NLSI Lui Kwok Pat Fong College

F.3 History (2019-20)

Study Guide (WWII)

Name: ________________________________

Class: __________ ( )

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A. Introduction: problems left behind by WWI

1. Economic problems

• The WWI cost the participating countries heavily.

• War damage:
- The war caused great damage to Europe, especially France and Russia.
• Shortage of resources:
- By the end of the war, energy and food were already in shortage.
- Famine even occurred in some cities.
• Economic recession and unemployment:
- Almost all participating countries faced serious problems of economic
recession and unemployment after the war.
- ________________ and war reparations worsened the problems.
• The _________________________________ failed to provide a suitable plan for
recovery.
• After the war, every state was busy with ________________________________.
- Made __________________ cooperation to maintain peace effortless.

2. Discontent of Italy and Germany

(a) Italy: unable to get all the promised land

• The Italians felt betrayed by the Allied Powers.

- Italy did not get all the land promised by the Allied Powers.
• They blamed their government for being unable to protect national interests.

(b) Germany: the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh

• The Germans felt that the _______________________ was too harsh and not
fair.
• They felt humiliated that Germany was forced to accept the _____________
Clause.
• The Germans wanted to avenge their defeat in the war and revive Germany.

(c) Rise of totalitarianism

• The Italian and German governments were unable to solve post-war problems.

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• The rise of desire for strong governments or leaders solving the problems.
• This led to the rise of ______________________ in the two countries.

B. Development in the interwar period

1. The Great Depression (1929-1933)

(a) The Wall Street Crash

• Between 1919 and 1929, the economy of the USA was booming.
• Industrialists borrowed large sums of money from banks and invested heavily in
the stock market, people also participated in speculation.
• Share prices were grossly _________________.
• In October 1929, share prices on the New York Stock Exchange fell greatly.
- Many people and companies lost all their money overnight.
- ~100,000 companies closed down and unemployment reached 13 million.
• The USA entered a period called the _____________________________.

(b) Spread of the Great Depression

• The __________________________ of 1929 spread to Europe and _________.

• To save its economy, the USA (the major creditor and financier of post-war
Europe) demanded the repayment of loans.
- This hit the European economy very badly.
• The USA protected its domestic production by imposing high tariffs and quotas
on imported goods.
- Many European and Japanese factories closed down, unemployment rose
sharply.

(c) Impact of the Great Depression

• The Great Depression had great impact on the international situation.

- It caused political and social instability in Germany and Japan.
________________ governments were set up and their expansionist policy
threatened peace.
- It hit Britain and France seriously and weakened their ability and
determination to stop aggression.
- It made the ___________________ become more isolated after 1929 as it

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 focused more on rebuilding the domestic economy.

2. Rise of totalitarianism

(a) Meaning of totalitarianism

• Totalitarianism: an ideology or a political system.

• In a totalitarian state, the ruler holds ______________________ over the state
and controls all aspects of public and private life.

(b) Reasons for the rise of totalitarianism

• Reason for the rise of Fascism and Nazism:

- Post-war political and social instability troubled many European countries.
- Italians and Germans longed for a strong government.
• Reason for the rise of militarism in Japan:
- The party government was weak, the ________________ were able to
control government in the 1930s.

(c) Totalitarianism in Italy: Fascism

(i) How was totalitarian rule established in Italy?

• Situation in Italy after WWI favored the rise of Fascism:

- As Italy failed to get all the lands promised by the Allied Powers, the Italians
were discontented with their constitutional government.
- The government failed to solve serious economic and social problems.
- The Italians longed for a strong leader and a strong government.
- It provided a chance for the rise of ______________ and his
______________________.
• Fascist rule in Italy was created by Mussolini:
- Starting from 1922, Mussolini gradually controlled the whole country.
- Mussolini’s Fascist rule was lasted until 1943.

