(74)

   

CHAPTER 4: BENDING OF BEAMS

This chapter will be devoted to the analysis of prismatic members

subjected to equal and opposite couples M and M' acting in the same

longitudinal plane. Such members are said to be in pure bending. An
example of pure bending is provided by the bar of a typical barbell as

it is held overhead by a weight lifter as shown. The results obtained
for pure bending will be used in the analysis of other types of

loadings as well, such as eccentric axial loadings and transverse  
loadings (see examples below). 





 
Symmetric Prismatic Member in Pure Bending (Equilibrium)

Assumptions: (1) Section has at least one plane of symmetry, (2) The bending moment is applied

in plane of symmetry and (3) the beam is prismatic

Conclusions: (1) Only normal stress (uniaxial stress) exists in bending (from theory and

experiment), (2) There exists a neutral axis, and (3) The deflection curve of the bent beam forms a
circular arc (from theory and experiment), see below for details.

Considering equilibrium: We have total of 3 equilibrium equations as follows:

0→ 0 , 0→ 0 , 0→ 0  

As the variation of
  on the section (A) is unknown these equilibrium equations cannot be resolved
 
and therefore the system is statistically indeterminate and we need compatibility.
 (75)
   
Deformation of Symmetric Member in Pure Bending

Since all the faces represented in the two projections are at
90° to each other, we conclude that γxy = γzx = 0 and, thus, that
τxy = τxz = 0. Also, σy, σz, and τyz, we note that they must be
zero on the surface of the member. Thus, at any point of a
slender member in pure bending, we have a state of uniaxial
stress. Recalling that, for M > 0, lines AB and A'B' are
observed, respectively, to decrease and increase in length, we
note that the strain ɛx and the stress σx are negative in the
upper portion of the member (compression) and positive in
the lower portion (tension). Therefore there must exist a
surface parallel to the upper and lower faces of the member,
where ɛx and σx are zero. This surface is called the neutral
surface. For two reasons it is important to determine
position of the neutral axis: 1) to compute maximal
stress and 2) to make holds (if needed during design)
along the neutral axis (to avoid stress concentration).

→ →| | →  

→  

   
0→ 0→ 0 →  Neutral axis passes through the centroid of the section

→ → → → →

1
12 1 1
→  
/2 6 6
 
→ → →    
   
 (76)
   

POINT 1: Since in pure‐bending M is constant along the entire length of the beam, deformation
of a beam is uniform along the length of the segment undergoing pure bending; so whatever
happens at a typical cross‐section also happens at any other section. For example, the curvature
of the deflection curve at any section is the same as the curvature at any other section. Therefore,
the deflection curve forms a circular arc, with center of curvature at C.

POINT 2: 0→ 0→ 0→ 0→
→

Deformations in a Transverse Cross Section
As mentioned the transverse cross section of a member in
pure bending remains plane but we will have some
deformations within the plane of the section.
, →

The relations we have obtained show that the elements

located above the neutral surface (y>0) will expand in both
the y and z directions, while the elements located below the
neutral surface (y<0) will contract. In the case of a member
of rectangular cross section, the expansion and contraction
of the various elements in the vertical direction will
compensate, and no change in the vertical dimension of the
cross section will be observed. As far as the deformations in
the horizontal transverse z direction are concerned,
however, the expansion of the elements located above the
neutral surface and the corresponding contraction of the
elements located below that surface will result in the various
horizontal lines in the section being bent into arcs of circle.  
1
→  
′

Example 1: A nylon spacing bar has the cross

section shown. Knowing that the allowable
stress for the grade of nylon used is 24 MPa,
determine the largest couple Mz that can be
applied to the bar.

40
→ 24  


1  
100 80 25 3 959 871  
12 4

40
→ 24 3959871 → 2 375 922  

→ 2.38  
   
 (77)
   
Example 2: Two vertical forces are applied to a beam of the
cross section shown. Determine the maximum tensile and

compressive stresses in portion BC.

