Aves

HOMEOTHERMIC!

flying innovation huge, distinct!

Aves Arose from a dinosaur lineage, but flight has molded how they live and
function creating a unique animal.

only other groups to develop flight were ancient reptiles (pterodactyls),

bats, and insects.

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Recent findings that birds are modified reptiles have increased the call for
combining the class Aves with the Reptilia as a single monophyletic group,
the Sauropsida, with birds and crocodiles together in Archosauria.

feather insulation -> Homeothermic

What’s new in birds?
flight = huge metabolic demand, need to improve respiratory and
circulatory system
 Flight and feathers
-> 4 chambered heart: complete dual circuit circulatory system
 4 chambered heart ->lungs supplemented with air sacs + unique 1 way route
 Lungs and air sacs
 Parental care and social behaviour
Like mammals, expend a huge amount of time and energy to caring
for a few offspring (K selection)

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flying to capture insects in the air (spiders evolved as major group

with nets to catch flying insects)
bats almost exclusively insectivore or fruit eating
Origins of flight
tree down: ancestor jumps from the trees and glides to the ground
 Arose 4 times ground up: running animal jumps into the air, glides and remains airborne
 2 theories for development
– tree-down theory
– ground up theory FEATHERS WERE NOT ORIGINALLY FOR FLIGHT!

feathers START AS INSULATION! homeothermy and constant temperature

equals regulated functions

-> also "sweep nets" to trap insects/nets to capture food

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ancestor bipedal, increased surface area in arms for gliding. Flapping manipulated gliding surface and BAM!
New locomotion: controlled flight. Chasing new food source or escaping predators? Unknown.
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 Aves

Avian resting homeothermic temperature is 5 degrees higher than ours

Avian adaptations for flight
Feathers create large surface area with less weight than skin or bones: largest part
of a bird's surface is feathers not body tissue!
 Feathers
 Decreased weight essential for flight
 Increased power (for flight)
require high metabolic capacity
to fuel energetic flight

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modified reptilian scale, similar in origins to a hair (insulation)

Feathers
Begin as cone-shaped PAPILLA formed in dermis, developed into
papilla keratinized feather (see mammal slides for keratin).

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papilla: Small nipplelike projection including the root papilla

that forms mammalian hair and epidermal growths on a variety of surfaces

unfolds into a quill leading to a shaft, with vane's formed from barbs.
Feathers

Vane
Most feathers consist of a central shaft with barbs that grow out from
Shaft two sides of the shaft to form vanes

Quill
CONTOUR feather: interlocked barbs creating a solid vane

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Aves

To ensure a solid surface the small BARBS/VEINS are

interlocked by several BARBULES with HOOKS:
barbs and barbules ~ velcro!
Feather structure
interlocking creates air pockets, light perforated surface
cushions air/weight and create lift.
Shaft

Barb
grooming: interlocking barbs and barbules
Barbule + oiling with oil from UROPYGIAL gland at base of tail.
Hooklets

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wings are mostly feathers increase surface area without the weight of skin and bones.
Feathers
(flight/contour feathers) Weight furthur reduced by reduction in the size and number of bones to
(interlocked vanes) minimum required to support the feathers, flights, muscles..

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Decreasing weight

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Aves

Preening: Interlocks vanes and applies oil from the UROPYGIAL gland
which prevents the feathers from becoming brittle
Feathers
at the base of tail, secretes oils which are applied to feathers
Uropygial gland: during preening
 Contour feathers shape, flight
 Down feathers insulative
 Filoplumes decorative
 Bristles sensory Contour feathers: locked vanes, shape bird and function as flight feathers

Down feathers: insulating, not interlocked and are fluffy

 Uropygial gland

Filoplumes: insulation and decoration (for sexual selection)

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Université d’Ottawa / University of Ottawa 09:52 Bristles: may be sensory or may filter air as it enters respiratory system.

Skeletal organization decrease weight: reduction in # bones

eyes are fixed in sockets, large # very flexible neck vertebrae allow head to
rotate in order to look around
Fused trunk
Neck vertebrae vertebrae Rest of vertebrae fused to pelvic girdle to supports bipedal stance.

Sternal keel Reduced tail

vertebrae Sternum enlarged and modified into sternal keel to insert flight muscles

Aerodynamic: taking centre mass of animal, placing under the

flight mechanism/motor

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not solid! very porous, filled with air spaces.

Bone structure
Hallow and pneumatised, supported by internal struts.

struts are internal reinforcing structures that match the shearing force
encountered by beating of wings. Brittle bones!

resist pressure in 1 direction, not so much in other. Minimal structural

integrity to allow function.

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Aves

most of the digits are gone. Turned into 1 elongated bony structure to
attach feathers too. More weight reductions.
Bird wing
only 2nd, 3rd, 4th digits remain. Other bones reduced or gone.

Radius

2nd Digit
Humerus
Ulna

3rd Digit
4th Digit

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flight muscles attached underneath to keel of sternum.

Normally, muscles for limbs are to the sides.
Sternal keel
Scapula
Elevator muscle achored to the sternal keel, with the tendon
Humerus passing through the scapula/attachment point to above the limb
attachment: lever system pulling "up" from below!
Tendon
Wing elevator muscle depressor muscle also attached to sternum, connected directly under limb to
(Supracoracoideus muscle) pull down on it.
Wing depressor muscle
(Pectoralis muscle)

Sternal keel
consolodated all in one location, system of levers
with enough power to lift the wings for flight
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Circulatory system innominate pretty much only thing left. Streamlining of the system.