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(ii) Features of totalitarianism in Italy

One-party and ⬥ All political parties were banned except the Fascist Party.
one-man dictatorship ⬥ Mussolini and his Fascist Party controlled the government.
⬥ Mussolini demanded that all people should work for the
__________________
interests of the country and obey the state absolutely.
⬥ The state controlled people's daily life, work and
Total control and
education.
oppression
⬥ It also set up ________________ to watch over the people.
⬥ The Fascist Party promoted the cult of
Cult of personality ________________.
⬥ The basic government slogan: "Mussolini is always right."
⬥ Communists believed in the idea of __________________.
⬥ This idea would weaken unity among the people and even
Anti-______________
national strength.
⬥ The Fascists suppressed socialist and communist activities.
Economic ⬥ Mussolini hoped to reduce Italy's economic reliance on
__________________ foreign countries in order to protect the country's interests.
⬥ Mussolini greatly increased the military power of Italy.
Military and ⬥ Before the outbreak of the WWII, Italy actively expanded
territorial expansion in ___________ in order to revive the glory of the Roman
Empire.

(d) Totalitarianism in Germany: Nazism

(i) How was totalitarian rule established in Germany?

• Situation in Germany after WWI favored the rise of Nazism:

- The _____________________ was unpopular as it signed the ​Treaty of
Versailles​.
- The government failed to solve the post-war problems.
- Unemployment rose to >6 million in 1932 due to the Great Depression.
- The Germans longed for a strong leader and a strong government.
• Nazi rule in Germany was created by Hitler:
- Hitler promised that he would create jobs and rebuild the economy, he and
his __________________ were able to gain popular support.
- In 1932, the Nazi Party became the largest party in the German parliament.
- In 1933, Hitler became Chancellor.
- Hitler gradually established his totalitarian rule in Germany.

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(ii) Features of totalitarianism in Germany

One-party and ⬥ All political parties were banned except the Nazi Party.
one-man ⬥ Hitler and his Nazi Party controlled the government.
dictatorship
________________ ⬥ The state controlled people’s daily life, work and education.
and oppression ⬥ It also set up secret police to watch over the people.
⬥ The Nazi Party promoted the cult of Hitler.
⬥ Hitler was now called '_____________', meaning leader.
Cult of personality
⬥ In Nazi propaganda, Hitler became a 'heroric' leader who
could make Germany strong and powerful.
⬥ The Nazis believed that the _________ race (ancestors of
the Germans) was superior to and should rule other races.
⬥ They advocated exterminating the ________ in order to
Anti-_____________
preserve the purity of the German race.
⬥ During the reign of the Nazis, about 6 million Jews died of
different kinds of Nazi prosecution
⬥ Hitler believed the communist idea of class struggle would
Anti-communism weaken unity among the people and even national strength.
⬥ The Nazis suppressed all socialist and communist activities.
⬥ Hitler believed that Germany needed to get
Military and _____________________for its growing population.
territorial expansion ⬥ Hitler ignored the ​Treaty of Versailles​ by rebuilding
Germany's military power and expanding in Europe.

(e) Totalitarianism in Japan: militarism

(i) How was totalitarian rule established in Japan?

• Militarism: a belief in ____________________________.

• Situation in Japan after WWI favored the rise of militarism:
- The _________ government was weak, inefficient and corrupt.
- Japan's exports fell greatly and millions of people were unemployed due to
the Great Depression.
- The militarists and their ideas became popular. People believed what the
militarists said: to expand overseas in order to solve economic problems.
• Militarist rule in Japan was created by militarists:
- In 1931, the Japanese army invaded ______________ and set up
Manzhouguo.

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 - This increased the popularity of the Japanese military and militarism.
- In 1932, party government ended, the _______________ gained power and
established a military dictatorship step by step.
- Under the influence of militarism, Japan became more aggressive towards
China and Asia.

(ii) Features of totalitarianism in Japan

⬥ From 1932, the military gradually controlled the cabinet.