Position of neutral axis (considering origin of the
coordinate system at the base):
∑
∑
12.5 100 25 100 150 25 187.5 200 25

100 25 150 25 200 25
→ 119.44

Moment of inertia with respect to the neutral axis:

. .
̅
1
100 25
12
100 25 119.44 12.5
M (x)
1
25 150
12
25 150 119.44 100
1 55.5 kNm
200 25
12
200 25 200 119.44 12.5
60.6 10 x
Maximum tensile stress at the lowermost corner:

55.5 10 119.44
109.4
60.6 10
Maximum compressive stress at the uppermost corner:

55.5 10 200 119.44

60.6 10
73.8
1 1 55 500 000
→  
200 000 60.6 106 4

→   218378.4 218.4  
 (78)
   

Example 3: Knowing that for the extruded beam

shown the allowable stress is 120 MPa in tension and
150 MPa in compression, determine the largest
couple M that can be applied.

Position of neutral axis (considering origin

of the coordinate system at the base):

∑

∑
125 150 250 125 50 50

150 250 50
→ 138.24

Moment of inertia with respect to the

neutral axis:

. .
̅ →
 
1
. . 150 250  
12
150 250 125 138.24
50 50
4
138.24 75
165567042

Maximum tensile stress at the uppermost

corner:

250 138.24
120
165567042
→ 177774204 177.78 (Controls)

Maximum compressive stress at the

uppermost corner:

138.24
150
165567042
→   179651739 179.65  
 (79)
   

Example 4: Determine the

maximum tensile and
compressive stresses in the beam
due to the uniform load (cross
section of the beam is shown).

2 40 80 12 74 12 276
 
2 12 80 12 276

61.52  

1
. . 2 12 80 12 80
12
1
21.52 276 12
12
276 12 12.48
2.469 10

From Statics:

2.025 , 3.6  

Bending stresses due to :

2.025 10 61.52
2.469 10
50.5

2.025 10 18.48
2.469 10
15.2

Bending stresses due to :

3.6 10 18.48
2.469 10
26.9

3.6 10 61.52
2.469 10
89.7

→ 50.5
 
   
→ 89.7
 (80)
   

Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of Symmetry

We now analyze the distribution of stresses when the line of action of the loads does not pass
through the centroid of the cross section, i.e., when the loading is eccentric.

   
 (81)
   

Example 10: The vertical portion

of the press shown consists of a
rectangular tube of wall thickness t
= 10 mm. Knowing that the press
has been tightened on wooden
planks being glued together until P
= 20 kN, determine the stress at (a)
point A, (b) point B.

Calculating P and M at a‐a section:

0→ 20 000

0→ 240
20 000 240
4800 000

Calculating section properties:
60 80 40 60 2400
1 1
. . 60 80 40 60
12 12
1 840 000

Stress at point A:
M
20 000 4800 000 40
2400 1 840 000
8.33 104.35 112.7

Stress at point B:

 
20 000 4800 000 40
2400 1 840 000
8.33 104.35 96

‐96 MPa

  112.7 MPa 43.2 mm 36.8 mm  
N.A.
 (82)
   

TBR 4: Determine the magnitudes and locations of the maximum tension and compression normal
stresses within the vertical portion BC of the post (P = 25 kN).

Answer:

Maximal tensile stress: 82.2 MPa at section B

Maximal compressive stress: ‐79.3 MPa at section C

MB

MC
Z

 
̅ 101 , 10 761 666.67  

   
 (83)
   

TBR 5: Maximal tensile and compressive stresses at

a‐a are equal to 47 and 67 MPa, respectively. Find
maximal allowable value of P. Based on the
calculated P find the position of neutral axis (1392).

 
 

 
10 4 20 18 2
11.086
4 20 2
1
4 20 4 20 11.086 10 2 2 8.91 2 3373.6
12 4

32 8.91 40.91
40.91 8.91
_ 2 4
47 → 395.5  
4 20 2 3373.6

40.91 11.086
_ 2 4
67 → 541.9  
4 20 2 3373.6

→ 395.5

Neutral Axis:

395.5 40.91 395.5 8.91

2 4
47  
4 20 2 3373.6

395.5 40.91 395.5 11.086

2 4
48.9  
4 20 2 3373.6

   
 (84)
   

General Case of Eccentric Axial Loading  

 
Example 11: The tube shown has a uniform wall

thickness of 12 mm. For the loading given, determine
(a) the stress at points A and B, (b) the point where
the neutral axis intersects line ABD.

