment of Harmonic Current Source to a Load Element (ElmLod)

Harmonic Currents Used to select and display the assigned Harmonic Sources type (TypHmccur ).

Type of Harmonic Sources Displays the type of harmonic source selected in the assigned Harmonic
Sources type (TypHmccur ).

Harmonic current referred to For phase correct sources, the harmonic current may be referred to
either the fundamental current or the rated current. If the harmonic current source type has been
selected to be IEC 61000, the harmonic current is always referred to the rated current and this option is
read-only.

Harmonic injections defined for external grids (ElmXnet) and voltage sources (ElmVac, ElmVacbi) are
implicitly assigned, as they are defined on the elements’ respective Harmonics pages. No further
assignment is therefore necessary. See Section 23.5.1 (Definition of Harmonic Injections) for further
information.

23.5.3 Harmonics Indices

The Harmonic Load Flow calculation in PowerFactory yields a vast number of results for network ele-
ments. In this section, some of the more prominent harmonic indices are described mathematically.
They are described here in terms of current, but may be identically described for voltage by substituting
𝑉 for 𝐼 in all cases. It should be noted that the reference value used in the equations depends upon the
user selection in the Harmonic Load Flow command dialogue (as described in Section 23.2.3). The two
possible options are:
(i) based on fundamental frequency values:

𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 = |𝐼1 | (23.5)

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or (ii) based on rated voltage/current:

𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 = |𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 | (23.6)
The harmonic distortion (HD) of a waveform describes the individual harmonic contribution and is
described in terms of current by:
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ
𝐻𝐷𝐼 = (23.7)
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓
where 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ is the RMS value of the waveform at harmonic order ℎ.

The harmonic factor (HF) is a measure of the individual harmonic contribution and is calculated accord-
ing to:
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ
𝐻𝐹𝐼 = √︁∑︀ (23.8)
𝑛 2
ℎ=1 (𝐼 𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ
)
where 𝑛 is the highest order for which harmonic injections have been defined. The total harmonic
distortion (THD) is the most common harmonic index, and describes the total harmonic distortion of a
current waveform as follows: √︁∑︀
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
ℎ=2 (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ )
𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝐼 = (23.9)
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓
where ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the user-specified maximum harmonic order up to which should be included the calcu-
lation of THD. This is the parameter Max. harmonic order for calculation of THD and THF available
in the harmonic load flow command dialogue, and is explained further in Section 23.2.3. The total
harmonic factor (THF) is based on RMS values and is calculated as:
⎯
⎸ ∑︀ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
⎸ (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ )
𝑇 𝐻𝐹𝐼 = ⎷ ∑︀ℎ=2
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
(23.10)
ℎ=1 (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ )

The total arithmetic distortion (TAD) is calculated as:

1
𝑇 𝐴𝐷𝐼 = · [𝐼Σ𝐴 − |𝐼1 |] (23.11)
|𝐼1 |

where |𝐼1 | is the magnitude of the current at the fundamental frequency, and the arithmetic sum value
is given by:
𝑛
∑︁
𝐼Σ𝐴 = |𝐼ℎ | (23.12)
ℎ=1

where ℎ is the harmonic order and 𝑛 is the highest order for which harmonic injections have been
defined.

The total power (TP) describes the power absorbed over all frequency components, as shown in:
𝑛
∑︁
𝑇𝑃 = 𝑃ℎ (23.13)
ℎ=1

where ℎ is the harmonic order and 𝑛 is the highest order for which harmonic injections have been
defined.

In addition, the following THD variables are provided (note that for the corresponding TAD variables,
similar definitions apply):

THDbal, excluding zero sequence:

√︀
𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇 𝐻𝐷12 + 𝑇 𝐻𝐷22 (23.14)

THDtot, including zero sequence:

√︀
𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑇 𝐻𝐷12 + 𝑇 𝐻𝐷22 + 𝑇 𝐻𝐷02 (23.15)

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THDmx, maximum of phase values:

𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑇 𝐻𝐷:𝐴, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷:𝐵, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷:𝐶, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷:𝑁 ] (23.16)

THDint, only considers integer harmonic orders; maximum of phase values:

𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐴, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐵, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐶, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝑁 ] (23.17)

THDnint, only considers non-integer harmonic orders; maximum of phase values:

𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐴, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐵, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐶, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝑁 ] (23.18)

THD_2, only considers even harmonic orders; maximum of phase values:

𝑇 𝐻𝐷_2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐴, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐵, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐶, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝑁 ] (23.19)

THD_3, only considers triplen harmonic orders; maximum of phase values:

𝑇 𝐻𝐷_3 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐴, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐵, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐶, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝑁 ] (23.20)

It should be noted that for networks containing IEC 61000 harmonic current sources, result variables for
the voltage angle and current angle are not applicable (as the angles cannot be known). Additionally,
the following result variables are available:

• ku, ki: Voltage and current diversity factors, respectively (always ’1’ for networks containing only
phase correct sources). The voltage diversity factor is shown in (23.21):

𝑈ℎ2
𝑘𝑢 = (23.21)
(Σ|𝑈 |)2

where 𝑈ℎ is the IEC 61000 harmonic voltage magnitude as defined in (23.1) and |𝑈 | is the voltage
magnitude.
• HD, THD and TAD for non-integer harmonic orders.

23.5.4 Frequency Dependent Parameters

Due to the skin effect and variations in internal inductance, resistances and inductances are usually
frequency dependent. This can be modelled in PowerFactory by associating a “frequency character-
istic” with these quantities. Two types of characteristic may be used: either a Frequency Polynomial
Characteristic (ChaPol) as illustrated in Figure 23.5.5, or a user-defined frequency table (TriFreq and
ChaVec). These kinds of characteristics are then assigned via the Harmonics/Power Quality page of
the corresponding element’s dialogue, as illustrated by the example in Figure 23.5.6 for a line type.

Figure 23.5.5: The Frequency Polynomial Characteristic (ChaPol)

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For the frequency polynomial characteristic object illustrated in Figure 23.5.5, the formula given by
(23.22) is used:

𝑓ℎ 𝑏
𝑦(𝑓ℎ ) = (1 − 𝑎) + 𝑎 · ( ) (23.22)
𝑓1

The parameters a and b are specified in the Frequency Polynomial Characteristic dialogue. Variable y
is usually expressed as a percentage of the corresponding input parameters. For example, the resulting
line resistance is given by (23.23):

𝑅(𝑓ℎ ) = 𝑅 · 𝑦(𝑓ℎ ) (23.23)

An example of the use of the polynomial characteristic for a line type is shown in Figure 23.5.6.

Figure 23.5.6: Frequency Dependencies in a Line Type

It is also possible to define frequency dependent characteristics using a vectorial parameter character-
istic (ChaVec). An example for a grid impedance defined with a vectorial parameter characteristic is
shown in Figure 23.5.7.

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Figure 23.5.7: Frequency Dependent Grid Impedance as Vectorial Characteristic (ChaVec)

The following objects can have frequency dependent parameters defined using a frequency character-
istic:

• Line type (TypLne)

• Asynchronous machine type (TypAsmo)

• Synchronous machine type (TypSym)

• Shunt/filter (ElmShnt)
• AC voltage source (ElmVac)

• AC voltage source - two terminals (ElmVacbi)

• AC current source (ElmIac)
• AC current source - two terminals (ElmIacbi)
• NEC/NER (ElmNec)

• Complex load (TypLodind)

• 2-W transformer (TypTr2)
• 3-W transformer (TypTr3)

Lines represented by a tower type (TypTow) are automatically assigned a harmonic characteristic. The
same applies to cables using the detailed cable representation type (TypTow).