Military dictatorship ⬥ Under military dictatorship, all opposition to its rule was
silenced by force.
⬥ To unite the Japanese people, the military government
Control over
promoted an emperor-centred nationalism.
thoughts
⬥ Military rule brought controls over thoughts and ideas.
and _____________
⬥ School textbooks were used to promote patriotism and
worship
emperor worship.
⬥ Japanese communists advocated abolishing the __________
system and encouraged class struggle.
Anti-communism
⬥ Japanese militarists believed that the idea would weaken
unity among the people and even destroy national tradition.
⬥ Japan's expansion aimed to get territories for its surplus
Military and
population and markets for its industries.
territorial expansion
⬥ It expanded in China and Asia step by step.
⬥ Since the outbreak of the
____________________________ in 1937, the military
government controlled all resources and economic activities
State control
in the state.
⬥ The whole nation was mobilized to continue the war effort.
⬥ Civilians were given ______________ training.

3. Aggressions of Japan, Italy and Germany in the 1930s

• In the 1930s, totalitarian states started to expand.

• In 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Berlin-Rome-Axis.
• In 1940, Japan joined with Germany and Italy and the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo-Axis
was formed.
- The Axis Powers fought against the Allied Powers during the WWII.

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(a) Japan’s expansion in Asia

Year Event
September Shenyang Incident: Japanese troops
18, 1931 invaded the northeast provinces of
China.
January ⬥ Japanese troops attacked
1932 Shanghai.
⬥ They retreated under the
pressure of Britain, France and
the USA.
March ⬥ Japan set up ______________
1932 in the northeast provinces of
China.
⬥ It was a Japanese puppet state.
July 7, __________________ Incident:
1937 Japanese troops invaded Beiping.
Full-scale invasion of China started.

(b) Germany's expansion in Europe

Year Event
March German troops entered the
1936 demilitarized _________________.
This violated the ​Treaty of
Versailles.​
March Germany forced ____________ to
1938 accept a union with it. This also
violated the ​Treaty of Versailles.​
September Germany occupied the
1938 ______________________, the
northwestern area of
Czechoslovakia.

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(c) Italy’s expansion in Africa

Year Event
1935-1936 ⬥ Italy invaded Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia) in northeastern
Africa.
⬥ Italy ignored the warning of the League of Nations.
⬥ Britain and France allowed Italy to annex Abyssinia.

4. Responses of other major powers to aggression

(a) Appeasement policy of Britain and France

(i) Reasons for adopting appeasement

• Britain and France were founders of the League of Nations.

- They shouldered the responsibility to help the League to maintain peace.
• The two powers were hit badly by WWI and later the _____________________.
- Both wanted to focus on solving internal problems.
- They adopted a policy of appeasement towards the aggressions.

(ii) Appeasement towards Japanese and Italian aggressions

• In 1931, Japanese troops invaded the northeast provinces of China.

- Britain and France did nothing to stop Japan's invasion of China.
• In 1935, Italy invaded _________________.
- Britain and France secretly allowed Italy to occupy two-thirds of Abyssinia.

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(iii) Appeasement towards Nazi aggressions

• In May 1938, Hitler demanded that Czechoslovakia should give up the

___________________.
- The region was close to Germany and home to three million Germans.
- In September 1938, the leaders of Britain, France and Italy met with Hitler.
- Hitler could get what he wanted by the __________________________.
• The Munich Agreement was exemplary of the policy of
_____________________.

(b) Isolationism of the United States

• Since the end of WWI, the USA returned to a policy of __________________.

• After the _____________________________, the USA became more isolated.
• During the Abyssinian and Sudetenland Incidents, the USA only condemned the
aggressions without taking any strong action.
• American isolationism greatly encouraged the totalitarian aggressions.

(c) Improved Soviet-German relations

• Britain and France did not invite the USSR to the Munich Conference.
- ____________ believed that Britain and France planned to play Germany
against the USSR.
• When it failed to form an anti-Nazi alliance with Britain and France, the USSR
changed to improve its relations with Germany.
• In August 1939, the ____________________________________ was signed.
- The two countries agreed secretly to divide ____________.
• In September, Germany invaded Poland and it triggered off the WWII.

