Figure. 4.

22 Synchronous machine connected to infinite bus

It means that since is fixed, the projection cos of the phasor Ia Vt remains
constant, while the excitation is varied. Phasor diagrams ) responding to high, medium
and low excitations are presented in figure. 4.23. The phasor diagram of Figure. 4.23(b)
corresponds to the unity ower factor case. It is obvious from the phasor diagram that for
this excitation

This is defined as normal excitation. For the overexcited case (Figure. 4.23a), i.e,1E,1 cos
5 >117,1, /a lags behind Vt so thagt the generator feeds positive reactive-power into the
bus (or draws negative reactive power front the bus). For the underexcited case (Figure.
4.23c), i.e. 1E41 cos S < I V,j, ./a leads V, so that the generator feeds negative reactive
power into the bits (or draws positive reactive power from the bus).
Figure. 4.23 Phasor diagrams of synchronous generator feeding constant power as
excitation is
varied
Figure. 4.24 Phasor diagrams of synchronous motor drawing constant power as excitation
is Ta r ed
Figureure 4.24 shows the overexcited and underexcited cases of syn-
chronous
motor (connected to irdii-iite bus) with constant power drawn
from the infinite bus. In the overexcited case, la leads V„ i.e. the motor draws negative
reactive power (or supplies positive reactive power); while in the underexcited case la
lags V„ i.e. the -motor draws positive reactive power (or supplies negative reactive
power). -
From the above discussion we can draw the general conclusion that a synchronous
machine (generating or motoring) while operating at constant .-
power supplies positive reactive power into the bus bar (or draws negative reactive
power from the bus bar) when overexcited. An under-excited machine on the other hand,
feeds negative reactive power into the bus bar (or draws positive reactive power from the
bus bar).
Consider now the power delivered by a synchronous generator to an infinite bus. From
Figure. 4.19 this power is
p I f1,1141 cos 0
The above expression can be written in a more useful form from the.
Modern Power Sysiezn Analysis
asor geometry. From Figure. 4.19 -
!Eft 141,4 -
sin (90° + 0) = sin 8
lEfl
1/4 cos y sins (4.27)
lEdIVII
:.P sin 8 (4.28) X,
he plot of P versus 8, shown in Figure. 4.25, is called the power angle curve. he
maximum power that can be delivered occurs at S 90° and is given
lEfl I Vti
Ana: — (4.29)
or P > P„,,,x or for S > 90° the generator falls out of step. This problem he stability) will
be discussed at length in Chapter 12.
Figure. 4.26 Effect of varying excitation of generator delivering constant power to
infinite bus bar
power to infinite bus but with varying excitation. As 1E11 sin S remains constant, the tip
of phasor Er moves along a line parallel to V, as excitation is varied. The direction of
phasor 4 is always 90° lagging jI„X, and its magnitude is obtained from (1./0IXXX,.
Figureure 4.27 shows the case of
limiting excitation with 8= 90°. For excitation lower than this value the generator
becomes unstable.
Power Factor and Power Control
While Figures. 4.23 and 4.24 illustrate how a synchronous machine power factor changes
with excitation for fixed power exchange, these do not give us a clue regarding the
quantitative values of Val and 3. This can easily he accomplished by recognizing from
Eq. (4.27) that
1E11 sin 6 = 161X, cos 8 PX,
= constant (for constant exchange of power to
11/4
infinite bus bar) (4.30) Figureure 4-26 shows the phasor diagram for a generator
delivering constant
_
Figure. 4.27 Case of limiting excitation of generator delivering constant power to infinite
bus bar
Similar phasor diagrams can be drawn for synchronous motor as well for constant input
power (or constant load if copper and iron losses are neglected and mechanical loss is
combined with load).
Another important operating condition is variable power and fixed excitation. In this case
1V,I and jEd are fixed, while S and active power vary in accordance with Eq. (4.28). The
corresponding phasor diagram for two values of S is shown in Figure. 4.28. It is seen
from this diagram that as S increases, current magnitude increases and power factor
improves. If
will be shown in Sec. 5.10 that as S changes, there is no significant change in the flow of
I citctive power.