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23.5.5 Waveform Plot

The waveform plot is used to display the waveform of a voltage or a current following a harmonic load
flow calculation. The harmonics are typically emitted by a harmonic voltage or current source, as
described in Section 23.5 (Modelling Harmonic Sources).

In this plot, a waveform is generated using the magnitude and phase angle of the harmonic frequencies.
With this diagram, a variable such as the voltage or current, which is defined in a harmonic source (i.e.
a power electronic device or a load), can be easily shown as a time-dependent variable. This way the
real shape of the voltage can be seen and analysed. An example plot of harmonic distortion is shown
in Figure 23.5.8.

Figure 23.5.8: Use of the Waveform Plot to display Harmonic Distortion

For a more detailed description of this type of plot, see Section 17.5.7 (The Waveform Plot). For other
types of plots, it should be noted that as the results of the discrete harmonic analysis are discrete,
the plots generated from the result file should have the Bars option enabled. To do this, open the
subplot dialogue by double-clicking on a subplot, going to the Advanced tab, and selecting Bars in the
Presentation frame.

23.6 Flicker Analysis (IEC 61400-21)

The IEC standard 61400-21 [14] describes the measurement and assessment of power quality charac-
teristics of grid connected wind turbine generators (WTGs). One of these power quality characteristic
parameters pertains to voltage fluctuations. Voltage fluctuations can produce undesirable effects on the
consumer side which may manifest as ’flicker’ (visible flickering effects from light sources), and voltage
changes (voltage magnitude being too high or too low).

In the assessment of a WTG’s power quality in terms of voltage fluctuations, the operation of WTGs

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can be subdivided into two modes: continuous operation and switching operations (see Sections 23.6.1
(Continuous Operation) and 23.6.2 (Switching Operations) for definitions). These modes of operation
are considered by the PowerFactory flicker calculation, which calculates the short-term and long-term
flicker disturbance factors. See Section 23.6.6 (Flicker Result Variables) for a list of the flicker result
variables available. The calculation of flicker is performed optionally as part of the harmonic load flow
command. For a detailed description of how to configure and execute a harmonic load flow, including
the calculation of flicker, refer to Section 41.4.1 (Basic Options).

23.6.1 Continuous Operation

Continuous operation is defined in IEC standard 61400-21 as the normal operation of the wind turbine
generator (WTG) excluding start-up and shut-down operations. The short-term and long-term flicker
disturbance factors during continuous operation are defined in [14] as:

𝑆𝑛
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃𝑙𝑡 = 𝑐(𝜓𝑘 ,𝑣𝑎 ) · (23.24)
𝑆𝑘

where 𝑃𝑠𝑡 is the short-term flicker disturbance factor; 𝑃𝑙𝑡 is the long-term flicker disturbance factor; 𝑐 is
the flicker coefficient for continuous operation; 𝜓𝑘 is the network impedance angle (degrees); 𝑣𝑎 is the
average annual wind speed (m/s); 𝑆𝑛 is the rated apparent power of the wind turbine (VA); and 𝑆𝑘 is the
short-circuit apparent power of the grid (VA).

When more than one WTG exists at the point of common coupling (PCC), the summed short-term and
long-term flicker disturbance factors for continuous operation are described in [14] as:

⎯
⎸𝑁𝑤𝑡
1 ⎸ ∑︁
⎷ (𝑐(𝜓 ,𝑣 ) · 𝑆 )2
𝑃𝑠𝑡Σ = 𝑃𝑙𝑡Σ = 𝑘 𝑎 𝑛,𝑖 (23.25)
𝑆𝑘 𝑖=1

where 𝑁𝑤𝑡 is the number of wind turbine generators at the PCC.

23.6.2 Switching Operations

Switching operations are defined in IEC standard 61400-21 as start-up or switching between wind
turbine generators (WTGs). In this mode of operation, the short-term and long-term flicker disturbance
factors during switching operations are defined in [14] as:

𝑆𝑛
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 18 · 𝑁10 0.31 · 𝑘𝑓 (𝜓𝑘 ) · (23.26)
𝑆𝑘

where 𝑁10 is the number of switching operations in a 10-minute period; 𝑘𝑓 is the flicker step factor; 𝜓𝑘
is the network impedance angle (degrees); 𝑆𝑛 is the rated apparent power of the wind turbine (VA); and
𝑆𝑘 is the short-circuit apparent power of the grid (VA).

𝑆𝑛
𝑃𝑙𝑡 = 8 · 𝑁120 0.31 · 𝑘𝑓 (𝜓𝑘 ) · (23.27)
𝑆𝑘

where 𝑁120 is the number of switching operations in a 120-minute period; 𝑘𝑓 is the flicker step factor;
𝜓𝑘 is the network impedance angle (degrees); 𝑆𝑛 is the rated apparent power of the wind turbine (VA);
and 𝑆𝑘 is the short-circuit apparent power of the grid (VA).

When more than one WTG exists at the PCC, the short-term flicker disturbance factor under switching
operations is defined in [14] as:

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[︂ 𝑁𝑤𝑡 ]︂0.31
18 ∑︁ 3.2
𝑃𝑠𝑡Σ = 𝑁10,𝑖 · (𝑘𝑓,𝑖 (𝜓𝑘 ) · 𝑆𝑛,𝑖 ) (23.28)
𝑆𝑘 𝑖=1

Likewise, the long-term flicker disturbance factor under switching operations is defined as:

[︂ 𝑁𝑤𝑡 ]︂0.31
8 ∑︁
𝑃𝑙𝑡Σ = 𝑁120,𝑖 · (𝑘𝑓,𝑖 (𝜓𝑘 ) · 𝑆𝑛,𝑖 )3.2 (23.29)
𝑆𝑘 𝑖=1

where 𝑁𝑤𝑡 is the number of WTGs at the PCC.

The relative voltage change (in units of %) due to the switching operation of a single WTG is computed
as [14]:

𝑆𝑛
𝑑 = 100 · (𝑘𝑢 (𝜓𝑘 ) · (23.30)
𝑆𝑘

23.6.3 Flicker Contribution of Wind Turbine Generator Models

The calculation of flicker according to IEC standard 61400-21 in PowerFactory considers flicker contri-
butions of the following generator models:

• Static generator (ElmGenstat)

• Asynchronous machine (ElmAsm)

• Doubly-fed asynchronous machine (ElmAsmsc)

In order for these models to be able to contribute flicker, their flicker contributions must first be defined
and assigned, as described in Sections 23.6.4 (Definition of Flicker Coefficients) and 23.6.5 (Assign-
ment of Flicker Coefficients).

23.6.4 Definition of Flicker Coefficients

Flicker coefficients are defined in PowerFactory by means of the Flicker Coefficients type (TypFlicker ),
as illustrated in Figure 23.6.1. When created, this is stored by default in the Equipment Type Library
folder in the project tree.