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C. The course of the war

1. Events leading to the outbreak of war

(a) Further expansion of Germany and Italy (March-April, 1939)

• In the summer of 1939, Germany occupied the whole of

_____________________.
• At the same time, Italy sent troops to Albania.
• Britain and France realized that appeasement policy had failed to stop
aggression.
• They sped up the armaments programmes and guaranteed the independence of
_____________.

(b) German invasion of Poland (September, 1939)

• Hitler believed that Britain and France would not go to war for Poland.
• Nevertheless, he made diplomatic preparations for invading Poland.
- The ​Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact ​was signed in August 1939.
• On September 1, Britain and France sent an ultimatum to Germany, demanding
German withdrawal from Poland.
• Without any reply from Germany, Britain and France declared war on Germany.
• The WWII broke out.

2. Major developments during the war

• The WWII was fought between two camps:

- The ____________________: Mainly formed by Germany, Italy and Japan.
- The ____________________: Mainly formed by Britain, France, the USA,
the USSR and China.
• The war was fought on a larger scale than the WWI.
- More countries joined the war.
- There was fighting in Europe, Africa and _________.

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Year Main Development
1940 ⬥ Germany occupied Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands,
Belgium and France
⬥ Germany invaded Britain, Battle of Britain began
⬥ Italy invaded North Africa
1941 ⬥ Germany invaded the USSR
⬥ Japan made a sudden attack on the American naval base at
_____________________.
⬥ The USA entered the war against the Axis Powers.
1942 The USA defeated Japan in the battles in the _____________
1943 ⬥ Soviet armies defeated German troops
⬥ The new Italian government signed an armistice with the Allies
1944 ⬥ Allied soldiers landed on Normandy, then freed other European
states under Nazi rule step by step
1945 ⬥ Germany surrendered, the war in Europe ended
⬥ Japan surrendered after _________________ were dropped on
its two cities

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D. Results and impact of the war

1. Wartime conferences and agreements

• During WWII, leaders of the USA, Britain and the USSR (the ‘Big Three’) met
several times to discuss wartime strategies and the post-war arrangements.
• The most important conferences: _________ and Potsdam Conferences.
- Decided most of the post-war settlements.

■ Post-war arrangements concerning Germany and Austria

⬥ Germany and its capital _________ were each divided into 4 zones.
⬥ Controlled separately by Britain, France, the USA and the USSR.
⬥ Austria was separated from Germany and was divided into 4 occupation zones.
⬥ The Germans living in Poland, Czechoslovakia and other European countries
were sent back to Germany.
⬥ __________________________ was carried out in Germany and Austria.
⬥ __________ became a neutral state in 1955 and was forbidden to be united with
Germany.

■ Post-war arrangements concerning Japan

⬥ Japan was occupied by the Allied Powers (dominated by the _______________).

⬥ American General ________________ became the first Supreme Commander
for the Allied Powers (SCAP) in Japan.
⬥ The SCAP punished Japanese military leaders and reformed Japan's political and
educational systems.
⬥ Japan and the Allied Powers signed the __________________________ in 1951.
⬥ Japan returned conquered territories to China and gave up control of Korea.
⬥ The occupation of Japan ended.

■ Post-war arrangements concerning other defeated countries

⬥ In July 1946, the Paris Peace Conference was called to discuss the settlements
with Italy, Rumania, Hungary, Bulgaria and Finland.
⬥ In February 1947, they signed the​ ________________________​ separately.

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⬥ The main terms of the treaties were: war reparations, limitations of armaments,
protection of minority rights and territorial adjustments.
⬥ Italy also had to give up all its overseas territories.
⬥ The five countries were allowed to become members of the ________________.

2. Impact of the war

(a) Political impact

(i) Formation of the United Nations

• The outbreak of WWII signified the failure of the ________________________.

• In 1942, 26 countries agreed to set up a new international organization to replace
the League.
• In June 1945, 50 nations signed the _____________________________,
marking the birth of the United Nations.
- It aims to maintain world peace and promote the economic, social and
cultural developments of nations.