125 75 125 24 75 24 4224
125 125
14 2 2 28
2

75 75
28 14 28
2 2
2625 , 525
1
75 125 1
75 24 125 24
12 12
7 828 252
1 1  
125 75 125 24 75 24
12 12
3 278 052
y N.A.

125
B
70 000 2 625 000
2 D
4224 7 828 252
75 64.8 mm
525 000
2 31.52 x
3 278 052
⊚ 
125 94 mm
70 000 2 625 000
2
4224 7 828 252
75
525 000
2 10.39 A
3 278 052
125 75

70 000 2 625 000
2
525 000
2 1.62
4224 7 828 252 3 278 052

Alternatively to find N.A.: 0 →

  16.57 0.335 0.16 0 . .  

 (85)
   

TBR 6: The basketball player applies the forces shown to the basket ring. The post has a circular
cross section with internal and external radius of 150 and 200 mm. Find stress at points a, b, and
c on the outer surface of the post at section AB (1393).

1500 ①   

1500 200 50 1000 250 000 ③ 

1500 1000 1500 000 ③ 

1500 250 000 200
⑤ 
200 150 200 150
4

0.085 85 ①  

1500 1500 000 200
⑤ 
200 150 200 150
4

0.38 380 ① 

200 cos 45° 200 sin 45°

1500 250 000 141.4

200 150 200 150
4
1500 000 141.4
⑤ 
200 150
4
   
0.26 260 ① 
 (86)
   

Bending of Members Made of Several Materials (E2>E1)

Variation of strain is linear regardless of the material properties

 
To determine position of the neutral axis we convert one material to another so that:

2‐ Strain distribution remains unchanged so to have the same N.A. for the transformed section

for material 2 only assuming that material 1 does not exist

So for material 2 alone the N. A. passes through its centroid. As material 1 is weaker we expect that:

The transformed section becomes bigger in order to have the same bending resistance

→ →

For rectangular cross section:

1
12 →
1
12
As position of NA is determined we can calculate stress:

,
. . . .

   

 (87)
   

Example 5: A steel bar and an aluminium

bar are bonded together to form the
composite beam shown. The modulus of
elasticity for aluminum is 70 GPa and for
steel is 200 GPa. Knowing that the beam is
bent about a horizontal axis by a couple of
moment M=1500 Nm, determine the
maximum stress in (a) the aluminums, (b)
the steel.

200  
2.857 
70 30 mm

New width = 30 × 2.857 = 85.71 mm

20 mm

B
20 40 85.71 50 20 30
40 mm
40 85.71 20 30 Neutral Axis
24.47

1 24.47 mm
. . 85.71 40 85.71 40
12
1
24.47 20 30 20 85.71 mm
12
30 20 50 24.47
936717.3

1500 10 60 24.47
56.9
936717.3
. 1500 10 24.47
111.9
936717.3
1 1500 000 1
2.287 10 → 43713.5
70 000 936717.3
43.7  

Attention:

. 1500 10 40 24.47
71.1
936717.3
1500 10 40 24.47
24.9
936717.3
   
 
 (88)
   

Example 6: Five metal strips, each 40 mm

wide, are bonded together to form the
composite beam shown. The modulus of
elasticity is 210 GPa for the steel, 105 GPa for
the brass, and 70 GPa for the aluminium.
Knowing that the beam is bent about a
horizontal axis by a couple of moment 1800
Nm, determine (a) the maximum stress in each
of the three metals, (b) the radius of curvature
of the composite beam.