1. Carotids LEFT SYSTEMIC ARCH BECOMES MAJOR BLOOD VESSEL for systemic system
2.
3.
Innominate 4.
5. Pulmonary artery Blood is oxygenated as it flows through the parabronchi and returns to a
6.
Lung
four-chambered heart with separate pulmonary and systemic circulatory
Systemic arch Pulmonary vein
routes. Birds have high heart rates, and the smaller the bird, the more
rapidly its heart beats
Dorsal aorta

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 Aves

a single blood vessel running the length of the animals

gets rid of paired systemics
Arterial circulation
lung
to kidney's to legs Carotid: to head
Renal Femoral (external iliac) Subclavian: to wings?
Pulmonary
(Gonadal) Sciatic (external iliac)
Anterior hip/thigh
6. mesenteric Internal iliac
pelvic/sexual organs
Innominate
Caudal Pulmonary circut: lungs and back, right ventricle
Carotid to tail Systemic circuit: everywhere else and back, left ventricle
4.
Subclavian
Coelic Dorsal Posterior
Systemic upper organs aorta mesenteric
arch/aorta and tissue organs and tissues in lower
all but lungs abdominal region 4 chamber heart! 2 atria, 2 ventricles
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16 With a 3 chambered heart the ventrical was the only pump.
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1 squeeze of the ventrical sent blood to lungs, the next pump to the rest of body,
then next the lungs... Each pump sent blood to either the pulmonary or
systemic circuit.

With the ventrical divided into 2, each time the heart pumps
it send blood into both circuits simultaneously, which is far more efficient.

post cava drains posterior regions. ant cava the heart up and wings.
Venous circulation
hepatic vein drains liver
wings, pectoral Hepatic portal hepatic portal vein drains digestive system
Pulmonary Renal portal
Subclavian coccygeal messenteric drains post digestive and empties the hepatic portal vein
Coccygeal
drain head
Jugular
mesenteric renal/renal portal drain kidneys
tail
Anterior Caudal single posterior vena cava, blood vessel. Streamlined!
vena cava Internal iliac
drain ant pelvic/sexual organs
Renal
regions Hepatic Common iliac
Femoral drains femoral
Posterior vena cava legs
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High oxygen demand for the metabolic requirements of flight and homeothermy.
Air sacs
Ditch the tidal "in and out" flow of the lungs!
Trachea
A series of (9?) air sacs create a unidirection flow, moving air in through
Anterior air sac the parabronchi of the lungs and out?
Lungs No diaphram, rely on INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES to expand lungs and sacs.
Posterior air sac

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18 act like bellows
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parabronchi: The small air tubes in a bird's lungs forming the gas exchange surface.
Unlike other vertebrates, air flows across the surface in only one direction.
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 wikipedia: Half of the inhaled air enters the posterior air sacs, the other half passes through the lungs and into the anterior air sacs.
Air from the anterior air sacs empties directly into the trachea and out the bird's mouth or nares.
Aves The posterior air sacs empty their air into the lungs. Air passing through the lungs as the bird exhales is expelled via the trachea
As air flows through the air sac system and lungs, there is no mixing of oxygen-rich air and oxygen-poor, carbon dioxide-rich, air as in mammalian lungs.
Thus, the partial pressure of oxygen in a bird's lungs is the same as the environment, and so birds have more efficient gas-exchange of both oxygen and carbon dioxide than do mammals.
In addition, air passes through the lungs in both exhalation and inspiration, with the air sacs functioning as a reservoir for the next breath of air.

When the ribcage expands (using intercostal muscles) air is pulled into the
"out arrows" = ribcage expands, pulling air into sac anterior sac and lungs (simultaneously the air in the lungs/parabronchi is
pulled through the posterior sac).
Avian lungs
Contraction moves air from the anterior sac into the lungs, and from the
posterior sac out the trachea (exhaled).

Next expansions moves the air from the lungs to the posterior sac, and also
inhales air from the trachea into the anterior sac.

the only way they can breath is by expanding ribcage

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19 Not really filling then compressing out, simply moving the air through!
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lungs have no alveoli, just the unidirectional flow across the parabronchae.
This extract a lot more O2 from air than our system, as the air keeps flowing through
and they parabronchae are not emptied
( we inhale, hoping to extract a lot before exhaling).

More strategies to decrease weight and accomodate metabolic needs

Digestive system
Esophagus Complex digestive system, specialized for extracting energy.
Crop to store food for long flights and young
Crop
Large gizzard to grind food and mix it with the digestive enzymes
Liver
Proventriculus from the proventriculus in front of the stomach.
Bile ducts and pancreatic juices enter the anterior part of the intestine,
Pancreas and undigested food is removed through the cloaca,
Gizzard

Intestine although some birds, owls for example, regurgitate undigested food as pellets.

Cloaca
feed on rich foods, seeds, insects, meat. Canada goose exception, leaves
a mess!
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proventriculus: In birds, glandular stomache between crop and gizzard

minimized! Only have reproductive organs in reproductive season, atrophy

out of season.
only have 1 ovary, 1 kidney (some have 2 that are reduced in size)
Female Follicle with eggs
Ovum
kidney's are metanephridic, eliminate metabolic wastes as uric acid.
Kidney
Oviduct

Ureter Uterus &

Shell gland

Cloaca

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21 end result: light weight flying machine
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cloaca: The shared common opening to a number of organ systems that may include the reproductive, digestive, and/or excretory system.
In birds, the excretory, digestive, and reproductive tracts share this opening.