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Figure 23.6.1: Definition of Flicker Coefficients using the Flicker Coefficients Type (TypFlicker )

The Flicker Coefficients type allows the input of six parameters (all of which are defined in IEC standard
61400-21):

Network Angle, psi (degrees) This is the network impedance angle and must be entered in either the
range [-180,180] (default), or [0,360]. Any mix of these ranges is not permitted. Network angles must
be entered in ascending order.
Coefficient, c(psi) The flicker coefficient as a function of the network impedance angle.
Step Factor, kf(psi) The flicker step factor as a function of the network impedance angle.
Voltage Change Factor, ku(psi) The voltage change factor as a function of the network impedance
angle.
Maximum Switching Operations: N10 The maximum number of switching operations in a 10-minute
period.
Maximum Switching Operations: N120 The maximum number of switching operations in a 120-minute
period.

23.6.5 Assignment of Flicker Coefficients

The Harmonics page of these elements’ dialogues contains a Flicker Contribution section which allows
the assignment of Flicker Coefficients. This is illustrated for the case of an asynchronous machine in
Figure 23.6.2.

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Figure 23.6.2: Assignment of Flicker Coefficients in an Asynchronous Machine (ElmAsm)

If Flicker Coefficients is left unassigned, the generator is then considered to be an ideal source for the
flicker calculation, as illustrated in Figure 23.6.3.

Figure 23.6.3: Asynchronous Generator (ElmAsm) Model as Ideal Source

23.6.6 Flicker Result Variables

Following the calculation of flicker according to IEC 61400-21, the following result variables for every
node in the network are available in the single line graphic. It should be noted that PowerFactory
calculates these flicker disturbance factors and relative voltage change for impedance angles with lines
at 20 degrees Celsius and at maximum operation temperature. The following result variables are the
worst-case values in the impedance angle range, which is based on the temperature range:

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• Pst_cont; Plt_cont: short-term and long-term flicker disturbance factors for continuous operation
of the wind turbine generator/s;
• Pst_sw; Plt_sw: short-term and long-term flicker disturbance factors for switching operations of
the wind turbine generator/s;
• d_sw: relative voltage change (as a percentage).

For the mathematical definitions of these result variables, refer to Sections 23.6.1 (Continuous Opera-
tion) and 23.6.2 (Switching Operations).

23.7 Short-Circuit Power Sk

For power quality assessment, the network impedance of the grid under normal operating conditions is
usually used as the basis for calculations. This impedance is represented by the short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘,
of the grid. Hence, for power quality assessment at a point V in the grid, this short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘𝑉 ,
under normal operating conditions is used instead of the short-circuit power of the faulted grid according
to short-circuit calculations. If the Harmonic Load Flow command option Calculate Sk at Fundamental
Frequency is enabled (see Section 41.4.1 (Basic Options)), the short-circuit power of the grid under
normal operation is available in the calculation results.

23.7.1 Balanced Harmonic Load Flow

For the balanced harmonic load flow, the calculation of the short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘, at each bus is as
follows:
1
𝑆𝑘 = (MVA) (23.31)
|𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 |
where 𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 is the impedance calculated at the bus.

The calculation of the impedance angle, 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑘, at each bus is as follows:

𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑘 = ̸ 𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 (degrees) (23.32)

where 𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 is the impedance calculated at the bus.

23.7.2 Unbalanced Harmonic Load Flow

For the unbalanced harmonic load flow, the calculation of the short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘, at each bus is as
follows:
1
𝑆𝑘 = (MVA) (23.33)
|𝑍1𝑏𝑢𝑠 |
where 𝑍1𝑏𝑢𝑠 is the positive sequence impedance calculated at the bus.

The calculation of the impedance angle, 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑘, at each bus is calculated as follows:

𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑘 = ̸ 𝑍1𝑏𝑢𝑠 (degrees) (23.34)

where 𝑍1𝑏𝑢𝑠 is the positive sequence impedance calculated at the bus.

23.7.2.1 Calculation of Impedance Ratios

The following impedance ratios are calculated following an unbalanced harmonic load flow (if option
Calculate Sk at Fundamental Frequency has been selected):

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 23.7. SHORT-CIRCUIT POWER SK

|𝑍2|
𝑧2𝑡𝑧1𝑘𝑉 = (23.35)
|𝑍1|
𝑋0
𝑥0𝑡𝑥1𝑘𝑉 = (23.36)
𝑋1
𝑅0
𝑟0𝑡𝑥0𝑘𝑉 = (23.37)
𝑋0

23.7.3 Sk Result Variables

Following either a balanced or an unbalanced harmonic load flow calculation with the option Calculate
Sk at Fundamental Frequency selected, the following result variables are available for every 3-phase
bus in the network:

• SkV : short-circuit power (MVA)

• psikV : impedance angle (degrees)

For the mathematical definitions of these result variables, refer to Section 23.7.1 (Balanced Harmonic
Load Flow), and 23.7.2 (Unbalanced Harmonic Load Flow).

Following an unbalanced harmonic load flow with the option Calculate Sk at Fundamental Frequency
selected, the following additional result variables are available for every 3-phase bus in the network:

• z2tz1kV : Impedance ratio

• x0tx1kV : Impedance ratio

• r0tx0kV : Impedance ratio

For the mathematical definitions of these impedance ratio result variables, refer to Section 23.7.2.1
(Calculation of Impedance Ratios).

23.7.4 Short-Circuit Power of the External Grid

The external grid element, ElmXnet, allows the calculation of the network impedance to be based on
the short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘, and impedance angle, 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑘. This option can be selected in the external
grid element on the Harmonics/Power Quality page, by using the Use for calculation drop-down box
and selecting Sk. User input fields are then available for the short-circuit power, Sk (MVA), impedance
angle, psik (deg), and impedance ratios z2tz1kV, x0tx1kV, and r0tx0kV.

The impedance of the external grid, which is taken into account for power quality assessment, is
calculated internally based on either the short-circuit power, Sk, at normal operation; the maximum
short-circuit power, Sk”max for faulted operation; or the minimum short-circuit power Sk”min for faulted
operation, depending on the user’s selection.

Data for input parameters (SkV, psikV, z2tz1kV, x0tx1kV, and r0tx0kV ) can first be calculated from a
detailed network model using the Harmonic Load Flow command option Calculate Sk at Fundamental
Frequency (refer to Section 23.7.3 (Sk Result Variables)), performed, for example, by the network
operator. A third party, (i.e. a wind farm planner) could get this information for the point of common
coupling (PCC for the planned wind farm) from the network operator. The planner can then enter the
data into the external grid element, which is a simplified representation of the network as seen from the
PCC.

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23.8 Connection Request

For power quality assessment, PowerFactory offers a Connection Request Assessment command (
ComConreq) and corresponding element ( ElmConreq). The Connection Request Assessment
command, in conjunction with the Connection Request element, facilitates the execution of a power
quality assessment according to the Method selected in the command.

23.8.1 Connection Request Assessment: D-A-CH-CZ

The selection of D-A-CH-CZ as the Method in the Connection Request Assessment command carries
out a power quality assessment according to [13] and [15]. These standards consider the following
aspects of power quality for 50Hz networks, operating at low-voltage (LV), medium-voltage (MV) or
high-voltage (HV) levels:

• Voltage changes and flicker

• Voltage unbalance

• Harmonics
• Commutation notches
• Interharmonic voltages

The following assumptions apply to PowerFactory ’s Connection Request Assessment according to D-

A-CH-CZ:

• All customer installations are either loads or motors;

• Calculations are valid for 50Hz networks only;

• The PCC is the busbar to which the Connection Request element is connected;
• Each Connection Request element is assessed independently from all other Connection Request
elements;

• The short-circuit power, Sk, is calculated using a line/cable temperature of 70 ∘ C for LV networks,
and 20 ∘ C for MV and HV networks.
• For the calculation of flicker, voltage changes are regular and rectangular;
• For the calculation of flicker, Plt=Pst (i.e. 2h observation period);

• Classifications of voltage levels (LV, MV and HV) are strictly according to [13] and [15]. Dialog
options pertaining to HV networks are only available for Connection Request elements which are
connected to a HV PCC.

