"Start with the end in mind.

"

PURPOSE AND USE OF THIS GUIDE

This guide is intended to serve as a practical "how to" reference for curriculum developers. Each
step in the process builds on the previous step to provide a systematic approach. The
curriculum development process has been divided into twelve essential steps grouped into four
major phases: (1) planning, (2) content and method, (3) implementation, and (4) evaluation.
Most steps occur in sequential order, but some may occur concurrently. For example, evalua-
tion occurs in several steps and is also a step at the end of the process for impact feedback.

Four principles have directed the development of this guide:

1. youth, as the learners, are the focus of the curriculum development process;

2. curriculum materials are developed by teams of experts and learners;
3. a systematic approach using best practices maximizes the quality and effectiveness of
curriculum development; and
4. suggestions and examples used in this guide should be adapted and changed to fit specific
circumstances, audiences, and environments.

Every effort has been made to "walk in the curriculum developer's shoes," (i.e., to predict what
might be most helpful to members of a curriculum development team, to keep focused on youth
(learners) as the audience, and to recognize the importance of volunteer leaders (facilitators).
The term "facilitator" is used throughout the guide because it seems most appropriate for a
rural out-of-school youth audience. Although population education examples are used to
illustrate concepts and practices, the procedures can be adapted and applied to nearly any
topic.

ORGANIZATION

The phases and steps of the curriculum development process provide the organizing structure
for this guide. A model and illustration of the process with a summary of each step is provided in
the overview section. It can be used as a "stand alone" summary to describe the curriculum
development process and inform primary shareholders (stakeholders), (e.g., funding or policy
decision makers, publicity, or curriculum development team member recruiting). Curriculum
team members should read the overview prior to accepting an assignment on the committee
and before attending the first planning meeting. As the team progresses through the process,
the procedures will guide and support their activities. The main text provides basic information.
Additional information and examples are in the Addendum section for those who wish for more
indepth explanations. A number of resources were reviewed for "best practices" and are cited in
the reference section.

Wherever possible, illustrations and examples are presented on one page so they can easily be
copied for transparencies or handouts. Checklists are provided for quick review of essential
elements. Checklists are also useful as criteria to evaluate if elements have been adequately
incorporated. The margins have been configured for those who like to work from notebook
binders. Technical information about the text configuration is provided in the Addendum as
well. Let's get started on the curriculum development process!
The curriculum development process systematically organizes what will be taught, who will be
taught, and how it will be taught. Each component affects and interacts with other components.
For example, what will be taught is affected by who is being taught (e.g., their stage of
development in age, maturity, and education). Methods of how content is taught are affected by
who is being taught, their characteristics, and the setting. In considering the above three
essential components, the following are widely held to be essential considerations in
experiential education in non-formal settings:

    Essential Considerations for Curriculum Development:

1. issue/problem/need is identified (issue  what),

2. characteristics and needs of learners (target
audience  who),
3. changes intended for learners (intended
outcomes/objectives  what the learners will be able to
do),
4. the important and relevant content (what),
5. methods to accomplish intended outcomes (how),
6. evaluation strategies for methods, content, and intended
outcomes (What works?).

The CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODEL on the next page (Figure 1) shows how these
components relate to each other and to the curriculum development process. It begins when an
issue, concern, or problem needs to be addressed. If education or training a segment of the
population will help solve the problem, then curriculum to support an educational effort becomes
a priority with human and financial resources allocated.

The next step is to form a curriculum develop-ment team. The team makes systematic decisions
about the target audience (learner characteristics), intended out-comes (objectives), content,
methods, and evaluation strategies. With input from the curriculum development team, draft
curriculum products are developed, tested, evaluated, and redesigned -if necessary. When the
final product is produced, volunteer training is conducted. The model shows a circular process
where volunteer training provides feedback for new materials or revisions to the existing
curriculum.
An Example: 1n the case of population education, a need rural out-
of-school youth with information on how population relates to the
total environment as well as their personal lives.

(Insert Curriculum Development Model here)

Figure 1

 
Figure 2
PHASES AND STEPS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (See Figure 2 on the previous
page) further illustrates how the 12 essential steps progress from one to the next. It also shows
the interaction and relationships of the four essential phases of the curriculum development
process: ( I) Planning, (II) Content and Methods, (III) Implementation, and (IV) Evaluation
and Reporting. It is important to acknowledge that things do not always work exactly as
depicted in a model!

Each phase has several steps or tasks to complete in logical sequence. These steps are not
always separate and distinct, but may overlap and occur concurrently. For example, the
curriculum development team is involved in all of the steps. Evaluations should occur in most of
the steps to assess progress. The team learns what works and what does not and determines
the impact of the curriculum on learners after it is implemented. Each step logically follows the
previous. It would make no sense to design learning activities before learner outcomes and
content are described and identified. Similarly, content cannot be determined before learner
outcomes are described.

In the experience of the author, and confirmed by other curriculum specialists, the following
curriculum development steps are frequently omitted or slighted. These steps are essential to
successful curriculum development and need to be emphasized.

Essential Curriculum Development Steps Needing

Emphasis

1. Needs  assessment: if not conducted, wonderful

curriculum could be developed, but the appropriate
needs of the target audience may not be met.
2. Involving youth: the target audience and
volunteers (or staff) who will be the implementors of
the curriculum must be involved (i.e., they participate
as full members of the curriculum development team).
3. Recruiting and training volunteer
facilitators: competent and skilled curriculum
implementors are critical (the printed word
cannot teach experiential group process, it doesn't
provide feedback).
4. Evaluating and reporting on the impact of the
curriculum: is critical for securing human and
financial support from key policy decision makers and
for assessing whether the curriculum has achieved the
intended outcome.

Two types of evaluation are included in the Phases and Steps

illustration: (1) Formative provides feedback during the process of developing the curriculum,
and (2) Summative answers questions about changes (impact) that have occurred in learners
because of their learning experiences. Summative evaluation provides evidence for what works,
what does not work, and what needs to be improved.
In every step of the curriculum development process, the most important task is to keep the
learner (in this case, youth) in mind and involve them in process. For example, the curriculum
team members, who have direct knowledge of the target audience, should be involved in con-
ducting the needs assessment. From the needs assessment process, the problem areas are
identified, gaps between what youth know and what they need to know are identified, and the
scope of the problem is clarified and defined. The results may prompt decision makers to
allocate resources for a curriculum development team to prepare curriculum materials.

A brief description of each of the curriculum development steps is described below. After
reviewing these descriptions, you should have a very clear idea of how the steps occur in each
of the phases and what each step includes.

PHASE I: PLANNING

"Nobody plans to fail but failure results from a failure to plan."

The planning phase lays the foundation for all of the curriculum development steps. The steps in
this phase include:

(1)  Identify Issue/Problem/Need

↪(2) Form Curriculum Development Team

↪(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

(1)   Identify Issue/Problem/Need

The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about a major issue or
problem of one or more target audience. This section explores some of the questions that need
to be addressed to define the issue and to develop a statement that will guide the selection of
the members of a curriculum development team. The issue statement also serves to broadly
identify, the scope (what will be included) of the curriculum content.

(2)   Form Curriculum Development Team

Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defined, the members of the
curriculum development team can be selected. Topics covered in this section include: (1)
the roles and functions of team members, (2) a process for selecting members of the
curriculum development team, and (3) principles of collaboration and teamwork. The goal is
to obtain expertise for the areas included in the scope of the curriculum content among the team
members and develop an effective team.

(3)   Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

There are two phases in the needs assessment process. The first is procedures for conducting
a needs assessment. A number of techniques are aimed toward learning what is needed and
by whom relative to the identified issue. Techniques covered in this section include: KAP -
Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice Survey; focus groups; and environmental scanning.

Analysis, the second part of this needs assessment step, describes techniques on how to use
the data and the results of the information gathered. Included are: ways to identify gaps
between knowledge and practice; trends emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs;
and identification of the characteristics of the target audience.

"As the twig is bent, so grows the tree"

PHASE II: CONTENT AND METHODS

Phase II determines intended outcomes (what learners will be able to do after participation in
curriculum activities), the content (what will be taught), and the methods (how it will be taught).
Steps include:

(4) State Intended Outcomes

↪ (5) Select Content                                                              

    ↪(6) Design Experiential Methods

(4) State Intended Outcomes

Once the issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs assessed, analyzed and
prioritized, the next step is to refine and restate the issue, if needed, and develop the intended
outcomes or educational objectives. An intended outcome states what the learner will be
able to do as a result of participating in the curriculum activities.

This section includes: (1) a definition of intended outcomes, (2) the components of intended
outcomes (condition, performance, and standards), (3) examples of intended outcomes, and (4)
an overview of learning behaviors. A more complete explanation of the types and levels of
learning behaviours is included in the Addendum as well as intended outcome examples from
FAO population education materials.

(5)   Select Content

The next challenge in the curriculum development process is selecting content that will make a
real difference in the lives of the learner and ultimately society as a whole. At this point, the
primary questions are: "If the intended outcome is to be attained, what will the learner need to
know? What knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours will need to be acquired and
practiced?"
The scope (breadth of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours) and the sequence (order)
of the content are also discussed. Intended outcomes of population education with content
topics is provided in the Addendum section as an example and application of how intended
outcomes are linked with content.

(6)   Design Experiential Methods

After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities (learning experiences) to help
the learner achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An experiential learning model and it's
components (i.e., experience, share, process, generalize, and apply) are discussed in this
section.