105 1
 
210 2

 
70 1
210 3
 

New width for Brass: 1/2 × 40 = 20 mm

New width for Aluminium: 1/3 × 40 = 13.33 mm
Neutral Axis 20 mm
 
40 mm

Neutral axis passes through the centroid of the section
which is located at its middle due to the symmetry. 20 mm 10 mm

1 10 mm
. .
40 20 2
12
1 13.33 mm
20 10 20 10 15 2
12
1
13.33 10 13.33 10
12
25 288888.9

1800 10 10
62.3  
288888.9

1800 10 20
62.3  
288888.9

1800 10 30
62.3  
288888.9
1 1800 000 1
2.967 10 → 33703 33.7  
210 000 288888.9 4

   
 (89)
   

Example 7: A steel pipe and an

aluminium pipe are securely bonded
together to form the composite beam
shown. The modulus of elasticity is
210 GPa for the steel and 70 GPa for
the aluminium. Knowing that the
composite beam is bent by a couple
of moment 500 Nm, determine the
maximum stress (a) in the
aluminium, (b) in the steel.

→3 → 152.64 10  
19 16
4

16 10 196.26 10  
4

500 000 16
40.8  
196.26 10

3 500 000 19
145.2  
196.26 10
1 500 000 1
3 3.639 10 → 27476
70 000 196.26 10 4
27.5  

   
 (90)
   

TBR 7: A wood beam reinforced by an

aluminium channel section is shown in the
figure. The beam has a cross section of
dimensions 150 mm by 250 mm, and the
channel has a uniform thickness of 6 mm. If the
allowable stresses in the wood and aluminium
are 8.0 MPa and 38 MPa, respectively, and if
their modulus of elasticity are in the ratio 1 to
6, what is the maximum allowable bending
moment for the beam?
Answer:
108.92

297.35 10  

=16.2 kNm 
Mallow

 
. . 

   
.  
   

131 25 250 2 20 40 6 3 150 6
108.92
25 250 2 40 6 150 6 150 mm /6 = 25 mm
1
. . 25 250 25 250 131 108.92 2
12
1
6 40 6 40 108.92 20
12
1
150 6 150 6 108.92 3
12
49558213 N.A.

108.92
38 → 17.3 108.9 mm
49558213
1 256 108.92
8 → 16.2
6 49558213
 
   
 (91)
   

TBR 8: The low strength concrete

floor slab (σY = 10 MPa, E = 22.1
GPa) is integrated with a wide‐
flange A‐36 steel beam (σY = 165
MPa, E = 200 GPa) using shear
studs (not shown) to form the
composite beam. If the allowable
bending stress for the concrete is
and allowable bending stress for
steel is determine the maximum
allowable internal moment M that
can be applied to the beam. Also
find the curvature based on the
calculated maximal moment
(1390).

Answer: Mallow =330 kNm  

     
 (92)
   

Reinforced Concrete Beams

An important example of structural members made of two different materials is furnished by

reinforced concrete beams. These beams, when subjected to positive bending moments, are reinforced
by steel rods placed a short distance above their lower face. Fortunately, there is a natural bond
between concrete and steel, so that no slipping occurs between them during bending. Since concrete
is very weak in tension, it will crack below the neutral surface and the steel rods will carry the entire
tensile load, while the upper part of the concrete beam will carry the compressive load. To be most
effective, these rods are located farthest from the beam’s neutral axis so that they resist the greatest
possible tensile moment. The diameters of the rods are small compared to the depth of the cross
section.

The position of the neutral axis is obtained by determining the distance x from the upper face of the
beam to the centroid C of the transformed section. Denoting by b the width of the beam, and by d the
distance from the upper face to the center line of the steel rods, we write that the first moment of the
transformed section with respect to the neutral axis must be zero. Since the first moment of each of
the two portions of the transformed section is obtained by multiplying its area by the distance of its
own centroid from the neutral axis, we have:
1
0→ 0
2 2
Solving this quadratic equation for x, we obtain both the position of the neutral axis in the beam, and
the portion of the cross section of the concrete beam that is effectively used. The determination of the
stresses in the transformed section is carried out as explained before. The distribution of the
compressive stresses in the concrete and the resultant Fs of the tensile forces in the steel rods are
shown.
,
. . . .