23.8.1.1 Basic Options

Method

According to D-A-CH-CZ Assesses network disturbances according to [13] and [15].

Calculations

All calculations are carried out according to the selection of Method described above.

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Voltage changes and flicker Calculates the voltage change, d and flicker severity Pst, Plt at the
point of common coupling, and assesses these according to appropriate limits. For the calculation
of flicker, voltage changes are assumed to be regular and rectangular.

Voltage unbalance Calculates the voltage unbalance factor, kU, and assesses this according to
appropriate limits.

Harmonics Assesses the harmonic content based on user input in the Connection Request
element, and makes an assessment according to appropriate limits. For HV networks, the
consideration of resonances is optional.

Commutation notches Calculates the relative short-circuit voltage of the commutation reac-
tance, ukkom. It should be noted that no approval status is provided following the Commutation
Notches calculation, but instead a recommendation.

Interharmonic voltages For LV and MV networks, assesses the effect of user-defined inter-
harmonic voltages in the flicker critical range and on the ripple control frequency. For LV and
MV networks, limits are taken from EN 61000-2-2. For HV networks, assesses the user-defined
harmonic load and user-defined interharmonic voltages against appropriate limits.

Resonances (HV Networks only)

Consideration of resonances Selection of either no consideration of resonances or approxi-

mate consideration of the first parallel resonance point. It should be noted that limits for reso-
nances are not a criteria for the assessment, but are output as information.

Grid contains mostly Selection of either cables or overhead lines. Used in the selection of the
resonance factor, 𝑘𝑣 (as defined in [15]), which is also dependent upon the harmonic order. It
should be noted that the highest resonance factors within the ranges stated in [15] are chosen.

Calculation of emission limits Calculates the emission limits according to either the simplified
method or the general (detailed) method, as defined in [15].

Operation Scenario An Operation Scenario may be optionally specified for the calculation of the
actual short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑘𝑡 . This scenario should represent the typical network operation
(switching status, etc), and must yield an actual short-circuit power such that 𝑆𝑘𝑉 <= 𝑆𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑘𝑡 .
This implies that the network in its state at the time of execution of the Connection Request com-
mand will produce a worst-case short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘𝑉 . The Connection Request command
will then appropriately activate the specified scenario and deactivate it following the calculation of
𝑆𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑘𝑡 . If no scenario is specified, it is assumed that 𝑆𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑘𝑡 = 𝑆𝑘𝑉 .

23.8.1.2 Outputs

Report

Prints a Connection Request Assessment summary report in PowerFactory ’s output window.

23.8.2 Connection Request Element

The Connection Request element ( ElmConreq) allows the input of data for a network user instal-
lation. It should be noted that data input applies to network installations comprising loads and motors
only.

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23.8.2.1 Basic Data

Connected load, Sa The apparent power (kVA) for which the installation of the network user is
defined.

23.8.2.2 D-A-CH-CZ

Voltage changes and flicker

Input mode Selection of mode of data input.

Apparent power change, dSa Apparent power change (kVA) for devices and installations,
relevant to the assessment of network disturbances.

Angle, phi The angle (degrees) of the installation of the network user.

Displacement factor, cos(phi) The quotient of the active power and the apparent power, relative
to the fundamental voltage and current.

Active power change, dPa Active power change (kW) for devices and installations, relevant to
the assessment of network disturbances.

Reactive power change, dQa Reactive power change (kvar) for devices and installations, rele-
vant to the assessment of network disturbances.

Rated voltage, Ur The rated voltage (V) of the motor. Applicable only when Input Mode is set to
Motor Data.

Rated current, Ir The rated current (A) of the motor. Applicable only when Input Mode is set to
Motor Data.

Starting current ratio, Ia/Ir The ratio of the motor starting current (A) to the motor rated current
(A). Valid range is [3-8]. Applicable only when Input Mode is set to Motor Data.

Load technology The type of connection of the user installation (3PH, 1PH PH-PH, 1PH).

Transformer characteristic number The transformer characteristic number.

Repetition rate The repetition rate (1/min). PowerFactory uses the Pst=1 curve (see [13]) for the
calculation of flicker, and therefore supports repetition rates <= 1800/min.

Shape factor The shape factor. Used for the conversion of special shapes of voltage change
characteristics into flicker-equivalent voltage jumps. The shape factor is considered in the calcu-
lation of the short- and long-term flicker severity, and in the calculation of the flicker impression
time.

Voltage unbalance

Load technology The type of connection of the user installation (3PH, 1PH PH-PH, 1PH).

Pre-existing voltage unbalance level in entire grid The voltage unbalance level (%) pre-
existing in the network under assessment. Relevant to HV networks only.

Pre-existing two-phase installations in entire grid Should be ticked if there are pre-existing
two-phase installations in the network under assessment. Relevant to HV networks only.

Harmonics

Input of device data: According to groups Device data used for calculation of the harmonic
load. Input according to Groups defined in [13] and [15].

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 23.8. CONNECTION REQUEST

Input of device Data: According to total harmonic distortion (THDi) Device data used for
calculation of the harmonic load. Input according to total harmonic distortion is automatically
classified into corresponding Groups (as defined in [13] and [15]) and displayed as read-only
data in the table.

Maximum connectable power of all consumer installations Used in the calculation of har-
monic current emission limits and subsequently, THDiA. Relevant to HV networks only.

Simultaneity factor Used in the calculation of harmonic current emission limits and subse-
quently, THDiA. Relevant to HV networks only.

Network level factor Used in the calculation of allowable harmonic voltages, and subsequently,
for the calculation of general harmonic current emission limits and THDiA. Relevant to HV net-
works only.

System capacitance Used in the calculation of the first parallel resonance point. Input is in
units of uF and must already consider length. If not specified, and option calculated is selected,
PowerFactory will calculate the capacitance considering all lines/cables and purely capacitive
shunts connected at the same voltage level as the PCC. Relevant to HV networks only.

Automatic detection of supply transformers If ticked, PowerFactory will search for all supply
transformers using the criterion that they are connected between the voltage level of the PCC and
a higher voltage level. If this option is left unticked, the user may specify the supply transformers
in the table provided. Relevant to HV networks only.

Supply transformers User-specified supply transformers. These must be connected between

the same voltage level as the PCC and a higher voltage level. Relevant to HV networks only.

SNHS Assumed (or indicative) network power of the HV network. This is the sum of the rated
power of all supply transformers. Relevant to HV networks only.

Commutation notches

Converter nominal power Nominal power of the converter (kVA). Used in the calculation of the
commutation reactance short-circuit voltage.

Number of pulses Number of pulses of converter. Used in the calculation of the commutation
reactance short-circuit voltage.

Worst-case converter angle Worst-case angle of the converter (degrees). Used in the calcula-
tion of the commutation reactance short-circuit voltage. Relevant to HV networks only.