Figure 4.23 Operation of synchronous generator with variable power and fixed
excitation
•
Salient Pole Synchronous Generator
A salient pole synchronous machine, as shown in Figure. 4.29, is distinguished from a
round rotor machine by constructional features of field poles which project with a large
interpolar air gap. This type of construction is commonly employed in machines coupled
to hydroelectric turbines which
Circct .,xis
Representation of Power System Components 91
are inherently slow-speed ones so that the synchronous machine has multiple pole pairs
as different from machines coupled to high-speed steam turbines (3,000/1,500 rpm)
which have a two- or four-pole structure. Salient pole machine analysis is made through
the two-reaction theory outlined below.
In a round rotor machine, armature current in phase with field induced emf Ef or in
quadrature (at 90°) to Ef, produces the same flux linkages per ampere as the air gap is
uniform so that the armature reaction reactance offered to in-phase or quadrature current
is the, same (X.+ X1--= Xi). In a salient pole machine air ,g0 is non-uniform along rotor
periphery. It is the least along the axis of main poles (called direct axis) and is the largest
along the axis of the interpolar region (called quadrature axis). Armature current in
quadrature with Ef produces flux along the direct axis and the reluctance of flux path
being low (because of small air gap), it produces larger flux linkages per ampere and
hence the machine presents larger armature reaction reactance Kd (called direct axis
reactance) to the flow of quadrature component /4 of armature current I,. On the other
hand, armature current in phase with Ef produces flux along the quadrature axis and the
reluctance of the flux path being high (because of large intei-polar air gap), it produces
smaller flux linkages per ampere and hence the machine presents smaller armature
reaction reactance Xu(quadrature axis reactance < Xd) to the flow of in-phase component .
4 of armature current
Since a salient pole machine offers different reactances to the flow of / 4 and 4
components of armature current 4, a circuit model cannot be
Figure. 4.30 Phasor diagram of salient pole synchronous generator
drawn. The phasor diagram of salient pole generator is shown in Figure. 4.30. It can be
easily drawn by following the steps given below:
1. Draw 17, and 4 at angle 8
Draw 4k. Draw CQ jI.Xd u to 4)