Additional topics include:

1. learning styles and activities appropriate for each style;

2. a list of types of activities (with descriptions);
3. an activity design worksheet for facilitators; and
4. brief discussions on learning environments and delivery modes.

Ten population education sample activity sheets along with tips for facilitators working with
youth and dealing with sensitive topics are included in the Addendum.

PHASE III:IMPLEMENTATION

(7) Produce Curriculum Product

↪(8) Test and Revise Curriculum

↪(9) Recruit and Train Facilitators

↪(10) Implement Curriculum

(7)   Produce Curriculum Product

Once the content and experiential methods have been agreed upon, the actual production of
curriculum materials begins. This section includes: 1) suggestions for finding and evaluating
existing materials; 2) evaluation criteria; and 3) suggestions for producing curriculum materials.

(8)   Test and Revise Curriculum

This step includes suggestions to select test sites and conduct a formative evaluation of
curriculum materials during the production phase. A sample evaluation form is provided.

(9)   Recruit and Train Facilitators

It is a waste of resources to develop curriculum materials if adequate training is not provided for
facilitators to implement it. Suggestions for recruiting appropriate facilitators are provided with a
sample three-day training program.

(10)    Implement Curriculum

Effective implementation of newly developed curriculum products is unlikely to occur without

planning. Strategies to promote and use the curriculum are discussed in this step.

PHASE IV: EVALUATION AND REPORTING

(11) Design Evaluation Strategies

               ↪(12) Reporting and Securing Resources

(11)    Design Evaluation Strategies

Evaluation is a phase in the curriculum development model as well as a specific step. Two types
of evaluation, formative and summative, are used during curriculum development. Formative
evaluations are used during the needs assessment, product development, and testing steps.
Summative evaluations are undertaken to measure and report on the outcomes of the
curriculum. This step reviews evaluation strategies and suggests simple procedures to produce
valid and reliable information. A series of questions are posed to guide the summative
evaluation process and a sample evaluation format is suggested.

(12)    Reporting and Securing Resources

The final element in an evaluation strategy is "delivering the pay off (i.e., getting the results into
the hands of people who can use them). In this step, suggestions for what and how to report to
key shareholders, especially funding and policy decision makers, are provided and a brief
discussion on how to secure resources for additional programming.

PHASE I: PLANNING

"If you do not know where you are going you will end up somewhere else'

(1) Identify The Issue / Problem / Needs

Ê(2) Form Curriculum Development Team

Ê(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

STEP 1: IDENTIFY THE ISSUE / PROBLEM / NEEDS

 "There is an island of opportunity in the middle of every difficulty."

After reviewing this step, you should be able to identify contributing factors to the issue or
problem and develop a broad issue or need statement.

The very first step in the curriculum development process is to clearly state the issue that
prompted the initiation of a curriculum development effort.

Broad population education issue:

Overpopulation is a prime factor in many countries with slow economic

development. The rate of agricultural production cannot keep up with the population
growth rate. The result is food shortages, lack of employment opportunities, and
strains on natural resources (land and water) and the infrastructure (roads,
transportation, electricity, etc.). There is a need for better population education,
especially in the rural areas, aimed at lowering the size of families.

Although this statement identifies the essence of the issue, the negative effect of overpopulation
on economic growth and a remedy (population education), it requires further analysis and
refinement to serve as a guide for curriculum development.

An issue statement should indicate:

 who is affected or involved,

 the scope of the problem (issue) to be addressed by the curriculum, and
 the consequences.

An issue statement should not:

 describe impacts of potential programs,

 define a programmatic response to an issue, or
 be a positive statement about the future. (USDA/ES, 1992)

The issue/problem/need statement should describe the issue in the clearest and simplest
language possible, (i.e., in a way the community (state or nation) would recognize it as their
own). One approach to further refinement is to analyze the factors contributing to the problem.
First ask: "What are the contributing factors to this issue?"

Contributing Factors;

 population education is not available to rural out-of-school youth;

 lack of knowledge about methods! to limit family size;
 cultural/religious/social value of having many children;
 lack of skill in decision making and communicating with spouse; and
 lack of knowledge about the effect of family size on lifestyle.
Additional questions to help define the scope of the issue include:

* What is the most pressing problem in this issue?

* How or where can programs and/or curriculum materials make a difference?
* Who else is working on this issue? Are there specific areas of the issue where others have specialized to
meet certain needs?
* Where can cooperating organizations and/or agencies contribute to make a significant difference?
* In what sequence should these problems be addressed? Where should we start?
* Who are the target audiences?
* Why is each audience significant?
* Can this target audience effect the issue? Or are they effected by it?
* Should audiences be reached in a particular sequence to effectively address this issue?
Population Education Analysis

A review of existing population education in many developing countries indicates

family planning clinics provide information and training on family size. Population
education has also been added to secondary school curricula. However, in many
countries very few rural youth attend secondary school. For example, in Africa it is
estimated that only 10% of the population reach secondary school. Therefore, the
target audience would logically be rural out-of-school youth. They are least likely to
have access to the information.

The focus of the concern in this case is on "addressing concerns about the
relationship between population growth and the achievement of development goals,
particularly those in the areas of integrated rural development and sustainable
agricultural production. It is intended for use with out-of-school rural youth (future
parents and producers) to help them understand the effects of rapid population
growth and the need for responsible parenthood" (FAO, 1990).

These statements identify the issues to be addressed and outline the scope of the curriculum to
be developed (i.e., population growth in relation to integrated rural development and sustainable
agricultural production) for rural out-of-school youth. They can be used to help secure either
public or private funding support. The issue statement can help guide the types of expertise
needed on the curriculum development team. From the population education statements, we
would expect to include experts on: rural out-of-school youth programs and organizations;
health and nutrition; sustainable agricultural; and integrated rural development. The targeted
audience is identified as rural out-of-school youth.

The goal is to reach these youth before they establish families and have children. Using
an integrated approach to population education, through curriculum activities, they will
understand how overpopulation effects the environment. They will have the knowledge,
attitudes, skills, and behavior needed to make wise decisions about their family size.

A thorough discussion of how to develop intended outcome statements is included in Step 4. A

sample intended outcome statement for population education might be:

Population Education Sample Intended Outcome:

 Through completion of the population education curriculum, rural out-of-school
youth will be able to identify factors affecting overpopulation and apply this
knowledge to determine their own family size.

STEP 2: FORM CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT TEAM

"None Of Us Is As Smart As All Of Us"

After reviewing this step, you should be prepared to:

 identify who to select for your curriculum development team members,

 describe the roles and responsibilities of curriculum team members, and
 apply the principles of collaboration during the curriculum development process.

Curriculum Development Team Selection

No single individual has all the skills to design and develop curriculum materials. Curriculum
teams usually include educational designers, subject matter experts, youth development/
human development specialists, writers for youth, graphic designers, youth artists, editors,
members of the target audience - the "users" of the curriculum (students, teachers, volunteer
leaders, etc.). Depending on the scope of the project and the funding sources, key policy and
funding decision makers may also need to be involved. For example, if the Extension field staff
train facilitators, Extension decision makers need to support the effort and may need to be
directly involved on the committee. Funding source representatives may also request to be
involved.

As the ultimate end users of the curriculum, youth should be fully involved as members of the
team. Youth participation does require special attention. The goal of youth participation in the
planning process must be clearly understood by all. The purpose is to incorporate youth
perceptions, ideas, and creativity to help make the end product relevant to youth. All team
members need to encourage youth to speak-up and participate as full contributing members of
the team. In many cultures, this is a big leap from usual practices (youth are to be seen and not
heard). Just as adult members need to think about and encourage youth participation, youth
team members need to be prepared for active participation. They are often overwhelmed or
intimidated by the experience of representing their peers to adults.

"The greatest good you can do for another is not just to share your riches but to reveal
theirs to them". Benjamin Disraeli

Another consideration, when selecting members of the team, is the expertise needed for the
scope of the project. This is particularly important when an integrated systems approach is
taken and expertise is needed from a number of subject areas.

In the example of population evocation, individuals with expertise in health and

nutrition, gender issues, human (youth) development experiential education
methods, agriculture and rural development, economic, and environmental aspects
of population education would all be yout, expertise is the area may also be helpful,
"It takes a whole village to raise a child, "The development of curriculum to address
 the "whole environment" in which a young person makes decisions about his or her
life requires an integrated approached. Thus a broad spectrum of expertise is
needed.

An effective way to ensure that groups and persons who need to be included in the curriculum
development team are represented is to use an issues grid. (Used with permission from
National 4-H Council, see Addendum A ). The grid provides a systematic way to identify and
ensure a representative for each issue component is included among the members of the team.
Instructions and a population education example is included in Addendum A.

Once the curriculum development team members have been identified, their strengths should
be assessed to determine if members of the team have the expertise and skills required to
create the curriculum. Any gaps should be filled early in the process so decisions include the
whole spectrum of the content and methods. Review the grid example. Are there others who
should be included? Have you identified qualified or experienced curriculum writers? Is
someone skilled in evaluation procedures?

An important aspect of team building is being clear about the goals and objectives of the project
as well as the roles and responsibilities of team members. The goals of the project are identified
prior to selecting team members. Goals should be communicated with potential team members
prior to their acceptance to serve as a team member. Use the issue statement and adapt it to
the overview of the curriculum development process for your specific project. The more specific
you can be about the expectations and responsibilities of team members, the greater chance for
successful teamwork. A sample job description for a curriculum development project is included
in the Addendum B.

Collaboration Principles

"Coming together is a beginning....Keeping together is progress. ...Working together is a

success".