Interharmonic voltages

Input of interharmonics for entire installation: Harmonic voltages (spectral lines) Table of
interharmonic voltage magnitudes, defined according to spectral lines. Harmonic frequencies
must be entered in ascending order.

Input of interharmonics for entire installation: Harmonic current injections (spectral lines)
Table of interharmonic current injections, defined according to spectral lines. Harmonic frequen-
cies must be entered in ascending order.

Input of interharmonics for entire installation: Harmonic voltages (groups) Table of inter-
harmonic voltage magnitudes, defined according to groups.

Input of interharmonics for entire installation: Harmonic current injections (groups) Table
of interharmonic current injections, defined according to groups.

Devices (HV Networks only) List of devices which create interharmonics. The harmonic load
content is calculated as either: the sum of the nominal powers of all identical units; or, the nominal
power of the highest-rated (power) unit. Relevant to HV networks only.

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Converter power (Devices and installations) Used to calculate the ratio of short-circuit power
to converter power. Relevant to LV and MV networks only.

Ripple control frequency The frequency of the ripple control (Hz).

Converter type: frequency converter

Converter type: Pulse-width modulated rectifier

23.8.3 Connection Request Assessment Report

Following the execution of a Connection Request Assessment, a detailed report for each Connection
Request element is printed in PowerFactory ’s output window. The report is divided into the following
sections:

• Assessment status (overall, and per calculation). For HV networks, the Assessment Level (1 or 2,
according to [15]) at which the Connection Request was approved or not is also output.
• Basic Data
• PCC Data
• Results per Calculation (depending on user selection of Calculations in Connection Request
Assessment command dialogue.)

23.9 Definition of Result Variables

In order to record the results of either the Harmonic Load Flow or Frequency Sweep calculation, the
variables of interest must be defined. However, for each of these calculations, a small selection of
variables are recorded by default in the result object defined on each command’s Basic Data page by
the Result Variables parameter. For the Harmonic Load Flow the following variables are recorded by
default (PowerFactory variable names are italicised):

• Harmonic order (-);

• Frequency (Hz);
• HD (%) (for terminals);
• Voltage across inductor (p.u.) (url) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across capacitor (p.u.) (uc) (for shunts/filters);
• Current through inductor (A) (IL) (for shunts/filters);
• Current through resistor Rp (A) (IRp) (for shunts/filters);
• Current through capacitor C (A) (IC) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across capacitor C1 (A) (uc1) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across capacitor C2 (A) (uc2) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across resistor Rp (p.u.) (urp) (for shunts/filters);

For the Frequency Sweep, the following variables are recorded by default:

• Harmonic order (-);

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 23.9. DEFINITION OF RESULT VARIABLES

• Frequency in Hz (Hz);

In order to define additional variables to be recorded, a two-step process is required of firstly creating
the desired Variable Set and then selecting the variables for recording within these sets. These steps
are described in Sections 23.9.1 (Definition of Variable Sets) and 23.9.2 (Selection of Result Variables
within a Variable Set), respectively.

23.9.1 Definition of Variable Sets

To define a Variable Set, right-click on a network component (or multi-select several network compo-
nents and right-click), either in the single-line diagram or in the data manager, and select the option
Define → Variable Set (Harmonic Load Flow); or Define → Variable Set (Frequency Sweep). This
will add a new (but still empty) variable set for the selected object to the result object (referred to by
parameter Result Variables on the Basic Options page of the Harmonic Load Flow or Frequency Sweep
command dialogue).

All results of harmonic analysis, with the exception of the harmonic load flow using option Single
Frequency (for which no results are recorded), are stored in a normal result object (ElmRes). This
result object stores the result variables against the frequency for which they were calculated. For more
information about the result object, see Section 17.2.4 (Result Objects).

To access the variable sets, click on the Edit Result Variables button on the main toolbar. There are
two instances of this button: one associated with the Harmonic Load Flow and one associated with the
Frequency Sweep. Select the button associated with the relevant calculation. The variable set manager
dialogue will open which displays the list of all defined variable sets for that calculation. After the variable
set has been created and its variables have been defined, each variable set contains the variables of
interest for a single object. A window is opened automatically following the definition of a new variable
set, as shown in Figure 23.9.1, displaying the list of variable sets. In Figure 23.9.1, three variable sets
have been defined for three different network elements: one for load element “General Load” one for
line element “Line 1” and one for terminal element “Sym-Terminal”.

Figure 23.9.1: Example of a List of Variable Sets

A new variable set can also be defined by clicking on the New button , shown in the top left corner
of Figure 23.9.1. By doing this, the Variable Set dialogue will appear as shown in Figure 23.9.2. To
proceed with selecting the result variables for the variable set, see Section 23.9.2 (Selection of Result
Variables within a Variable Set). For further information on variable sets, refer to Chapter 17: Reporting
and Visualising Results.

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23.9.2 Selection of Result Variables within a Variable Set

The selection of result variables for a variable set can only proceed when the column labelled Object for
any defined variable set (as shown in Figure 23.9.1) is set. This can be done by either double-clicking
the appropriate cell of the Object column, or by right-clicking the cell and selecting Select Element....
This binds the variable set to a specific object or network element.

A single variable set from the variable sets list can be accessed (and the desired variables defined)
by either double-clicking on the icon in the corresponding row, for example in the case of the “Sym-
Terminal” in Figure 23.9.1), or by right-clicking on the icon and selecting the Edit menu option. The
Variable Set object (IntMon) dialogue opens, as shown in Figure 23.9.2 for the example of the “Sym-
Terminal”. By selecting the Harmonics/Power Quality page of this dialogue, a list of all result variables
that are available for the selected object (applicable to harmonics analysis or frequency sweep) is then
available for selection. The Object field in the dialogue in Figure 23.9.2 shows that the variable set is
defined for the network element “Sym-Terminal”.

Figure 23.9.2: Selection of Harmonics Analysis Result Variables for a Terminal

Result variables may be added or removed from the set of selected variables by highlighting the desired
variable and pressing the left or right arrow buttons . Additionally, different variables are available
for selection depending on the selection made from the Variable Set drop-down list. This drop-down list
is available in the Filter for section on the Harmonics/Power Quality page of the Variable Set dialogue,
as displayed in Figure 23.9.2. For further information on variable sets, refer to Chapter 17: Reporting
and Visualising Results.

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Chapter 24

Flickermeter

24.1 Introduction

In terms of power quality, the term flicker is used to describe the phenomenon of unwanted, rapidly
fluctuating light levels due to voltage fluctuations. The IEC 61000-4-15 standard specifies the function
and design of apparatus for the measurement of flicker, termed the Flickermeter. This Flickermeter
comprises five functional blocks which, via the use of multipliers, weighting filters, and smoothing and
squaring operations, perform the tasks of simulating the lamp-eye-brain chain response, and statistically
evaluating the flicker signal [12]. PowerFactory provides a Flickermeter command for the calculation of
the short-term and long-term flicker according to IEC 61000-4-15.

The following sections explain the calculation of short- and long-term flicker by the Flickermeter com-
mand, as well as its configuration and handling.