   
 (93)
   

Example 9: The reinforced concrete beam

shown is subjected to a positive bending
moment of 175 kNm. Knowing that the
modulus of elasticity is 25 GPa for the
concrete and 200 GPa for the steel,
determine (a) the stress in the steel, (b) the
maximum stress in the concrete.

200
8 
25

8 4 25
4
15707.96  
 

Finding the neutral axis:
300 mm
300 15707.96 480 0. 
2
480 mm

104.71 50 265.472 0. 

x
. 282.6  
C N.A.
 
Calculating the moment of inertia:
480‐x
1
. . 300 177.87 15707.96
3
480 177.87 = 15707.96
1.996 10  
Transformed section
 
(concrete)
Stress in steel members:

175 000 000 480 177.87

9 211.9  
1.996 10 4

Stress in concrete member is compressive and is equal to:

175 000 000 177.87

9
15.59  
1.996 10 4

   
 (94)
   

TBR 9: A beam has the cross section shown in figure,

and is subject to a positive bending moment that 3″ 12″ 3″
causes a tensile stress in the steel of 20 ksi (20000 psi
= 20000 lb/in2). If n = 12 (elastic modulus of steel is 6″
12 times greater than that of concrete) calculate the
bending moment applied to the beam (1391).

28″

Total As = 3.0 in2

 
   
 (95)
   

STRESS CONCENTRATIONS

 

 
Review cross sectional
properties from Statics:
moment of inertia (Ix,

Iy) and product of
inertia for an area
(Ixy)! Mohr’s circle to
determine principal
axes of an area!

   
 (96)
   

UNSYMMETRIC BENDING

Our analysis of pure bending has been limited so far to members possessing
at least one plane of symmetry and subjected to couples acting in that plane.
We found that the neutral axis of the cross section in symmetric bending
passes through centroid of the section and coincides with the axis of the
couple. Now consider situations where the bending couples do not act in a
plane of symmetry of the member, either because they act in a different
plane, or because the member does not possess any plane of symmetry. In
such situations, we cannot assume that the member will bend in the plane of
the couples. As shown, the couple exerted on the section has again been
assumed to act in a vertical plane and has been represented by a horizontal
couple vector M. However, since the vertical plane is not a plane of
symmetry, we cannot expect the member to bend in that plane, or the neutral
axis of the section to coincide with the axis of the couple.

We assume that N.A. is directed toward an arbitrary z‐axis. An

arbitrary directed moment has a component toward z and a
component toward y. We initially only consider M toward z.

0→ 0→ . .  

0 → →  

0→ 0→ 0 → 

0→ 0 →  y and z must be principal

axes of the cross section
The first equation indicates that the N.A. passes through the
centroid of the section and the third equation determine the
direction of the N.A. (directed toward principal axis where M is
applied). The same method is used to determine the N.A. when
only the component of M toward y is considered.
   
 (97)
   

The principle of superposition can be used to determine stresses in the most general case of
unsymmetric bending. Consider first a member with a vertical plane of symmetry, which is subjected
to bending couples M and M’ acting in a plane forming an angle θ with the vertical plane.

Since the y and z axes are the principal centroidal axes of the cross
section, we can use the equation / to determine the stresses
resulting from the application of either of the couples represented by Mz
and My:

To find the position of neutral axis:
→
Thus, the angle φ that the neutral axis forms with the z axis is defined by
the relation:

where θ is the angle that the couple vector M forms with the same axis.
Since Iz and Iy are both positive, φ and θ have the same sign.  
Furthermore, we note that φ > θ when Iz > Iy, and φ < θ when Iz < Iy.
Thus, the neutral axis is always located between the couple vector M and
 
the principal axis corresponding to the minimum moment of inertia.  
 (98)
 
Example 12:  
The couple M is applied to a
beam of the cross section shown in a plane

forming an angle b with the vertical.
Determine the stress at (a) point A, (b)

point B, (c) point D.