Traditions, values, cultural and religious practices, social pressures, gender, and generational
differences all contribute to diversity in beliefs and opinions regarding family size and sexual
practices. Because of these differences, the process of designing population education
curriculum will require a focus and commitment to shared goals collaboration skills. An excellent
self-study resource on collaboration by Halbert and Hovey (1995) is included in the reference
section. Though it focuses on collaboration in land use issues, the basic principles can readily
be applied to population education and curriculum development teams.

Additional information on collaboration is included in Addendum A. After completing the above

referenced self-study book, one may expect to:

* know several techniques that help a group gather and fosters group collaboration,
* understand and be able to apply several ways to develop trust in a group,
* appreciate the significance of "I messages" and develop your own method for monitoring personal "I"
messages in a group situation,
* understand significant characteristics of real life collaborations and share them with others,
* recognize problems associated with leaving persons or groups affected by an issue out of a
collaboration and learn ways to ensure that collaborative groups are inclusive,
* recognize developmental group stages and how to meet the needs of the group as it progresses through
these stages.

"Teamwork is the ability to work toward a common vision. The ability to direct individual
accomplishment toward organizational objectives. It is the fuel that allows common
people to attain uncommon results."

STEP 3. CONDUCT NEEDS ASSESSMENT AND ANALYSIS

"Start with what people already know and build on what they already have."

After reviewing the procedures in this step, curriculum team members will understand how to
conduct a needs assessment and use the results to formulate intended outcomes.

Curriculum development was described as the process of determining who will be

taught what and how. The needs assessment and analysis step in curriculum development
systematically focuses on learning about an issue or problem and the people who are directly
effected by it. A needs assessment provides the information to determine outcomes
(educational objectives) based on a factual foundation and learners needs. A needs
assessment also provides baseline data to evaluate the achievement of intended outcomes.
The goal is to have those who are most directly affected by issues and problems define them,
isolate the contributing factors, and suggest solutions.

Wentling, (FAO, 1993) defines a problem (issue) as the gap between desired behavior (what
should be known and/or done) and actual performance (behavior).

A NEED OR GAP IS:

Desired
- Actual = NEED
Performance
(What Should
- (What Is) = GAP
Be)

The needs assessment process identifies the nature and scope of the gap. An underlying
principle is to "start with what people already know and build on what they already have." The
first task then is to establish what the target audience knows, their attitudes about the issues
and contributing factors, and their practices. Without this information, intended outcomes and
content are unlikely to address the needs of the target audience.

This step is subdivided into two parts: 1) procedures for conducting a needs
assessment and 2) needs analysis. The results of the assessment are used to state intended
outcomes and form evaluation strategies. After reviewing the procedures in this step. curriculum
team members will understand how to conduct a needs assessment and use the results to
formulate intended outcomes.

Needs Assessment Procedures

Needs assessment procedures include surveys and interviews conducted with members of the
targeted audience and members in their communities. Members of the curriculum design team
should be directly involved with gathering data. It is helpful to have a team member experienced
in survey design and evaluation. Team involvement in the assessment process produces
content and methods relevant to the needs of the target audience. Similarly, if members from
the target audience and potential facilitators are involved, the curriculum will be meaningful and
relevant.

KAP (i.e., Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices) is a needs assessment method developed by R.

Adhikarya (FAO, 1994). It focuses on specific and critical elements of an issue and the
knowledge, attitude, and practice levels of target audiences. The process gathers qualitative
information about the target audience and the issues effecting them. The reasons for attitudes
and practices are discussed through focus groups, interviews and surveys. Information provided
by a KAP survey is useful to formulate intended outcomes, to select content, and to design
methods to meet the needs of the targeted audience.

The KAP survey generates information for four major steps in the curriculum
development process:

1. Members of the targeted audience are consulted and provide

information regarding their needs in relation to a specific problem;
2. Intended outcomes can be stated to relate to the specific needs of the
targeted audience;
3. Baseline data can be used in formative evaluations to test the
appropriateness of content and methods; and
4. A summative evaluation can compare baseline data to the outcomes
from implemented curriculum.

A needs assessment identifies the target audience and the knowledge, attitude, and practice
gaps. A needs assessment is conducted in five basic steps:

1. Conduct focus 2roup discussions with key informants (leaders in the community)

and with target audience groups (i.e., rural out-of-school youth). The goals are to
identify the key audience and their characteristics (i.e., the predetermined audience does
not apply to all cases); identify major problems areas (e.g., overpopulation issues);
determine the causes of the problems; and generate possible solutions.

Sample Population Education Questions:

1. What do you feel are the major issues or problems confronting rural
out-of-school youth?
2. What are the causes of these problems?
3. How do they relate to overpopulation issues?
4. What gaps (the difference between desired performance and actual
practice) do you think exist in population related knowledge, attitudes,
and practices among rural out-of-school youth?
5. What are some possible solutions?
6. Are there other major areas of concern or problems?
2. Identify major topics related to rural out-of-school youth from focus group discussions.

A Sample of Population Education Issue Topics:

 Agricultural Production} Large family farms are divided equally among

many children resulting in small farms with insufficient income to support a
family.
 Environment; Forests art destroyed to provide additional land for
agricultural production.

3. Develop a survey on the topics of concern generated that focus on target audience
levels of knowledge, attitudes, and practices. The survey could be used in focus groups
or in one-on-one interviews. Before you use the survey, test it to make sure the
questions are valid (i.e., they ask what they are intended to ask) and the responses are
meaningful. For example, a common survey mistake is to ask more than one question in
a question (e.g., Do you know and practice eating balanced nutritional meals?). This
makes no sense. What am I trying to find out? Do I want to know if you know what
constitutes a balanced meal or if you eat balanced nutritional meals? Sample questions
in each area (knowledge, attitudes, and practices) might include:

Sample KAP Population Education Survey Questions:

Knowledge Question:

 In planning for your future, what employment opportunities do you

have in this community?

Attitude Question:

 What is your idea of the ideal family size?

What are the major reasons you would like that size family?

Practices Question:

 Do you use some method of family planning (contraception) ?

If yes, which method? Why or Why not?

4. Conduct additional focus groups and interviews with members of the target

group and community leaders. It is important to train interviewers how to ask
questions and record responses. It is probably best to avoid pen and pencil
surveys because the audience in our example is out-of-school youth. In cases
where surveys are appropriate (i.e., the target audience could adequately
complete the survey), they provide a quick and relatively inexpensive way to get
 information about the characteristics of the audience (demographic data) and
identify trends in issues. But surveys cannot probe deeper or ask additional
questions as an interviewer might. The value in conducting focus groups and
interviews is that the respondents will often mention issues and concerns omitted
from survey questions. Remember the goal is to learn more about the target
audience and the factors contributing to the issue or problem. Start with the
end in mind. This information will be used to develop intended outcomes and to
establish baseline data for a summative evaluation.
5. Tabulate the results of the survey and interviews. Look for the factors or
causes for the problem in terms of Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices.
According to Wentling,

"There are three broad reasons why people don't behave as expected or desired:

Lack of:

 Knowledge or skills;

 Motivation;

 Organization and Environment" (FAO, 1993).

If a reason for not following certain practices is organizational or environmental

(including cultural and/or moral values), it would be inappropriate to develop curriculum
materials to change behavior when education and training will not make a difference. For
example, if an area is overpopulated and the dominant religious belief forbids the use of
contraceptives, it is a misuse of resources to develop curriculum to teach about
contraceptives and family planning techniques. One can not expect the intended
outcomes to occur (i.e., to reduce population through the use of contraceptives) by
educational programs when the barrier is organizational policy. A correctly conducted
needs assessment would identify such problems long before intended outcomes are
formulated.

Another method to assess needs is the Delphi technique. A representative panel of

experts or leaders in the community (including members of the target audience) are
asked to list the factors or aspects of an issue (e.g., overpopulation). A composite list is
compiled from all the lists and each panel member votes on their top priority items. The
results are tabulated and panel members are asked to vote again on their top priorities.
This process is repeated until the prioritized list is agreed upon by the panel members.
The advantage of this technique is that many aspects of the issue are explored and a
number of people have been involved in identifying and prioritizing aspects of the issue.
It provides a prioritized list of factors involved in the issue from the perspective of a
number of people (both community and experts).

Town or village meetings can be conducted to obtain input on major issues and

problems within the community. A recorder or objective observer takes notes of the
discussion to be analyzed later. The advantages of using this technique is its
inclusiveness and community involvement through a public forum. The major
disadvantage is that people who feel comfortable speaking in public and have strong
opinions are heard while others who may be intimidated by numbers or by stronger
opinions are not

Characteristics of Learners

Part of the data gathered in a needs assessment should include information about the
target audience. If the curriculum is to meet the needs of the target audience, it must be
sensitive to their characteristics. Demographic information will need to include level of
education, previous training, age, residence, marital status, children (if any), number of
siblings, means of income, and aspirations for the future (e.g., lifestyle and career goals,
number of children desired, etc.). To design appropriate curriculum materials, the target
audience stage of human development should be considered.