24.2 Flickermeter (IEC 61000-4-15)

24.2.1 Calculation of Short-Term Flicker

The short-term flicker value 𝑃𝑠𝑡 calculated according to IEC 61000-4-15 is a measure of the severity of
the flicker based on an observation period of 10 minutes. It is defined mathematically as follows [12]:

√︀
2
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = (0,0314 · 𝑃0.1 ) + (0,0525 · 𝑃1𝑠 ) + (0,0657 · 𝑃3𝑠 ) (24.1)
+(0,28 · 𝑃10𝑠 ) + (0,08 · 𝑃50𝑠 )

where the percentiles 𝑃0,1 ,𝑃1 ,𝑃3 ,𝑃1 0 and 𝑃5 0 are the flicker levels exceeded for 0.1; 1; 3; 10; and 50%
of the time during the observation period. The subscript 𝑠 used in the above formula indicates that
smoothed values should be used, which are defined as follows [12]:

𝑃30 + 𝑃50 + 𝑃80

𝑃50𝑠 = (24.2)
3
𝑃6 + 𝑃8 + 𝑃10 + 𝑃13 + 𝑃17
𝑃10𝑠 = (24.3)
5
𝑃2,2 + 𝑃3 + 𝑃4
𝑃3𝑠 = (24.4)
3

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𝑃0,7 + 𝑃1 + 𝑃1,5
𝑃1𝑠 = (24.5)
3

24.2.2 Calculation of Long-Term Flicker

The calculation of the severity of long-term flicker, 𝑃𝑙𝑡 , considers the short-term flicker severity values
over a longer period of time and is calculated according to the following equation [12]:

√︃
∑︀𝑁 3
3
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑖
𝑃𝑙𝑡 = (24.6)
𝑁

where 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑖 (𝑖 = 1,2,3, . . .) are the consecutive 𝑃𝑠𝑡 values and 𝑁 is the number of observation periods. It
can be seen from [12] that when 𝑁 = 1, 𝑃 𝑙𝑡 = 𝑃 𝑠𝑡.

24.3 Flickermeter Calculation

24.3.1 Flickermeter Command

This command is accessible via the Flickermeter button in the Harmonics toolbar, which is ac-
cessible by selecting Harmonics/Power Quality when clicking on the button Change Toolbox . The
PowerFactory Flickermeter command dialogue is shown in Figure 24.3.1.

Figure 24.3.1: Data Source Page of Flickermeter Command (ComFlickermeter )

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 24.3. FLICKERMETER CALCULATION

24.3.2 Data Source

File Input

Import data from Specifies the type of data file containing the input data. There are five file
types available for selection.

Filename The name of the input data file.

Result File The name of the input PowerFactory result file.

Configuration File Relevant to ComTrade input files only. The name of the corresponding
configuration file.

Info A summary of information read from the file.

Use System Separators Relevant to comma-separated value (CSV) input files only. Tick the
checkbox to use the same separators for parsing the file as those used by the operating system.
When unchecked, separators are user-definable.

Separator for columns In the case of a Power Factory Measurement File as the input file type,
this indicates the character used as a separator for the columns in the file. In the case of a User
Defined Text File as the input file type, the separator may be selected as one of Tab, Space or
Other (user-defined).

Decimal Separator Indicates the separator used for decimal numbers. This is user-definable for
a User Defined Text File as the input file type

Selection of Data for Calculation

This table allows the selection of input file data to be analysed. The leftmost column (with labels 𝑦1, . . .,
𝑦24’) provides a naming convention for the output of results, indicating which time-series signals from
the input file were analysed.

Element Relevant only to a Result File input file type. Used to specify the element from the result
file for which a variable to analyse will be selected. This variable is then specified in the Variable
column of the same table

Variable Relevant only to a Result File input file type. Used to specify the variable for the
Flickermeter command to analyse. This variable is associated with the selected Element (see
above).

Column Number Refers to the column/s in the input file which correspond to the time-series
signal/s to be analysed.

Variable Name For ComTrade files, the variable name is automatically read from the input file
and displayed in the Variable Name column. No variable name is provided for other file types.

Calculate Pst Allows the user to select the signals in the input file for which to calculate the
short-term flicker (𝑃𝑠𝑡 ). Valid for all input file types with the exception of result files.

24.3.3 Signal Settings

Signal Settings

Signal Type Selection of either EMT or RMS input signal type.

Specify start time User-defined start time at which data should be read from file. This is an
absolute time value that exists within the input file, from which data will be read. If this value

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cannot be found in the file, the next time point after the specified start time will be used instead.

Resample Data The input data will be resampled by the user-defined New Sampling Rate. If
the time step of the data within the input file is not constant, the Flickermeter calculation will
automatically resample the data at the average sampling rate taken from the input file.

New Sampling Rate User-defined sampling rate at which data will be resampled if option Re-
sample Data has been selected.

Note: The minimum sampling rate required for instantaneous input data is 400Hz, and for RMS input
data is 800Hz.

Calculation Settings

Observation Period The time period over which the flicker will be analysed.

Calculate Plt Perform calculation of long-term flicker 𝑃𝑙𝑡 . When this option is checked, a result
file is written.

Observation Periods The number of successive observation periods (or “time windows”) to
analyse.

24.3.4 Advanced Options

Input signals for Flickermeter can be either RMS or EMT signals. The algorithm treats both of these in-
puts the same, with the exception of the weight filter coefficients, scaling factor and the cut-off frequency
used. The weight filter coefficients are preset (see Table 24.3.1), however the scaling factor and cut-off
frequency are user-definable parameters and are described below.

Parameter Definitions

Cut-off Frequency Cut-off frequency of Butterworth filter (Hz). When using an RMS input signal,
the cut-off frequency is set to 50Hz; when using an EMT input signal, its default value is 35Hz but
can be user-defined.

Filter Offset The offset (in seconds) for the filters to stabilise. A positive, non-zero offset should
always be entered. When using an RMS input signal, the filter offset is set to 5s; when using an
EMT input signal its default value is 5s but can be user-defined. A value of 5s is the minimum
amount of time required to initialise the filters and to attenuate the initial transient.

Scaling Factor Calibration parameter. When using an RMS input signal, the scaling factor is set
to 300469,4835 (defined as 2 / (0.0025*0.0025) / 1.065). When using an EMT input signal, its
default value is 303317,5 but can be user-defined.

Set to default Resets the Cut-off Frequency, Filter Offset and Scaling Factor to default values.

Constant Sampling Rate

Variable EMT (from IEC 61000-4-15) RMS

𝜅 1,74802 1,74
𝜆 2 · 𝜋 · 4,05981 2 · 𝜋 · 4,1
𝜔1 2 · 𝜋 · 9,15494 2 · 𝜋 · 9,15
𝜔2 2 · 𝜋 · 2,27979 2 · 𝜋 · 2,27979
𝜔3 2 · 𝜋 · 1,22535 2 · 𝜋 · 1,22535
𝜔4 2 · 𝜋 · 21,9 2 · 𝜋 · 1000

Table 24.3.1: Flickermeter Weight Filter Coefficients

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Tolerance Tolerance for determining whether the sampling rate is constant or not. This tolerance
is considered on the Data Source page in the Info frame when displaying the Constant Sampling
Rate parameter.

Result Variables
This displays the location of the stored result variables. The result object can be directly accessed by
clicking on the arrow button . It should be noted that the Result Variables parameter is only visible
if the Calculate Plt checkbox on the Signal Settings page has been selected and the value entered for
the Observation Periods on the Signal Settings page is greater than 1.