(ii) Decolonization

• The impact of WWII:

- __________ captured the colonies of the Western powers in Asia during the
war.
- The easy defeat of the Western powers encouraged the rise of African and
Asian nationalism.
- The European powers were seriously weakened by the war, and were unable
to maintain colonial empires. The foundation of colonial rule was shaken.
• The start of ___________________________ after WWII:
- By 1944-64, ______ new independent nations appeared in Africa and Asia.
- It greatly changed the maps of Asia and Africa.

(iii) Rise of the United States and the Soviet Union as superpowers

• Declining influence and status of the European powers:

- The traditional European powers were seriously weakened by WWII.
- After the war, their ___________ became independent one by one.
- They were further weakened and their international influence decreased.

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• Rising influence of the USA and USSR:
- The USA and the USSR rose to be _____________________.
- After the war, the two superpowers competed for world leadership.
- Their confrontation led to the _________________.

(b) Economic, social and technological impacts

(i) Casualties and damage

• WWII was the most destructive war in history:

- Battles were fought in __________, Africa and ____________.
- More than 50 countries joined the war.
- More powerful and more destructive weapons were used, such as bombers
and the atomic bomb.
• Greater casualties than WWI:
- About 60 million people, including soldiers and civilians were killed.
- Thousands of civilians were killed due to Axis Powers’ policy of
____________.
- Nazi Germany killed ~6 million Jews.
- >300,000 Chinese were killed by Japanese soldiers in the Nanjing Massacre.
- Millions of families were broken up and caused a shortage of labour.

(ii) Development of science and technology

• During the two great wars, science and technology made rapid progress.
• Although they were developed for military use originally, they brought great
benefits to mankind in the long run.
- ________________ was produced on a large scale and this life-saving
medicine became widely available.
- The radio, airplanes and other wartime communication and transportation
tools were used by the public after the war.
• The USA used the ____________________ to end the war.
- It started the age of nuclear weapons.
- During the Cold War, the USA and the USSR were engaged in a nuclear
arms race. Mankind had been living under the threat of a nuclear war.

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Data-based Questions
1. Study the source below, and answer the questions that follow.

A German cartoon about the Paris Peace Conference published in 1919.

Bury Germany

A. According to the source, what was the attitude of Germany towards the ​Treaty of
Versailles?​ Explain your answer with reference to the source. (1+2 marks)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

B. Why did Germany have the attitude you mentioned in Question A? Explain your
answer using your own knowledge. (4 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

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2. Study the source below, and answer the questions that follow.

American musician Alec Wilder’s memories of the 1920s (Source: Studs Terkel,
Hard Times: An Oral History of the Great Depression, 2​ 013)

I knew something was terribly wrong because I heard bellboys,

everybody, talking about the stock market. ……About six weeks before
the Crash, I persuaded my mother in Rochester to let me talk to our
family adviser. ….. I talked to this charming man and told him I wanted
to unload this stock. …..He got very sentimental: “Oh, your father
wouldn’t have liked you to do that.” He was so persuasive, I said O.K. I
could have sold it for $160,000. Six weeks later, the Crash. Four years
later, I sold it for $4,000.

A. What was the cause of the Wall Street Crash? Explain your answer with reference
to the source, and using your own knowledge. (1+4 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
B. What were the impacts of the Wall Street Crash on the Americans? Explain your
answer with reference to the source, and using your own knowledge. (1+4 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

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3. Study the sources below, and answer the questions that follow.

Source I Source II Source III

Source IV Source V

A speech made by Hitler:

A speech made by Mussolini:

You must obey the rule of the Nazi

In order to restore our glory of ancient
Party and me! I will be able to
Rome, we will acquire more land by
bring glory to the country! Your
force! You must work hard to assist
life will be completely controlled
the nation and personal interests are
by the government. Any resistance
unimportant!
will be punished!