Human development refers to how individuals grow and develop in stages; physically,

socially, emotionally, mentally, and vocationally. Developmental theories suggest
particular types of learning and developmental needs or traits occur at particular stages.
They also suggest particular types of learning activities are most suitable for each stage.
For example, young children learn best through concrete experience, manipulation of
materials, and observation of their environment while young adults understand abstract
concepts and analyze events that have multiple causes and effects. Many resources
provide thorough descriptions of different stages and the implications of these stages for
learning. Since this guide is focused on young adults (rural out-of-school youth) their
developmental stage (estimated to be about age 15 -19) is described
in Addendum C. The first set of characteristics describes the characteristics of this
developmental stage. The second set describes adult learners. Characteristics of
learners at particular stages is very important in activity design. The activity must be
appropriate for the stage of development if it is to be effective. The characteristics of
adult learners appear to apply for this age, particularly in the non-formal learning
settings. The lists of characteristics are taken from the Curriculum Development for
Issues Programming (USDA, 1992). It is recommended you adjust and adapt them to
specific conditions and cultural settings.

Analysis of Results of Needs Assessment

Once the data is collected, characteristics of the target audience and gaps (the
difference between desired and actual performance) are identified, it is time to
categorize needs. Identify the type of needs by putting them into three categories (i.e.,
knowledge, attitude, or practices) and prioritize them.

Identify the areas of greatest concern by the number of times an item is mentioned in the
surveys or interviews. Subject matter experts may identify some topics that are not
identified by the target audience or key informants in the community. These topics need
to be related to the priorities of the target audience to catch their interest and attention. If
learners feel there is not a need to know or practice something, they will not change
behavior, even though a gap exists between desired performance and actual behaviour
(i.e., the level of motivation is very low for change).

The next curriuclum step translates needs into intended outcomes. It is the first step on
Phase II: Content and Methods.
 "If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost; that is where they
should be. Now put foundations under them".

PHASE II: CONTENT AND METHODS

"It's not so much what we do, but how we do it that really matters."

(4) State Intended Outcomes

↪(5) Select Content

↪(6) Design Experiential Methods
 

This phase provides step-by-step procedures for developing useful, learner-oriented curriculum
materials. Keeping in mind learners' needs as identified from the needs assessment and
analysis, intended outcomes (educational objectives) are developed to match learner needs
with the components of the issue. The content (what is taught) is based on the intended
outcomes as well as the knowledge, attitudes, skills, aspirations and behaviours (KASAB) of the
learners. How the content is taught, is determined by experiential methods. It is important to
take into consideration the characteristics of the learners, styles of learning, and the content. An
example of how to organize content from existing FAO population education curriculum
materials is provided as well as ten sample activity sheets to demonstrate experiential methods
used to deliver population education content in the Addendum.. The emphasis throughout this
phase is to design curricula with youth at the center. The approach is life skills oriented (i.e., to
help youth acquire the knowledge, attitudes, skills, aspirations, and behaviour through
experiences they can apply to their own lives).

STEP 4: STATE INTENDED OUTCOMES

(EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES)

In this step needs identified in the needs assessment process are converted into measurable
outcomes for the learners. Instructional or educational objectives are called intended outcomes
here, intended outcomes is the preferred term because it implies learning is planned,
intentional, and a measurable outcome is expected. The following is a synthesis of key
concepts, simplified and adapted for experiential learning. Further study of references and
background information provided in the Addendum is recommended for those who want more
depth on this topic.

This step is critical because it provides guidance for the content (what is to be taught) and links
the needs of the learner to the issue or problem. It also sets the stage to evaluate or measure if
the learner has attained the intended outcome, (i.e., the impact of the project). By now it is
obvious that "each step builds on the previous." If the issue has been clearly defined, a
statement of the problem properly framed, and the needs of the target audience accurately
assessed and analyzed, the next step leads to stating intended outcomes. Intended outcomes
should clearly state, in measurable terms, what the learner will be able to do as a result of
participation in planned activities designed to help the learner attain knowledge, attitudes, skills
aspirations, and behaviors to bring about change. For example:

Given information presented in this step, curriculum

developers will be able to:

 describe, identify, and apply the three essential

components (conditions, performance, and
standards) to state measurable intended
outcomes;
 identify, apply, and evaluate categories and
terms of each category of learner skills:
knowledge and intellectual skills (cognitive);
physical action and motor skills, (psycho-
motor); and feelings and attitudes (cognitive);
and
 identify and apply life skills in determining
curriculum content and activities.

The intended outcome should be measurable and specific. Without measurable outcomes,
experiential learning activities cannot be successfully planned or evaluated. All intended
outcomes should serve as a bridge between the issue of concern and the needs of the learner.
"They serve as a guide to learning, a guide to instruction, and a guide to evaluation" (Wentling,
1993, p.68).

What is an intended outcome?

An intended outcome is a statement of what a learner

will specifically know and be able to do as a result of
participating in the activities planned in the
curriculum.

Components of an Intended Outcome

A broad question to ask for each intended outcome might be: How will learners be different after
completing the curriculum? A list of specific skills, knowledge, or characteristics that learners will
have as a result of going through the curriculum can be generated.

"There are no mistakes, only lessons.    Growth is a process of trial and error
and exploration.    A lesson will be presented in various forms, and will be 
repeated until it is learned.    When you have learned it, 
then you can go on to the next lesson".

An intended outcome statement should include the following three criteria to be effective:

Population Education Components of Intended Outcomes

  Conditions are clearly specified under which the
learner will exhibit the desired behavior, (i.e. the
situation, limits, supplies, materials, tools, and
equipment under which the behaviour will be
performed). Examples of terms helpful in defining
conditions might be:

Given a list of examples.......

While in a group discussion...........
Using the personal budget plan.....
Using the data collection procedures outlined in the
curriculum..... 

 Performance states what observable (measurable)

behaviour the learner will be able do in order to
demonstrate the intended outcome (objective) has
been attained. Examples of performance statements
include: 

The learner will be  able to name............. 

The learner will restate......... 
The learner will apply............. 
The learner will be able to determine trends in population
growth in his or her community. 

 Standards describe how much or how precisely the

quality of work (task or application of knowledge) is
required to achieve an acceptable level of
performance. Examples might include:

Two problem solving steps for each example. 

Restate each question before answering. 
Record keeping procedures for  one month. 
According to the methods described in the book.

These examples suggest a format for structuring intended outcome statements, with some
adaptation or paraphrasing according to the content and situation.

Sample Format For Intended Outcome Statements:

Given                                     (Here the condition is stated)

          The Learner Will                   (Here the performance

and 
                                                            the standards are stated)

Applying the above format to the previous examples for each criteria, the following intended
outcomes are stated:
Given a list of situations, learners will be able to name two problem solving steps for each
example.

While in a group discussion, the learner will restate each question before answering.

Using the personal budget plan in the activity sheet, the learner will apply record keeping
procedures for one month.

Using the data collection and analysis procedures outlined in Activity 1, learners will be able to
determine the rate of population growth in their communities without calculation errors.

Take time now to critique and improve upon the examples. Write an intended outcome
statement for something you feel should be included in population education curriculum. As you
probably noticed, each step includes an intended outcome statement for curriculum developers.
Modeling is one of the most effective teaching/learning techniques. This guide models best
practices and, in the case of intended outcomes, demonstrates the usefulness of intended
outcomes in the development of curriculum. Analyze and critique the intended outcome
statements from your perspective as the learner or reviewer of this guide. Has it been effective
for you as a learner? Stating the intended outcome for the learner helps to guide the
presentation of information for the author, and it will help to identify the content and methods to
be included in the curriculum you develop.

Now let's go back and look at some additional questions that might be helpful in forming and
evaluating intended outcomes:

 How will learners be different as a result of their participation in the curriculum?

 What will they know or be able to do?
 What practices (changes) should each learner attain to address the different
components    of the issue?
 How will you know if the curriculum made a difference on the issue with these learners?
 What  indicators will provide this information?
 What specific kinds of knowledge, intellectual abilities/thinking (cognitive) skills are
desired?
 What specific kinds of feelings and attitudes (affective) are desired?
 What specific kinds of physical action and motor (psychomotor) skills are desired?
 On what critical thinking and decision-making skills will this curriculum focus?

Categories of Learning Behaviours

Intended outcomes are aimed at changing behaviour (how the learner will be different). There
are three basic categories of observable behaviour:

Categories of Learning Behaviours:

1)  Knowledge and intellectual    (cognitive/thinking);
2)  Physical action and motor skills  (psychomotor), and
3)  Feelings and attitudes  (affective).
  
Several references describe and guide the development of educational objectives (intended
outcomes) and define learning behaviours. The USDA (1992) Curriculum Development for
Issues Programming includes a comprehensive description of each category listed above with
examples of general instructional objectives and terms useful to develop intended outcome
statements. Wentling (FAO, 1993) has summarized them for developing training curriculum. An
adaptation of both approaches is provided in Addendum D. The intent is to provide you with
sufficient information and examples to enable you to apply these categories when you develop
intended outcomes.

Descriptions of learning behaviours include:

KNOWLEDGE AND INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES range

from simple recall to complex synthesis, and evaluation.
Bloom, (1955) categorized cognitive objectives in  a
progressive hierarchy from the least to the most complex
levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation. Several researchers have simplified
these into three levels:

1. Knowledge and Comprehension; includes 

remembering or recalling: previously learned material
and grasping the meaning of the material.
2. Application refers to the ability to use learned material
in new and concrete situations, This may include the
application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, 
principles, laws, and theories. Learning outcomes in
this area require a higher level of understanding than
those under comprehension and knowledge.
3. Evaluation (includes analysis, synthesis and
evaluation) refers to: the ability to break down and
analyze material into component parts; identify the
organizing principles governing the interaction of the
parts; put the parts together to form a new whole
(synthesis); and be able to judge the value of
something based on definite criteria, Learning
outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive
hierarchy. They use all of the skills in alt of the
elements in all of the other categories plus conscious
value  judgements based on clearly defined criteria.