Report
Results of the Flickermeter calculation are displayed in PowerFactory ’s output window provided that
Report has been selected.

Note: When executing the Flickermeter command within DPL, the command option ’Report’ must be
disabled.

Command Displays the command used to output results. The Flickermeter command will write
results to a result file provided that option Calculate Plt on the Signal Settings page has been
selected. The result file used can be accessed via the dialogue which opens when the Command
button is pressed.

Additionally, results of the Flickermeter command can be viewed within the Data Manager as Flexible
Data of the Flickermeter command itself. The relevant variable names for selection when defining the
Flexible Data are 𝑏 : 𝑃 𝑠𝑡_𝑦1, . . ., 𝑏 : 𝑃 𝑠𝑡_𝑦24, for short-term flicker values; and 𝑏 : 𝑃 𝑙𝑡_𝑦1, . . ., 𝑏 : 𝑃 𝑙𝑡_𝑦24
for long-term flicker values). In this case, viewing the results of a Flickermeter calculation will appear
similar to that illustrated in Figure 24.3.2. It should be noted that when multiple Observation Periods
have been calculated, only the Plt results will be displayed (Pst results are shown as ’0’); and for a single
Observation Period the Pst results will be displayed. For further information on defining Flexible Data
in the Data Manager in PowerFactory , refer to Chapter 10: Data Manager, Section 10.6(The Flexible
Data Page Tab).

Figure 24.3.2: Using Flexible Data to Access Flickermeter Results

24.3.5 Input File Types

The Flickermeter command can handle five different input file types. The configuration of the Flick-
ermeter command for each file type differs slightly, and is therefore described for each case in this
section.

Note: The minimum sampling rate required for instantaneous input data is 400Hz, and for RMS input
data is 800Hz.

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ComTrade
If a ComTrade file has been selected as input to the Flickermeter command, the command dialogue
will look similar to that shown in Figure 24.3.3. The Configuration File corresponding to the ComTrade
data file is automatically displayed, as is the Sampling Rate as read from the ComTrade configuration
file. The Selection of Data for Calculation table shows the column number and corresponding variable
name as read from the ComTrade configuration file and also a user selection for which the short-term
flicker value should be calculated (checkbox in the Calculate Pst column). In the example shown in
Figure 24.3.3, a single variable has been selected for analysis. It can be read from this table that this
variable corresponds to column 1 of recorded data in the ComTrade input data file. See Section 24.3.2
(Data Source) for information on other Flickermeter command options.

Figure 24.3.3: Configuration of Flickermeter Command for ComTrade Input File

Comma Separated Values and User Defined Text Files

If a Comma Separated Values (CSV) file or a user defined text file has been selected as input to the
Flickermeter command, the command dialogue will look similar to that shown in Figure 24.3.4. For a
CSV file or user defined text file, the Selection of Data for Calculation table shows that variables can be
selected for analysis according to their corresponding column number in the input file. In the example
illustrated, data from column 1 has been selected for analysis. See Section 24.3.2 (Data Source) for
information on other Flickermeter command options.

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Figure 24.3.4: Configuration of Flickermeter Command for CSV or User Defined Text Input File

PowerFactory Measurement File

If a PowerFactory Measurement File has been selected as input to the Flickermeter command, the
command dialogue will look similar to that shown in Figures 24.3.5 and 24.3.6. The PowerFactory
Measurement File is a simple ASCII file containing a column of data for each variable recorded in
it. Hence, it can be seen that the variable contained in column 5 of the file will be analysed by the
Flickermeter command. The PowerFactory Measurement File can be used to record results from other
PowerFactory calculations and then used as input to the Flickermeter command. For further information
on the use of PowerFactory Measurement Files, refer to the technical references of the Measurement
File (ElmFile). See Section 24.3.2 (Data Source) for information on other Flickermeter command
options.

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Figure 24.3.5: Configuration of Flickermeter Command for PowerFactory Measurement File

Figure 24.3.6: Configuration of Flickermeter Command for PowerFactory Measurement File. Signal
Settings

Result File
If a Result File has been selected as input to the Flickermeter command, the command dialogue will look
similar to that shown in Figure 24.3.7. Using a PowerFactory result file as the input file type is practical
when the user wants to first record results from, for example, an EMS/RMS simulation in a result file,
and then analyse the flicker contribution of one or more variables from this file. In the example in
Figure 24.3.7, the specified Element in the Selection of Data for Calculation table is a terminal element
(named “LV Busbar”) recorded in the result file, with its corresponding voltage selected as the Variable
to analyse. See Section 24.3.2 (Data Source) for information on other Flickermeter command options.

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Figure 24.3.7: Configuration of Flickermeter Command for Result File

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Chapter 25

Quasi-Dynamic Simulation

25.1 Introduction

The load flow calculation, detailed in Chapter 21 considers the network under a single set of operating
conditions. In most electrical systems, engineers are interested in the performance of the system
during worst case operational conditions. However, due to the complexity of the network, it might be
difficult to intuitively understand what operating scenarios and network states cause such conditions.
Consequently, to determine the worst case operating conditions, engineers often must run several
different load-flow simulations with a range of operating conditions. This is usually achieved by modelling
the network dependence on time because most operational parameters have an underlying dependence
on time. For example:

• Load is dependent on time due to daily and seasonal cyclic load variation.
• Renewable sources such as solar and wind generation vary with solar insolation and wind speed
which are in turn functions of time.
• Network variations, maintenance outages, faults and unscheduled outages normally have some
time dependence.

• Equipment rating can also change due to the effects of wind and temperature.

Often when considering load flow variation over time, the engineer is not concerned with variations
on the time scale of seconds, rather they are more concerned with how the network performance is
changing on the scale of minutes to hours. It is of course possible to run a dynamic simulation with
explicitly modelled controllers and so on, and run this for several hours or longer of real time to simulate
such a network. However, this would take a large computational effort and furthermore, involves much
unnecessary complexity if only steady state load flow conditions are of interest. Consequently, it is
considered a reasonable and pragmatic approach to simulate so-called “Quasi dynamic” phenomena
using a series of load-flow calculations and built in parameter dependence on time.

PowerFactory includes a dedicated time varying load flow calculation tool called the Quasi-Dynamic
Simulation. This tool completes a series of load flow simulations spaced in time, with the user given the
flexibility to select the simulation period and the simulation step size. To achieve this, the Quasi-Dynamic
Simulation makes use of time based parameter characteristics (refer to Chapter 16), variations (refer to
Chapter 15), expansion stages and planned outages.

This chapter is divided into several sections. The first section, Section 25.2, covers the technical
background of the Quasi-dynamic simulations. Section 25.3 covers the procedure required to run
a Quasi-dynamic simulation and Section 25.4 covers the procedure for analysing the output of the
simulation.

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25.2 Technical background

Consider a simplified power system network consisting of four loads, two conventional synchronous
machines, and a solar photo-voltaic power plant linked by transmission lines. A single line diagram of
the network is shown in Figure 25.2.1.

Figure 25.2.1: Single line diagram of example network

In this case, the load would vary depending on the time of day, the solar output would vary also
depending on the insolation and consequently the conventional generators would be required to produce
varying levels of output to balance the system load and generation. The engineer might be interested to
see the line thermal loading and voltage in the network over a period of say one week or perhaps even
the seasonal variation over the course of one year. DPL or Python scripts could be written to achieve
this, however, by making use of the built-in parameter characteristics in PowerFactory and using the
Quasi-dynamic simulation tool, it is possible to complete such simulations very efficiently.