92 Llocfern Power System Analysis

3. Make ICP1= NIX, and draw the line OP which gives the direction
_ of Er phasor
4. Draw a j_ from Q to the extended line OP such that OA = It can be shown by the
above theory that the power output of a salient
pole generator is given by
-
E
I; = Ii ri sin s
(4
iVti2(rd Xq) sin 2S .31)
Xd ' 2XdX,
The first term is the samc. as for a round rotor machine with X, = and constitutes the
major part in power transfer. .The second term is quite small (about 10-20%) compared to
the first t'.rm and is known as reluctance power. -
Representation of Power System Components 93
Xd = steady state direct "axisreactance
The significance and use of these three values of direct axis reactance•ill be elaborated in
Chapter 9.
•
Operating Chart of a Synchronous Generator
While selecting a large generator, besides rated MVA and power factor, the greatest
allowable stator and rotor currents must also be considered as they influence mechanical
stresses and temperature rise. Such !knifing parameters in the operation are brought out
by means of an operating chart or performance chart.
Figure. 4.31 Power angle curve for salient pole generator
P versus 8 is plotted in Figure. 4.31. It is noticed that the maximum power
dP
output occurs at S < 90° (about 70°). Further — (change in power per
d8
unit change in power angle for small changes in power angle), called the synchronizing
power coefficient, in the operating region (8 < 70°) is larger -in a salient pole machine
than in a round rotor machine..
In this book we shall neglect the effect of saliency and take
Xs= Xd
in all types of power system studies considered.
During a machine transient, the direct axis reactancechanges with time acquiring the
following distinct values during the complete transient.-
subtransient direct axis reactance = transient direct axis reactance
la
Figure. 4.32 Phasor diagram of synchronous generator
For simplicity of analysis, the saturation effects, saliency, and resistance are ignored and
an unsaturated value of synchronous reactance is considered. Consider Figure. 4.32, the
phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor machine. The locus of constant 141X., 141 and
hence MVA is a circle centred at M. The locus of constant (excitation) is also a circle
centred at 0. As MP is proportional to MVA, QP is proportional to MVAR and MQ to
MW, all to the same scale which is obtained as follows.
For zero excitation, ix. 141 = 0
•
—j1,X,= V, or
4 =ilia,
i.e. 141 = Ilia X, leading at 90° to OM which corresponds to VARs/phase. Consider now
the chart shown in Figure. 4.33 which is drawn for a synchronous machine having X, =
1.43 pu. For zero excitation, the current is 1.0/1.43 = 0.7 pu, so that the length MO
corresponds to reactive power of 0.7 pu, fixing both active ant reactive power scales.
With centre at 0 a number of semicircles are drawn with radii squat
94 Modern Power System Analysis
to different pu MVA loadings. Circles of per unit excitation are drawn from centre M
with 1.0 pu excitation corresponding to the fixed terminal voltage OM. Lines may also be
drawn from 0 corresponding to various power factors but for clarity only 0.85 pf
lagging line is shown. The operational limits are fixed as follows.
- - I Reactive power (Ru) 'Jasmine) Figure. 4.33 Operating chart for
large.synehronoos generator
Taking 1.0 per unit active power as the maximum allowable power, a horizontal limit-
line abc is drawn through.b at 1.0 pu. It is assumed that the machine is rated to give 1.0
per unit active power at power factor 0.85 lagging and this fixes point c. Limitation of the
stator current to the corresponding value requires the limit-line to become a circular arc
cd about centre 0. At point d the rotor heating becomes more important and the arc de is
fixed by the maximum excitation current allowable, in this case assumed to be 1E4 =
2.40 pu (i.e. 2.4 times IV,I). The remaining limit is decided by loss of synchronism at
leading power factors. The theoretical limit is the line perpendicular to MO at M (i.e. S
=90), but in practice a safety margin is brought in to permit a further small increase in
load before instability. In Figure. 4.33, a 0.1 pu margin.is employed and is shown by the
curve afg which is drawn in the following way.
Consider a point h on the theoretical limit on the lEfl = 1.0 pu excitations arc, the power
Mh is reduced by 0.1 pu to Mk; the operating point must, however, still be on the same
lEd arc and k is projected to f which
Representation of Power. System Components 95
is the required point on the desired limiting curve. This is repeated for other excitations
giving the curve afg. The complete working area, shown shaded, is gfabcde. A working
point placed within this area at once defines the MVA, MW, MVAR, current, power
factor and excitation. The load angle 8 can be measured as shown in the figureure.-
4.7 REPRESENTATION OF LOADS
Load drawn by consumers is the toughest parameter to assess scientifically. The
magnitude of the load, in fact; changes continuously so that the load forecasting problem
is truly a statistical one. A typical daily load curve is shown in Figure. 1.1. The loads are
generally composed of industrial and domestic components. An industrial load consists
mainly of large three-phase ind-action motors with sufficient load constancy and
predictable duty cycle, whereas the domestic load mainly consists of lighting, heating and
many single-phase devices used in a random way by householders. The design and
operation of power systems both, economically and electrically are greatly influenced by
the nature and magnitude of loads.
In representation of loads for various system studies such as load flow and stability
studies, it is essential to know the variation of real and reactive power with variation of
voltage. Normally in such studies the load is of composite nature with both industrial and
domestic components. A typical composition of load at a bus may be
Induction motors 55-75%
Synchronous motors 5-15%
Lighting and heating 20-30%
Though it is always better to consider the P-V and Q-V characteristics of each of these
loads for simulation, the analytic treatment would be very cumbersome and complicated.
In most of the analytical work one of the following three ways of load representation is
used-
(i) Constant Power Representation
This is used in load flow studies. Both the specified MW and MVAR are taken to be
constant.
(i) Constant Current Representation
Here the load current is given by Eq. (4.17), i.e.
1P = 111 ZAti — V*
where V = LS and 8 = tan Q/P is the power factor angle. It is known as constant current
representation because the magnitude of current is regarded as constant in the study.