PHYSICAL ACTION AND MOTOR SKILLS include 

competencies in the physical performances   occupational  skill
or task. Examples include physical acts such as writing,
speaking, playing ball, sewing, or adjusting a carburetor.
FEELINGS AND ATTITUDES are observable emotions or
indications of acceptance or rejection. Krathwohl (1964)
identified five categories listed from lowest to highest levels:

Receiving refers to the learner's willingness to attend to  a

particular phenomena or stimuli. Learning outcomes in this
area range from awareness that something exists to selective
attention on the part of the learner.

Responding refers to active participation on the part of the

learner who not only attends to a particular phenomenon but
also reacts to it in some way. Learning outcomes in this area
may emphasize agreement to respond (reads assigned
material), willingness to respond (voluntarily reads beyond
assignment), or satisfaction in responding (reads for
enjoyment). The higher levels of this category include those
instructional objectives that are commonly classified under
"interests"; (i.e., those that stress the seeking out and
enjoyment of particular activities).

Valuing is concerned with the value a learner attaches to a

particular object, phenomenon, or behaviour. This ranges in
degree from the simple acceptance of a value (desires to
improve group skills) to the more complex level of
commitment (assumes responsibility for the effective
functioning of the group). Valuing is based on internalizing a
set of specified values, but clues to these values are expressed
in the learner' s overt behavior. Learning outcomes are
concerned with behavior that is consistent and stable enough to
make the value clearly identifiable. Instructional objectives,
classified under "attitudes and "appreciation", would fall into
this category.

Organizing is concerned with bringing together different

values, resolving conflicts between them, and beginning the
building of an internally consistent value system. Thus the
emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.
Learning outcomes may be concerned with conceptualizing a
value (recognizes responsibility for improving the
environment) or with organizing a value system (develops a
career plan that satisfies both economic security and social
service). Instructional objectives relating to the development of
a philosophy of life would fall into this category.

Characterizing by a Value or Value Complex. At this level of

the affective domain, the learner  has a value system that has
controlled his or her behaviour for a sufficiently long time to
have developed a characteristic "life style." Thus, the
behaviour is pervasive, consistent, and predictable. Learning
outcomes at this level cover a broad range of activities, but the
major emphasis is that behaviour is typical or characteristic of
the learner. Instructional objectives concerned with the
learner's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social,
emotional) would be appropriate here.
Intended outcome statements should be structured to use the whole range of simple to complex
thinking, feeling, and doing, to bring about the needed and/or desired measurable changes in
learner behaviors. Toward that end, the statements should include measurable and observable
conditions, performance, and standards that demonstrate the learner has attained the intended
outcome. See Addendum E for additional examples of intended outcome statements related to
population education and Addendum F, a checklist for intended outcome statements.

Life Skills

The skills acquired in the learning process that have life long benefit are classified as life skills.
Such skills include: communicating and relating with others; problem solving and decision
making; acquiring, analyzing, and using information; etc. Several lists have emerged over the
past 20 years in 4-H/youth development programming in the United States, and there are
undoubtedly many other systems emerging around the world. When designing programs and
curriculum to achieve learning outcomes, a life skills approach provides the developer with a
"longer" view of the benefit to the learner beyond the immediate intended outcome. It is a widely
held expectation that the outcomes of programs (educational experiences) should include the
acquisition of skills that can be readily applied in the workplace, home, and community. Many
curriculum developers now identify the life skills primarily emphasized in the intended outcomes
and the activities of curriculum. A review of some of the lists of life skills is included in
the Addendum G. Each of  the sample population education activity sheets in Addendum I (1-
10) includes an identified life skill emphasized in the activities.

In this step, we have defined an intended outcome, reviewed the three essential components of
a well written intended outcome (condition, performance, standard); identified the three domains
of learning behaviours (cognitive - knowledge and thinking; affective - feelings and attitudes;
and psycho-motor - physical action and motor skills) and terms used to indicate their attainment;
and briefly discussed life skills. Curriculum developers are encouraged to practice writing
intended outcomes using the format and categories suggested. Now we are ready to select the
content, the next step in the curriculum development process.

STEP 5: SELECT CONTENT

After reviewing this step, curriculum developers will be able to:

 identify the scope of the content of the curriculum material,

 plan the sequence in which the content will be presented, and
 outline the content, including knowledge, attitude, and skills learners will be able to
acquire through participating in the planned curriculum activities.

Scope                                     

The first part of determining content begins with defining the scope of the issue, which
determines the expertise needed on the curriculum development team. For example, the issue
statement for population education was: a process that enables people to recognize and
understand the implications of population factors for the well being of the individual, the family,
and society. Experts familiar with subject matter relative to population factors as well as experts
on human development, experiential learning, group process, evaluation, and curriculum
development would be involved in the decision making process about developing appropriate
curriculum. If the needs assessment and analysis has been conducted and prioritized, then you
should know the content that needs to be included. The logical progression is illustrated
in Figure 2, page 4.

The needs of the learners are translated into intended outcomes and guide content selection.
The usefulness of the content to the learner can be assessed by asking: "What difference will
this content make to learners in five years?" "How will they be better off for knowing it?"
"What skills will they acquire that will help them in the future?" or "Will they even
remember it?" The answers to these questions will help focus on meeting the needs, interests,
and motivations of the learners.

More specific questions about selecting content might include:

√ What content do these specific learners need to know in order to meet (perform) the
intended outcomes and have an effect on the issue?

√ What knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours will you assume learners know or
have before participating in the program?

√ What subject matter topics of interrelated disciplines are needed to help learners use
practices, acquire knowledge, and develop skills?

√ What will learners be able to do if they know this content?

Content can be outlined into the two broad categories of scope and sequence. Scope can be
defined as what the curriculum includes (i.e., the breadth or expanse of the topics, learning
experiences, and/or activities used to help the learner attain the intended outcome). The
emphasis should be clear and the lessons/activities should be centered around the main topics.
Ideally, the scope should define the outer boundaries of the content.

Sequence refers to the "when" of the curriculum topics, lessons, experiences, and activities. If
the curriculum content is derived from the intended outcomes and developed from the needs
assessment, much of the content will already by obvious. Wentling (FAO, 1993) identified four
organizing principles in developing training curriculum. They are slightly modified for population
education curriculum development

1. Move from the simple to the complex.   People relate to small, simple events,
concepts, or facts more easily than to complex ones. Learning is reinforced starting with
the simple and progressing to the more complex. Confidence is increased in the learner
and retention of the content is better. Since complex concepts and equipment are made
up of simpler parts, it is logical to present and teach the parts before teaching the whole.

For example, if the intended outcome is to help youth

understand the impact of population growth rate on land use:
1) begin with the number of people in their family and the
amount of land or space they own; 2) compare the amount of
land owned by the family on a per person basis; 3) have
learners divide the amount of land equally among all siblings
{assume each sibling has a family of four); and 4) assess the
amount of  land per person in the next generation.
2. Move from the general to the specifics. Sometimes we are more familiar with general
concepts than with specifics. This is true especially when the generalized concepts are
easily understood. Generalized concepts give learners a clearer picture if you start with
a general concept before proceeding to specifics.

For example, if the intended outcome is to provide youth with

knowledge about ways to limit family size, begin with
discussions of attitudes about family size. Progress to identify
positive and negative aspects of large and small families. Then
provide specific information about methods available to limit
family size.

3. Use an existing logical organization. There is a natural logic or normal system of

organization  to some content.

For example, if you teach youth how to organize an income

generating activity: 1) begin with identifying possible items to
sell, 2) assess the market, skills and materials needed to produce
items; 3) analyze the costs of production, marketing, sales, and
volume needed for profit, etc. This is called a chronological
sequence, one thing happens before the next 

Another type of logical sequence is topical. You might  teach

learners  about nutrients in different foods before planning
preparing nutritionally balanced meals for a week.

Another form of organization is learning ease or comfort

level. Some learners prefer to learn things in a particular
sequence because of their past learning experiences, cultural
values, or simply personal learning preference. Population
education requires attention to gender specific and personally
sensitive topics (e.g., Venereal disease prevention). The method
as well as the content needs carefully consideration. Role plays
or situations for learners to offer advice on how to  handle a
hypothetical situation rather than sharing personal experience
provides a level of psychological comfort. This technique gives
learners an opportunity to become comfortable with the subject
matter generally before introducing specific information.

4. Move from the known to the unknown. Learning theory describes how people build
their knowledge and skills by adding and connecting new knowledge to what they
already know or can do. Therefore, the curriculum developer and the facilitator should
structure and sequence the content to begin with current knowledge and move to new
knowledge. Known concepts can be taken and adapted or related to new but similar
concepts. The use of analogies is an example of moving from known to the unknown.
This is a good technique to deal with sensitive issues.

An example of going from the known to the unknown. To  help

learners develop a family budget, (earners first keep a record of
 what they spend for one week to one month. Secondly they
analyze their spending patterns and develop a budget and keep
record for one month, Finally, they develop a yearly family
budget. Seethe sample population education activity
sheet, Addendum I -Developing a Family Budget It  guides 
learners to develop and analyze a family budget

Outline Content

The next step is to prepare an outline that transforms the intended outcomes into the
information or knowledge needed for the learner to achieve the desired outcome. It must contain
what will be taught. The following curriculum development steps are adapted from Wentling's
guide to curriculum development (FAO, 1993). The steps suggest a logical procedure to prepare
an outline.