A. Identify the emblems shown in Sources I, II and III. (3 marks)

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

B. Which emblems in Sources I, II and III were related to Hitler and Mussolini
respectively? (2 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

C. According to Source IV and Source V, what were the main features of Hitler and
Mussolini’s rule? Put a tick ‘​✓​’ in each appropriate box. (2 marks)
a. Different political parties took part in b. The government was a one-party
politics □ dictatorship □
c. People enjoyed different freedoms □ d. People were fully controlled by
the government □
e. The government resolved foreign f. The government had a policy of
disputes by diplomatic means □ expansion by force □

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 g. National interests came first □ h. People’s interests came first □

D. How would Hitler and Mussolini’s ideas threaten world peace? Explain your
answer with reference to the choices you have chosen in Question C, and using
your own knowledge. (4 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

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4. Study the sources below, and answer the questions that follow.

Source I: The following is a cartoon published in 1938.

Source II: The following is a cartoon showing the Soviet-German relations in the late
1930s.
The Real Surprise
NON-AGGRESSION PACT
with RUSSIA
Finding someone left in the
world willing to accept a Hitler
pledge

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A. To which historical event does Source I refer? Cite ​two clues from Source I to
support your answer. (1+2 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

B. Why was the man on the right in Source I standing? Explain your answer using
your own knowledge. (2 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

C. What was the relationship between Germany and the Soviet Union in the late
1930s, as reflected in Source II? Cite ​one​ clue from Source II to support your
answer. (1+1 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

D. What was the attitude of the cartoonist of Source II towards the Soviet-German
relations you mentioned in Question C? Explain your answer using your own
knowledge. (1+2 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

E. What was the responsibility of Britain and France for the outbreak of the Second
World War? Explain your answer with reference to Source I and Source II, and
using your own knowledge. (6 marks)
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

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5. Study the sources below, and answer the questions that follow.

Source I
Adapted from an online article about the Pearl Harbour Attack

American commanders in Hawaii and the Philippines knew in advance that

“in the following few days, Japan will launch an attack”. However, officials
in Washington doubted if Pearl Harbour would be the first target. Therefore,
the naval commanders at Pearl Harbour made no preparations for the attack.
Military officers and other officials in Pearl Harbour took their leave as
usual on the afternoon of December 6. At that time, there were 780 airplanes
in Pearl Harbour, and only 195 of them were manned. Most of them were
without ammunition.

Source II Source III

Adapted from an online article about
Report of US Navy in 1942 the aims of Japan in launching the
Casualties: Pearl Harbour Attack
2400 maintenance workers and
civilians According to the Japanese military’s
Losses: reliable information, all American
6 capital ships sunk battleships in the Pacific would be
10 battleships sunk parked at the Pearl Harbout in
164 planes damaged …. Hawaii on December 7, 1941. If
Japan could destroy the base, the
United States could no longer
obstruct its expansion in the Pacific
and getting Asia’s important
resources.

A. According to Sources I, II and III, which of the following statements are correct?
Put a tick ‘​✓​’ in each appropriate box. (1 mark)

The attack caused serious damage to the United States.

The attack did not cause any civilian deaths.
Japan launched the attack because the United States obstructed its
expansion in the Atlantic.
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 Japan attacked the Pearl Harbour because it was an important
American naval base.

B. According to Source A, why the naval commanders at Pearl Harbour made no

preparations for Japan’s attack? (2 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

C. Was Japan’s attack at Pearl Harbour effective? Explain your answer with
reference to Source II? (2 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

D. Why did Japan launch a sudden attack at Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941?
Explain your answer with reference to Source III. (2 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

E. Do you think that it was wise for Japan to launch a sudden attack at Pearl
Harbour? Explain your answer with relevant historical facts. (3 marks)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

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Vocabulary List

1. Great Depression
2. Totalitarianism
3. Fascism
4. Nazism
5. Militarism
6. Anti-Semitism
7. Mussolini
8. Hitler
9. Anti-communism
10. Isolationism
11. Appeasement policy
12. The Munich Agreement
13. The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
14. Axis Powers
15. Allied Powers
16. Pearl Harbour Incident
17. Atomic bomb
18. Yalta Conference
19. Potsdam Conference
20. Denazification
21. The United Nations
22. Decolonization
23. Superpowers

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