Figure 25.2.2 shows an example of the type of output that be generated using this tool. The figure
shows a clear cyclical pattern in the generation output, the line loading and the bus voltages. After
determining the critical cases such a simulation, the engineer might also like to complete more detailed
RMS or EMT simulations on such cases to investigate potential short term issues. In this way, the
Quasi-dynamic simulation can be used as a useful screening tool.

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QUASI-DYNAMIC SIMULATION

Figure 25.2.2: An example of weekly power flows in the example system calculated using the Quasi-
Dynamic simulation tool

25.3 How to complete a

Quasi-Dynamic Simulation

To run a Quasi-dynamic simulation requires the following steps:

1. The setup of parameter characteristics on time varying components of the network. Refer to
Chapter 16 for more information on parameter characteristics.
2. Optional: Configuring of network variations to model planned network augmentations. Refer to
Chapter 15.
3. Defining the variables to be monitored during the simulation. Refer to Section 25.3.1.
4. Running the simulation. Refer to Section 25.3.2.
5. Analysing the results. Refer to Section 25.4.

The following sections explain these aspects in additional detail.

25.3.1 Defining the variables for monitoring in the Quasi dynamic simulation

Before running the Quasi-dynamic simulation, it is necessary to tell PowerFactory what variables to
record. To do this:

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1. Click and select Quasi Dynamic Simulation.

2. Click the button. A dialogue will appear.

3. Select the type of results to be defined, either AC, AC unbalanced or DC. Note, the type of
variables that you want to monitor should match the type of load-flow calculation you are using for
the simulations.
4. Click OK. A tabular list showing the currently monitored variables will appear. By default Power-
Factory will record some default variables for Areas, Feeders, Grids, Terminals, Zones and Branch
elements.
5. Optional: Modify the default variables:
(a) Double-click the icon for the object. The variable browser dialogue will appear.
(b) Navigate to the appropriate page and select variables from the desired variable set.
(c) Click OK to return to the tabular list of variables.
6. Optional: Add recorded variables for another type of element/s:
(a) Click the icon. A blank dialogue will appear.
(b) To add recorded variables for all objects of a specific class (for example all PV systems):
i. Enter the object class in the Class Name field. For example to record variables for all PV
systems enter “ElmPvsys”.
ii. Press tab to update the dialogue.
iii. Navigate to the desired page and select variables from the desired variable set.
iv. Click OK to return to the tabular list of monitored variables.
(c) To add recorded variables for a specific object:
i. Click the button.
ii. Choose Select . . . . A database navigation dialogue will appear.
iii. Locate target object and select it.
iv. Press OK to open the variable selection dialogue.
v. Navigate to the desired page, and select variables from the desired variable set.
7. Click Close to close the list of monitored variables.

25.3.2 Running the Quasi dynamic simulation

1. Click and select Quasi Dynamic Simulation.

2. Click to open the Quasi dynamic simulation dialogue.

3. Select the desired type of calculation, either AC, AC unbalanced or DC.
4. Optional: Click to edit and configure the load flow calculation settings used by the simulation.
5. Choose the time period to run the simulation for.
6. Choose the Day/Month/Year or user defined period for the simulation based on the option you
selected in the previous step.
7. Choose the step size time unit. PowerFactory allows you to choose from the following time units:
• Seconds
• Minutes
• Hours
• Days
• Months

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SIMULATION RESULTS

• Years
8. Enter the step size in the Step field. Note this must be an integer.
9. Optional: Select an alternative location in the PowerFactory database to store the results.
10. Optional: Configure the consideration of maintenance outages. Refer to Section 25.3.3
11. Click Execute to complete the simulation.

Note: After starting the Quasi-dynamic simulation, PowerFactory will determine the number of load-
flows required based on the entered step settings, and write this as information to the window.
Furthermore, a progress bar will be displayed at the bottom of the PowerFactory window indicating
how far the simulation has progressed. Depending on the time period simulated and the step size,
the simulation might take some time.

25.3.3 Considering maintenance outages

In the Quasi-dynamic simulation it is possible to consider planned maintenance outages - this can also
include planned generator derating. To do this the simulation uses the PowerFactory object IntOutage.
For more information about defining planned outages refer to Section 12.3.5.

To make the Quasi-dynamic simulation consider the defined planned outages:

1. Select the Maintenance page in the Quasi-dynamic simulation command.

2. Check Consider Planned Outages to automatically consider all outages during the simulation.
3. Optional: Click Show Used Ones to show a list of all currently considered outages. Only those
outages that occur in the defined simulation period on the basic data page are shown in this list.
4. Optional: Click Show All to open a data navigator on the planned outages folder. From here it
is possible to see all outages that are defined within the project. Note, even those outages that
would not occur during the simulation period are shown in this view.

25.4 Analysing the Quasi-dynamic

simulation results

The Quasi-dynamic simulation results can be presented in tabular form using the built-in reports, and in
graphical form using the standard PowerFactory plot interface. Furthermore, PowerFactory also stores
summary statistics for every analysed variable. This section explains how to produce these three types
of output.

25.4.1 Plotting

To produce an output plot of the Quasi-dynamic simulation results follow these steps:

1. Click the icon. A standard PowerFactory plot dialog will appear.

2. Select the desired variables in the curves section.
3. Optional: Adjust the plot options according to your preferences. Refer to Section 17.5 for more
information on configuring standard plots in PowerFactory.
4. Click OK to create the plot in a new page.

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25.4.2 Quasi-Dynamic simulation reports

The Quasi Dynamic Simulation Report provides a means to summarise and examine system conditions
over the simulated time period. There are three different reports available:

• Loading Ranges;
• Voltage Ranges; and
• Non-convergent cases.

The loading ranges report shows the maximum and minimum loading of each monitored branch element
and also the time that each of these occurred.

The voltage ranges report shows the minimum and maximum observed voltages at each monitored
terminal and the times that each of these occurred.

The non-convergent cases report shows a list of all the cases that did not converge and the time that
they occurred.

To show the reports:

1. Click the icon. A dialogue for configuring the reports will appear.
2. Choose the reports to be produced.
3. Optional: Enable a loading range filter. You can use this to only show branch elements that
exceeded a certain loading during the simulation. Note it is possible to alter the value of this filter,
in the report later on.
4. Optional: Enable a voltage range filter. Here you can enter a lower limit and an upper limit. Only
those terminals that had voltages recorded outside this range will show up in the report. It is also
possible to alter these values in the report subsequently.
5. Click OK to show the reports. They will be displayed in separate windows.
6. Optional: Click and choose Export to Excel or Export to HTML to export the results to Excel or
in an HTML format.

25.4.3 Statistical summary of monitored variables

Conveniently, PowerFactory also calculates summary statistics for every monitored variable in the Quasi-
dynamic simulation. The following quantities are determined automatically:

• Average (mean)
• Maximum
• Minimum
• Time of maximum
• Time of minimum
• Range
• Standard Deviation. Note this is population standard deviation calculated according to:
⎯
− 2
⎸ ∑︀ (︁ )︁
𝑥− 𝑥
⎸
⎷
𝜎= (25.1)
𝑛

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