1. Identify the necessary knowledge to accomplish the intended outcome.

Analyze each intended outcome. Identify the knowledge needed to attain the desired
outcome. Break knowledge into facts, concepts, and principles to be remembered or
understood to accomplish the intended outcome. If you are an expert in the content
area, you can determine the knowledge requirements of the intended outcome from your
own knowledge and experience. If not, then consult with subject matter experts or talk
with people who routinely accomplish the desired outcomes in their work. Much of this
analysis information can be gleaned from the earlier needs assessment analysis.

For example: intended Outcome 1, After completing this lesson, learners

will be  able to  accurately determine the population growth rate  in their local
community.

Knowledge elements;

  Definition of population  growth  rate                                        

[concept]        
  How and where to get population data                                          
[ fact]         
  Number of births and death in  community in one year                      
[fact]         
  How to calculate population  growth  rate                                         
skill

2. Identify the performance or skill requirements of each outcome. This  step  is

accomplished in the same manner as knowledge component identification. The
difference is that required actions for accomplishment of the outcome must be identified.
The question is, "What should someone do in order to accomplish the intended
outcome?" The answer identifies skill requirements. It should be noted that not all
outcomes will have a physical (psycho-motor) skills but may have cognitive or other life
skills.

For example: Intended Outcome 2:After calculating local

 population growth  rate, learners will be  able to  prepare an
exhibit for a local agricultural fair that explains population
growth in their community,

Skill Elements include:

 Ability to locate and

 Skills to calculate population growth rate.
 Skills to present facts (writing and drawing).
 skills  to design and build an exhibit

3. Identify important attitude elements for the outcome. Many outcomes have attitude
elements, especially those relative to population education issues (e.g., personal
protection against AIDS, decisions about the desired number of children for a family and
when to have them, etc.). Learners may possess the necessary knowledge and skills (in
problem solving and decision making), but if their attitude is not open to apply what they
know, it simply will not make a meaningful difference or bring about change.

For example: intended Outcome 3: After completing the lesson on sexually

transmitted diseases, learners will be able to identify personal safety and protection
measures and commit to  personal responsibility for themselves and their sexual
partner.

Attitude Elements include:

 Receptivity to learning about diseases and prevention.

 Accepting  responsibility for one's own behaviour.
 Desire to modifying previous behavior.
 Desire to practice behaviour consistent with knowledge, self-interest, values
and belief system

4. Organize the knowledge, attitude, skills, aspirations, and behavior (KASAB)

elements into a logical sequence. The sequence progressions described earlier
should be taken into consideration as major topic areas are sub-divided into smaller
chunks. Each topic and sub-topic should be subdivided in a way that makes sense
logically to the designers, learning experts, and the learners. The characteristics of the
learners and the needs assessment determine what the learners already know then the
curriculum team builds on it. This procedure will result in a topic outline for each unit,
lesson, or part of a lesson. This is a critical step for planning the types of experiences
and activities that will engage the learner in learning the concepts, facts, and principles
as well as skills.

At the end of this process, you should have a "working outline" of the curriculum content. An
example applied to population education is shown in Addendum E. This chart is adapted from
FAO population education curriculum materials. It provides a systematic logical progression to
identify curriculum content that emerges from the issue statement, is linked to the needs, and
translated into operational intended outcomes. The subtopics are the knowledge, attitudes,
skills, aspirations, and behaviours learners need to acquire in order to attain the intended
outcome. Then, the knowledge, attitudes, skills, aspirations, and/or behaviors (KASAB) needed
for the learner to achieve the intended outcome are specified. There should be a natural flow
from the "big topic" to the desired outcome for the learner to the specific components
(knowledge, skills, attitudes, and/or behaviours) needed to attain the outcome. This type of
logical framework is very helpful to visualize connections from the general to the specific content
while focusing on the learner outcome. Take time to study and critique the components
identified in the chart. Try to change the intended outcome statements and identify new KASAB
components.

Three additional notes:

1. the KASAB components are similar to task or job analysis,

described by Wentling,(1993);
2. population education content suggestions need to be adjusted
and adapted to fit the specific identified needs and local
circumstances; and
3. this type of framework could be used for any topic.

STEP 6: DESIGN EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING METHODS

The next step translates what the curriculum will teach into how learners will acquire the
knowledge, attitudes, skills, aspirations, and behaviours needed to attain the intended
outcomes. This step is where the curriculum developers pull everything together (i.e., activities
that take into account the characteristics and needs of the learner, the intended outcomes, the
content or subject matter, and the learning environment). The activities can be compared to
a "learning laboratory" or the "vehicle" that delivers the message to the learner. This is
where all of the above factors contribute to decisions about activities. Refer to Figure 2 on page
4 to visualize how each step leads to the next and relates to the others.

This step includes: a review of the characteristics of learners, styles of learning, experiential
learning methods, the design of activity sheets, the creation of learning environments, and types
and sources of resources and information. The first section deals with the characteristics of
learners and their stage of human development One of the most effective methods to put the
curriculum development team members "in touch" with the learners is to have them participate
in a recall experience. What decisions/problems did they face? How did they decide what to do?
How did they evaluate what they did? A suggested exercise for leaders working with rural out-
of-school youth is included in Addendum H. Adapt it and use it with the members of the
curriculum development team to help them focus on youth concerns and feelings.

The characteristics of learners were discussed in Step 3 as part of the needs assessment
process and in Addendum C. Next the question of how people learn and what motivates them
to learn will be discussed.

"Diversity is the one true thing we have in common.

...celebrate it every day."
Learning Styles

Everyone gives and receives information and messages through the senses.

The senses use in learning are:

 the visual                  (seeing),

 auditory                    (hearing),
 kinesthetic               (physical involvement), and
 tactile                       (touch).

Learning occurs when information is passed through all of these sensory channels; however,
research indicates that people are quite individual in their preference or effectiveness to process
information through the various channels. Most people have a dominant or preferred learning
channel or style. For example, one person may remember people by their face or what they
were wearing (visual). A another person may recall names (auditory). Someone else might
remember a handshake (tactile), etc. Some individuals may learn best visually, but would have
to consciously develop the other senses to learn through them.

The curriculum developer needs to consider that people do not all learn the same way. This
means a variety of methods should be used to teach concepts.

Intended Outcome:Through  planned activities, learners will be able to

identify and  analyze how family size affects lifestyle.

Activities:

 Learners read  a  short  story small family (visual activity).

 Learners discuss the story in small groups (auditory).
 Learners develop and presents role play of a couple with  a large
fatally planning to build a  house with adequate room  and a 
limited budget {Kinesthetic}.

The following chart shows activities designed to maximize learning through the different senses:

Learning Style  Type of Learning Activity

Auditory  Learners are read several statements about
(Speaking and hearing are family size (e.g. parents continue to have
primary learning modes). children until they have a son). Small groups
discuss their opinions then report to the whole
group.


Activity focuses on speaking and hearing.
Visual  Learners get a handout with a comparison of
 (Sight is principal learning family budgets for a family of four and one for a
mode). family of ten. They are asked to make a chart
that shows the positive and negative aspects of a
large family.

 
Activity focuses on visual presentations.
Kinesthetic  Learners are given the scenario of a couple
(Active physical involvement discussing how many children they want.
is primary learning mode). Learners are asked to role play and act out the
advantages and disadvantages of having a large
and a small family.

 
Activity is interpreting a concept through physical 
involvement.
Tactile  Learners are asked to make paper houses to
(Touch is the primary learning show how family size makes a difference in the 
mode). community.

 Activity focuses on using hands to make objects to

illustrate a concept.

  Variety Of Activities

A wide variety of learning experiences is important to the design of learning experiences for
youth in non-formal settings. Learners vote with their feet if they are not interested and the
involvement is not high. The motive for participating in the learning experiences for rural out-of-
school youth, and for most non-formal learners, is self interest - what they feel they benefit from
the experience. The activities should be fun and interesting. Learners should be able to
recognize the personal value of what they are learning. Brainstorm, come up with as many
ideas as possible, among your curriculum committee members to develop learning activities.
Research new methods of teaching concepts. Talk to teachers and students to learn what they
like to do best, then design learning experiences around the activity to help them attain the
intended outcome.

The following activities are methods that help learners attain the knowledge, attitudes, skills,
aspirations, and behaviours related to the content:

Examples of Types of Learning Activities:

Tours or Field Trips Community Meetings Role  Playing
Interviews Focus Groups Radio/TV
Broadcasts Quiz Shows (Jeopardy) Puzzles
Problem Solving Panel Discussions Puppet Shows
Discussion Groups Opinion Surveys Skits
Mind/Idea Mapping Observation Studies Pantomimes
Brainstorming Public Speaking Plays
 Treasure Hunts (Searches) Case Studies Dance
Group Service Projects Games & Simulations Write Songs
Organizing an Event Fairs/Festivals Sing Songs
Paint a Group Mural Art/Craft Activities Illustrated Talks

"Variety is the spice of life!"

The curriculum should encourage learning facilitators to be innovative and creative. Each group
is different and what works well with one group, may not with another. Therefore, it is important
to suggest several activities the facilitator can choose to use. Facilitators should also be
encouraged to use resources from the community or other communities to enhance the learning
process. Viewing the local community as a "learning laboratory", is especially appropriate for
population education activities where the content includes a wide variety of subjects. No one
person could have all the knowledge and expertise to cover the factors affected by population
(e.g., agricultural production, income generation, employment, resources management - land,
water, human, health, nutrition, and family life). Not all facilitators will have the knowledge and
skills, or feel comfortable, to effectively deal with sensitive issues (e.g., how to prevent sexually
transmitted diseases or limit the number of children in a family). As people with the appropriate
expertise from within the community are involved, they support the program. It also helps the
learners feel more "connected" to the community. They learn more about the people and
resources available in the community and find mentors and role models.