96 Modern _Power System Analysts

(iii) Constant Impedance Representation
This is quite often used in stability studies. The load specified in MW and - MVAR at
nominal voltage is used to compute the load impedance (Eq. (4.22b)). Thus
ZV VV• {V(2 1 I P P — I' which then is regarded as constant throughout the study.
PROBLEMS
4.1 Figureure P-4.1 shows the schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. The
ratings and reactances of the various components are shown therein. A load of 60 MW at
0.9 power factor lagging is tapped from the 66 kV substation which is to be maintained at
60 kV. Calculate the terminal voltage of the synchronous machine. Represent the
transmission line and the transformers by series reactances only.
11/220 kV 220/66 kV
.
160
V1 I j 150 st. 0 9 pf
v
100 MVA 2
X=10°1 X=
Figure. P.4.1
4.2 Draw the pu impedance diagram for the power system shown in Figure. P-4.2.
Neglect resistance, and use a base of 100 MVA, 220 kV in 50 I? line. The ratings of the
generator, motor and transformers are
Generator 40 MVA, 25 kV, X' = 20%
Motor 50 MVA, 11 kV, X' = 30%
Y-Y transformer, 40 MVA, 33 Y-220 Y kV, X= 15%
Y-4 transformer, 30 MVA, 11 4-220 Y kV, X= 15%

Figure. P.4.2
5
Characteristics and
Performance of Power
Transmission Lines
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals primarily with the characteristics and performance of transmission
lines. A problem of major importance in power systems is the flow of load over
transmission lines such that the voltage at various nodes is maintained within specified
limits. While this general interconnected system problem will be dealt with in Chapter 6,
attention is presently focussed on performance of a single transmission line so as to give
the reader a clear understanding of the principles involved.
Transmission lines are normally operated with a balanced three-phase load; the analysis
can therefore proceed on a per phase basis. •k transmission line on a per phase basis can
be regarded as a two-port network, wherein the sending-end voltage Vs and current /s are
related to the receiving-end voltage VR and current /R through ABCD constants1 as
rss1=[Ac Bir RR] (5.1) Also the fol owing identity holds for ABCD constants:
AD — BC = 1 (5.2)
These constants can be determined easily for short- and medium-• length lines by suitable
approximations lumping the line impedance and shunt admittance. For long lines exact
analysis has to be carried out by considering the distribution of resistance, inductance and
capacitance parameters and the ABCD constants of the line are determined therefrom.
'Refer to Appendix B

j50.4

98 Modern Power System Analysis

Equations for power flow on a line and receiving- and sending-end circle diagrams will
also be developed in this chapter so that various types - of end conditions can be handled.
The following nomenclature has been adopted in this chapter:
z = series impedance/unit length/phase
y ---.--- shunt admittance/unit length/phase to neutral r resistance/unit length/phase
L = inductance/unit length/phase
C = capacitance/unit length/phase to neutral 1= transmission line length •
Z = zi = total series impedance/phase
Y = yl total shunt admittance/phase to neutral
Subscript S stands for a sending-end quantity Subscript R stands for a receiving-end
quantity
5.2 SHORT TRANSMISSION LINE
For short lines of length 100 km or less, the total 50 Hz shunt' admittance2 (j(.0) is small
enough to be negligible resulting in the simple equivalent circuit of Figure. 5.1.
Is=IR ID
+
Z=R-F)X
IS Load I VR
Figure. 5.1 Equivalent circuit of a shod line
This being a simple series circuit, the relationship between sending-end receiving-end
voltages and currents can be immediately written as: [Vs] = 11 Zl 141
(5.3) /s to J
The phasor diagram for the short line is shown in Figure. 5.2 for .the lagging current case.
From this figureure we can write
I Vsl = KIVRI cos OR -1-111R)2 + (IN sin OR -1-1/1X)Ita
IVA = [I VR12 1112(R2 + X2) + 21 r,„1 1/1(R cos iiSit + A sin OR)1',"2 (5.4)
'For overhead transmission lines, shunt admittance is mainly capacitive susccptame
(jwC1) as the line conductance (also called kokance) is always negligible.
 Characteristics and Performance of Power Transmission Lines 99
21/1R 2111XII12(R2 l2)11/2
= I vrsiti cos OR -rv-f sin #R 111 -
R12
The last term is usually of negligible order.
1/1R 1/IX 1112
,
z-_,.1V41 cos ¢Rstn OR
I r RI i• RI
Expanding binomially and retaining first order terms, we get mar
Vs1 IVR(I 'J1cos OR + Tv, sin OR)
I n1 or
Vs! ca I VRI+ I11(R cos OR + X sin OK) (5.5)
The above equation is quite accurate for the normal load range.
Figure. 5.2 Phasor diagram of a short line fur lagging current
Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation of a transmission line is defined as the rise in voltage at the receiving-
end, expressed as percentage of full load voltage, when full load at a specified power
factor is thrown off, i.e.
1 1/kal — 1 17t,
Per cent regulation — Ix 100 (5.6)
I vaLl where
I VROI = magnitude of no load receiving-end voltage
I Vail ma2nitudc of full load receiving-end voltage (at a specified power factor)
V
Rol Vsl, Vitd = 117'4 • For short line,'