Decomposing the moment on the principal axes:

25 cos 15° 24.15  

25 sin 15° 6.47  

 

Calculating moment of inertia about the principal axes:

∑ 100
∑
1 1
30 80 30 80 60 90 80 90 80 20
12 12
16 640 000

1 80 30
1
80 90 5 040 000
12 12

Calculating stress at point A:

24.15 10 60

16 640 000
6.47 10 45
5 040 000 29.3
 
Calculating stress at point B:

24.15 10 60
16 640 000
6.47 10 45
144.8
5 040 000

Calculating stress at point D:

24.15 10 100
16 640 000
6.47 10 15
125.7
5 040 000
   

 (99)
   
Example 12 (continued):

Finding position of the neutral axis
(Method 1):
A 29.3
We know that the neutral axis passes
through point C where stress is zero. If O
we can find a second point where stress
is zero we can find the position of
neutral axis. Φ = 41.5° C
86.8
24.15 10 20 E
16 640 000
6.47 10 45
5 040 000
86.8

As the stress at point A is negative and

at point E positive there should be a
point in between where the stress is
zero. As the variation of stress is linear
this point of zero stress can be found Method 3:
easily:
Best Method to determine NA:
29.3 29.3 86.8
→
86.8 86.8
116.1 80 24.15 10
→ 59.8
86.8 16 640 000
6.47 10
59.8 20 0
41.5° 5 040 000
45
Y = 0.8845 Z (NA equation)

Finding position of the neutral axis (Method 2): OR
4
16 640 000
tan tan 4
tan 15° → 41.5°
5 040 000
  24.15 10
16 640 000
6.47 10
0
5 040 000

Y = 0.8845 Z (NA equation)

   
 (100)
Example 13: The couple M is applied to a beam of the
   
cross section shown. Find stress at point A.

Calculating section properties:
1 1
10 90 2 40 10 40 10 40
12 12
1 894 167
1 1
90 10 2 10 40 40 10 25
12 12
614 166.7
0 0 10 90 25 40 40 10
25 40 40 10 800 000

Finding principal axes of the section (Mohr’s circle):

229 666.8
2 2
 
227 8667
2 2
800 000  
tan 2 0.625 → 2
1 894 167 614 166.7
2 2
51.34° → 25.67°
2 ,
Decomposing the moment on the principal axes:

1.2 cos 25.67° 1.0816  

1.2 sin 25.67° 0.5198  

Finding coordinate of point A in uv system:

 

cos sin
sin cos
cos 25.67° sin 25.67° 45
sin 25.67° cos 25.67° 45 N.A. φ 
60.05 D

21.07
Calculating stress at point A: B

1.0816
10 21.07
229 666.8
0.5198 10 60.05
227 8667
112.97
112.97 →  112.97
Calculating stress at point B: 80.3 A
cos sin v
sin cos 112.97 80.3 45
cos 25.67° sin 25.67° 45 80.3
  N.A. D
sin 25.67° cos 25.67° 0
40.56 18.7   O

19.5
45 25.67° 21.63  
B
1.0816 10 19.5 tan tan 25.67°
229 666.8 80.3
229 666.8
  0.5198 10 40.56 tan 25.67°    
227 8667
227 8667 → 2.77°
80.3
 (101)
   

TBR 10: The moment acting on the cross section of the unequal-leg angle has a magnitude of 14 kNm and
is oriented as shown. Determine: (a) the bending stress at point H, (b) the bending stress at point K, (c) the
maximum tension and the maximum compression bending stresses in the cross section, (d) the orientation of
the neutral axis relative to the +z axis. Show its location on a sketch of the cross section.

Answer: Centroid location: 64.18 mm (from bottom of shape to centroid) and 39.18 mm from right
edge of shape to centroid. Moment of inertia about the z axis (Iz): 25,059,086.23 mm4. Moment of
inertia about the y axis (Iy): 12,133,386.23 mm4. Product of inertia about the centroidal axes (Iyz):
10,207,907.81 mm4. Bending stress at K: ‐82.6 MPa compression. Maximum tension and compression
bending stresses: 101 MPa and ‐82.6 MPa. Orientation of neutral axis is shown.