Learning Environments

Learning environments and organizational arrangements are the final factors to be considered
in activity design. The learning environment refers to the physical, social and psychological
atmospheres. The type of physical setting (i.e., a school, park, community center, clinic, home
or religious gathering place) will affect the type of activities that can be done. For example, a
park would provide a natural setting to examine land use and how population affects it. The
location, light, heat, space, equipment, etc. will also affect how comfortable, physically and
psychologically, the learners are. People learn best in environments that suit their needs and
are comfortable.

Social Environment:  The social environment is a critical factor in the learning process,
especially in non-formal situations. Facilitators set the climate by modeling appropriate
behaviours and setting the tone for interaction. Modeling is defined as imitative learning that
occurs naturally in social situations. Research suggests a leader's behaviour (desirable and
undesirable) is imitated. Studies have found mat positive interaction between the facilitator and
group members increases the probability of learning through modeling. Research also indicates
alumni of youth programs highly value the relationships they develop with their youth group
leaders or youth development staff members.

Interaction, leader-member as well as member-member, contributes to the cognitive (thinking)

and social development of youth. Interaction can be a powerful motivating factor, especially for
young people. It can be equally destructive or damaging if not handled carefully. This is a very
tricky balancing act for the facilitator. To create a "comfortable climate for learning" while
modeling self-disclosure that is helpful and not harmful to the youth participants. Curriculum
developers assess how much group interaction is possible and appropriate to support intended
outcomes. Group process provides learners with many opportunities to develop life skills.  In the
case of population education, a high degree of group interaction is desirable but a balance is
needed so that "shared ignorance" does not overtake the content needed to achieve the
intended outcomes. The group experiences where self-disclosure and sensitive issues are
discussed will develop close and personal relationships among the group. Group facilitators
need to be well trained and comfortable in dealing with the emotional intensity youth feel and
express in such situations.

Psychological Environment. Closely related to the social environment, the psychological

environment refers to the feelings of comfort and security members feel about being in a group.
The level of trust achieved within the group is fostered by the modeling behaviour of the group
facilitator as well as the behaviour of the group members toward each other. The level of trust
within the group is almost as important as the content when dealing with sensitive topics. If not
approached appropriately, the sensitive topic and the group experience could become a
negative experience. The curriculum developers determine the type of activities that will build
positive relations among and between group members and facilitators. The curriculum content
and process must be supported with facilitator training. A well designed curriculum will not
achieve the desired outcome if those who implement it are not skilled in working with groups of
youth. Facilitators should also be comfortable with discussing the content. As they are role
models, they set the tone of the group and help group members deal with self-disclosure and
sensitive topics.

Delivery Modes

Delivery modes refers to the roles and relationships of learners to each other. Most out-of-
school programs are designed for groups already in existence or specifically organized to
deliver the curriculum. Delivery modes might include:

1. Organized youth groups—clubs, scouting programs, 4-H type groups, young farmers
groups, church youth groups, etc., etc.
2. Special-interest groups, short-term programs, and day camps.
3. Overnight camps (resident, primitive, or travel).
4. School enrichment.
5. Instructional TV/video.
6. Individual learning, mentoring, and family learning programs.

The types of organizations and delivery modes vary from place to place. Analyses of the area
where the curriculum will be implemented needs to be conducted. Are there existing
organizations for collaboration? If the answer is yes, the "organizational culture" will need to be
factored into activities planned. The curriculum development team and the facilitators determine
appropriate delivery modes and plans activities accordingly.

Source: Curriculum Development for Issues Programming (USDA.1992).

Experiential Learning Model

Now it is time to put all of these considerations about how the content will be delivered into a
logical sequence from the learner's perspective. The experiential learning model provides a
learning sequence that maximizes the learning process in a significant and meaningful way. The
following pages show the Experiential Learning Model (Figure 3) and the Experiential Learning
Cycle Facilitators Guide.  Review of these concepts will help you think through each phase the
learning process as you design activities. Both of these illustrations come from the
USDA Curriculum Development for Issues Programming Handbook (1992).

Key steps to the experiential education process include:

having the learner(s) experience the

› activity— perform or do it;
having the learner(s) share the experience
›
by describing what happened;
asking the participants) to process the
›
experience to identify common themes;
having the learner(s) generalize from the
experience to form principles or guidelines
›
that can be used in real-life situations (e.g.,
life skills);
 asking participant(s) to apply what was
›
learned to another situation.

This step focused on the methods to deliver curriculum content. The characteristics of learners,
styles of learning, variety of activities, learning environments, delivery modes, and experiential
learning concepts were reviewed. A check list for curriculum content is included in Addendum
J. Addendum I provides additional information and outlines for developing curriculum activities
for experiential learning.

EXPERIENTIAL  LEARNING  MODEL

THE EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING CYCLE
FACILITATOR GUIDE (Figure 4)
 PHASE III: IMPLEMENTATION

The previous curriculum development steps provided the answers to four basic questions:

Question; Answer:

[Link] is this curriculum needed? (the issue statement)

For whom is  it  being developed? (the target audience)

What are we trying to  teach  or  change? (intended outcomes and content)

How will we do  it? (experiential education methods)

Phase III includes: producing the curriculum materials; testing and revising them; recruiting and
training volunteers; and implementing the curriculum materials with the target audience. The
logical progression includes:

(7) Produce Curriculum Product

↪(8)Test and Revise Curriculum
↪(9)Recruit and Train Facilitators
↪(10)Implement Curriculum

STEP 7: PRODUCE CURRICULUM PRODUCT

"Form follows Function "

The seventh step in the curriculum development process is the production of curriculum
products (materials). After a review of the outlined information and procedures, curriculum
developers will know:

1. where to find existing curriculum materials;

2. how to evaluate them;
3. factors to consider before writing and producing new materials;
4. production recommendations; and
5. how to design and conduct a formative evaluation of the curriculum materials.

Find Existing Curriculum Materials

The cost, time, and financial commitment needed to develop curriculum is too great to waste on
developing new materials when appropriate materials already exist. Can existing materials be
used as they are? If not, perhaps with adaptations? Can a supplemental facilitator's guide be
developed instead of all new materials? Consider the following questions before you decide to
produce your own curriculum products:

1. What type of printed or visual materials are needed?

2. For whom is the product  intended? Rural-out-of-school youth?
Facilitators and group leaders for rural-out-of-school youth? Both
the youth and facilitators?
3. Does curricula already exist to meet the need?

Networking is one of the best ways to find existing curricula. Ask others who work with youth
audiences if they use or know of population education curriculum materials. Teachers, health
professionals, college, and university professors all have access to information and research.
They may know of population education materials. Check with not-for-profit and non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) at national and international levels for materials. For
example, FAO curriculum materials should be reviewed before writing new curriculum materials.
A list  of  references and organizations to contact  are provided in  Addendum K -Curriculum
Resources. This list is not comprehensive and should be viewed only as a starting point.
Members of your team can also help identify sources.
Networking via computer data bases and the internet can help identify sources of information
and curriculum. Many organizations in the U.S. (e.g., National Council on Family Relations)
have groups of professionals who subscribe to electronic bulletin boards available through the
internet. A request for information from a professional group frequently results in helpful
suggestions. Someone with access to the internet and knowledge of internet research
techniques could be a valuable curriculum development team member!

Evaluate Existing Curriculum Materials

Content, methods of learning (activities), style, and format are criteria to evaluate existing

curriculum materials. Review at least five different curriculum materials, they do not need to be
in the same subject matter area (i.e., look at food and nutrition, environment, as well as
population education). At this stage you are looking for ideas.  Expect to pay for some materials.
Commercially produced materials can provide valuable insights on how to organize and
creatively illustrate the curriculum content.

Checklist to evaluate curriculum materials:

√ Does the curriculum product fill a genuine need?   Will it help learners attain the intended
outcome?   Does it address the issue of concern?
If something is already available in an appropriate form, it is a waste of time and resources to develop
new materials.
√ Is the product economical—financially, in terms of production and use- comparable to
available alternatives?
Conduct a cost-benefit analysis. If the product is purchased, how much will it cost? What additional
costs would be incurred to train facilitators? Would it cost less or more to produce your own
curriculum products?
√ Is the product well designed for the intended audience?
A well-developed curriculum fits the intended audience. Questions about writing,             layout, and
font type appropriate for the target audience can be addressed through text books, workbooks, and
magazines. What proportion of each page is type? What style of illustrations are most appropriate for
the audience? How many different types of learning experiences are used? Are there suggestions for
reflection (evaluation) on lessons learned and additional follow-up?
√ Does the product incorporate and support all phases of an experiential learning cycle?
Can the activities help learners attain the intended outcomes? Are learners encouraged to think and
process what they have done and learned? Are opportunities (activities) provided for learners to
compare, contrast, and evaluate what they have done? Are activities provided for learners to apply
what has been learned to new situations? The experiential learning model (Figure 3, page 36) shows
three steps a learner uses: 1) do, 2) reflect, and 3) apply. Unfortunately, many curriculum materials
do not match intended outcomes to activities, nor are activities designed for participants to reflect
upon what they have done or to apply the principles to new situations.