100 Modern Power System Analysts

Per cent regulation =1Vs1 — I N
I VRI
1.1112 cos OR -I- I/IX sin 4
x 100 (5.7)
I VRI -
In the above derivation, 4 has been considered positive for a lagging load. It will be
negative_ for a leading load.
Per cent regulation = IIIR cos 4 - Mx sin OR x 100
(5.8)
(for leading load)
Voltage regulation becomes negative (i.e. load voltage is more than no load voltage),
when in Eq. (5.8)
X sin OR > R cos R. or tan,IAR (leading) >
It also follows from Eq. (5.8) that for zero voltage regulation
•
tan 4 cot 8
XR
i.e.,
4 (leading) = — 8 (5.9)
where 0 is the angle of the transmission line impedance. This is, however, an
approximate condition. The exact condition for zero regulation is determined as follows:
Vs III X
8
4)
E2 ilk 13 S.R
0 VR A IIIR
Figure. 5.3 Phasor diagram under zero regulation condition
Figureure 5.3 shows the phasor diagram under conditions of zero voltage regulation, i.e.
IVs1=I VRI or
OC = OA
Characteristics and Performance of Power Transmission Lines' 101
AD A C/2I/1 IZ.I
sin LADD = = —
DA I VRI 2IVRI
Or
I/I izi
LAOD = sin-1
21VRI
It follows from the geometry of angles at A, that for zero voltage regulation, -
)111 OR (leading) = — + sin --
21VI (5.10) R From the above discussion it is seen that the voltage regulation
of a
line is heavily dependent upon load power factor. Voltage regulation improves
(decreases) as the power factor of a lagging load is increased and it becomes zero at a
leading power factor given by Eq. (5.10).
Example 5.1 A single-phase 50 Hz generator supplies an inductive load of 5,000 kW at a
power factor of 0.707 lagging by means of an overhead transmission line 20 km long.
The line resistance and inductance are 0.0195 ohm and 0.63 mH per km. The voltage at
the receiving-end is required to be kept constant at 10 kV.
Find (a) the sending-end voltage and voltage regulation of the line-(b) the value of the
capacitors to be placed in parallel with the load such that the regulation is reduced to 50%
of that obtained in part (a); and (c) compare the transmission efficiencies in parts (a) and
(b).
Solution The line constants are
R 0.0195 x 20 0.39 f2
X = 314 x 0.63 x 10-3 x 20 = 3.96 n
(a) This is the case of a short line with I = /R = /s given by I 5,000
/
1—
x 0.707 — 707 A
From Eq. (5.5),
IVRI IIKR cos cbR + X sin 9R)
= 10,000 707(0.39 x 0.707 + 3.96 X 0.707) V
= 12.175 kV •
Voltage regulation = 12.175 —Ill
10 X 100 = 21.75% .7 5
1
2
• (b) Voltage regulation desired = = 10.9%
v 10
i sl — n no 10