Using the above criteria to evaluate existing materials will help the team make judgements
about their quality and if they can be used to meet the needs of the target audience. Can you
justify creating your own materials? That determination must be made in relationship to the
intended outcomes, the target audience, the identified needs, and the availability and quality of
existing materials. You should be able to state how existing materials do or do not meet the
needs identified as in the following example:
 Statement of Need for Population Education Curriculum
Materials:

Existing population education curriculum materials lack  a systems

approach to population education. AH materials reviewed focus
exclusively on family planning techniques. Mew curriculum materials are
needed.

Factors To Consider Before Writing And Producing New Curriculum Products:

A number of factors need to be considered before new materials are developed:

1. The writer should have knowledge of the issue, the target audience, and curriculum
design. Ideally, the writer is a member of the curriculum design team and has been
involved in the planning and decision making processes from the very beginning. If not,
plan to spend time briefing the writer on team expectations and continue to work with the
writer throughout the process. Feedback is critical to achieve the desired outcome.
2. The type of publication must be identified.  Is the product for youth? For facilitators? Are
handouts or worksheets included? The product needs to be "directed" toward a specific
audience. It is helpful for the writer to meet with targeted audience members to write
"for" them. The formative evaluation, in the next step, will provide valuable insights for
the writer.
3. Format is important. "Form follows function." If the product is for a facilitator,
determine what a facilitator needs to  have  and  do  to facilitate an experiential
learning process. The experiential learning model (Figures 3 and 4, pages 35 and 36)
provides guidance (i.e., activity /experience, share, process, generalize, and apply).

If the learner is the direct user of the product: determine what the learner will do; provide
opportunities for them to reflect on their actions; and encourage them to apply what they
learn to a new situation.

4. Validity in curriculum materials is essential. Validity is when activities (what is

done) aligns with the stated intended outcome (what we said we intended to
do). Intended outcomes must be matched with supporting activities.

A list of standards for non-formal youth development curriculum products (Addendum L) and

tips for printing (Addendum M) are provided in (adapted from the Extension Service of the
United States Department of Agriculture Curriculum Development for Issues Programming
(1992))

KEY CONCEPTS

1. DEVELOP CURRICULUM ONLY IF

NECESSARY.
2. KEEP THE USER OF THE PRODUCT IN
MIND.
3. MAKE IT USABLE.
4. MAKE IT VALID.
The final step is to produce a draft copy of the curriculum product to pilot test. It should be
reviewed by several members of the curriculum development team, revised, and edited at least
once before pilot testing. Allow time for revisions and rewrites. Quality takes time. Curriculum
development is a creative process that requires gestation before it bears fruit. Ideally, the draft
will include illustrations and resemble the final product.

STEP 8:   TEST AND REVISE CURRICULUM

"If you don't have time to do it right the first time, how in the world will you
ever find time to do it right a second time?"

This step is where everything is "put on the line."  It includes suggestions on how to pilot test the
materials and to conduct a formative evaluation. Do not be intimidated by the words
"formative evaluation." It is a process used to determine if a curriculum product is valid (if it does
what is intended) and reliable (it consistently does what it is intended to do). After reviewing this
step, you will know how to conduct a pilot test of the curriculum materials, evaluate them and
the training provided for the test facilitators.

Facilitators test the curriculum product with target audience groups and provide the writer and
the curriculum development team feedback. This step is divided into two separate phases: 1)
the selection of group facilitators and pilot test sites and 2) the selection of evaluation tools to
assess the effectiveness (validity and reliability) of the curriculum product.

Selection of Pilot Test Sites and Facilitators

Determine pilot test sites by the number of conditions affecting members of the target audience.
For example, if new population education curriculum materials are developed for rural-out-of-
school youth in Costa Rica, Guatemala, Panama, and Jamaica, then the number of pilot test
sites in each country would depend on conditions within each country (i.e., conditions in the
mountainous rain forest area of Costa Rica are different from those in the plains region). The
goal is to test the curriculum with a representative sample of youth from each area or "set of
conditions" to evaluate its effectiveness.

The minimum number of test sites should be four, two pilot sites with experienced facilitators
and two with inexperienced facilitators. The experienced facilitators will identify items that might
be more effective, while the inexperienced will help identify areas where greater clarity is
required. Depending on the area and the characteristics of the target audience, pilot testing
should occur at 20 sites-or more if the materials will be used in several places, under differing
circumstances, and when facilitation will be by both experienced and inexperienced facilitators.
The goal is to develop an effective curriculum to help rural out-of-school youth understand the
implications of population factors for the well being of the individual the family, and society.
Feedback from the pilot facilitators will provide information and to help identify content and
method training needs for additional facilitators.

Formative Evaluation for Testing Curriculum Materials

The purpose of a formative evaluation is to get feedback from the "end users" of the curriculum
product. Feedback should identify if the learners attained the intended outcomes with the
planned activities. If they had difficulty, items or activities causing the problem are identified and
eliminated or changed before the final product is released. A sample formative evaluation
schedule is provided in Addendum N. It reiterates the curriculum development process (used
in [Link] education) with an emphasis on formative evaluation procedures. A sample pilot
curriculum evaluation form is included in Addendum O. In addition to the responses
provided in the form, it is ideal if members of the curriculum development team, especially the
writer, conduct interviews or a focus group with learners from the target audience (rural out-of-
school youth) and facilitators for indepth discussions on the effectiveness of the curriculum.

Summary of Formative Evaluation Check Points:

√ Do early trials with a few learners show that the product content is suitable for the target
audience, the experiences (activities) are appropriate, and the learners enjoy the learning
experience?
If not, revise your pilot materials and methods (activities) and try again. Pay careful attention to what
your target audience members and facilitators say. They make the curriculum meaningful and
realistic.
√ Does the curriculum product satisfactorily achieve specified learner outcomes with the target
audience?
Even when your first pilot effort enables you to say "yes" to this last question, your product may not
be in its final form. The version you publish and distribute may later be improved. Input from users
will provide feedback for future revisions and improvements.
√ From the perspective of the learner, does the learning product have value?
Most youth today have a choice of more activities than time to explore them. Is your curriculum
going to actively engage the learners? Will they consider it worth their time?
√ Do the pilot versions in all settings (delivery modes and conditions) work as intended
(reliability)?
If not, there are two choices: 1) narrow the delivery modes or conditions where you use the materials
or 2) modify the curriculum products to work in all settings (conditions).
√ Do tools such as pre- and post-test attitude questionnaire responses for learners and facilitators,
transcripts of interviews, and evaluations of observers show that each learner outcome planned
for in the curriculum is being met by a majority of the learners?
Use effective evaluation tools to ensure the new curriculum product accomplishes what you want it to
accomplish. Keep improving it until it achieves what you want and need.
√ Do pilot groups include the diversity of conditions and settings of the groups you expect to use
the final product?
√ In preparation for final pilot testing, have you trained the facilitators as they will be trained
with the final product, using the same materials?
√ Will the program or product you design (and its marketing plan) assure a sizable and
demonstrably reachable market?
New curriculum products are of no use if they do not reach the intended audience. The activities must
be interesting (fun and usable) to the target audience and facilitators. Enthusiasm is a vital
measurement of program success. The development of attitudes and values (e.g., population
education) is as important as facts, concepts, and principles. A positive attitude toward the subject is
more likely to have a more lasting impact.
√ Are the learners and facilitators aware of what has been accomplished?
Good non-formal youth education curricula include simple self assessments. They are ways to gather
benchmark data and help youth assess their skills and abilities. They can also be used for reporting
impact and are effective as reinforcement to learners and facilitators. Your imagination will be taxed
to develop assessments that are appropriate, but they are worth the effort.
√ Does the curriculum product satisfactorily achieve specified learner outcomes with the target
 audience?
Even when your first pilot effort enables you to say "yes" to this last question, your product may not
be in its final form. The version you publish and distribute may later be improved. Input from users
will provide feedback for future revisions, changes, and improvements over the years.
√ From the perspective of the learner, does the learning product have value?
Most youth today have a choice of more activities than time to explore them. Is your curriculum
going to actively engage the learners? Will they consider it worth their time?

This step included procedures to evaluate existing curriculum materials and to evaluate the pilot
testing of the curriculum. The next section addresses the need to recruit and train curriculum
facilitators.

"There are no mistakes, only learning experiences"

Dorothy Emerson

STEP 9: RECRUIT AND TRAIN FACILITATORS

"A mind once stretched by a new idea, never regains its original dimension.''

It is a waste of time and resources to develop curriculum materials if facilitators are not
adequately trained to use and implement the program. Even professional trainers and educators
need to be trained in new content and methods. The facilitators who help learners attain
program outcomes (i.e., teachers, trainers, leaders, guides, or mentors) must be trained. When
the content includes sensitive issues (as is the case with population education) and group
interaction is the primary method used to process content, training is critical.

This step addresses two major topics, recruiting volunteers to facilitate and implement the
new curriculum and facilitator training. After reviewing this step you should be prepared to
recruit volunteer facilitators and design a training program for them.

Recruit Volunteer Facilitators

First, identify the skills, knowledge, and characteristics needed for group facilitators to
implement the curriculum. Next, perform a group facilitator task analysis (i.e., list everything that
a facilitator would do to implement the curriculum) and develop a job description for the position.
List group facilitator qualifications. Suggestions include:

Group Leader Qualifications to Consider:

 Enthusiasm.
 Experience working with youth .
 Committed to helping youth.
 Ability to organize and present ideas.
 Ability to discuss gender & personally sensitive issues with ease.
 Experience leading groups.
 Openness to learning.
 Ability to listen.
  Ability to encourage discussion and participation from others (to coach).

Put yourself into the shoes of a volunteer facilitator. What would you want to know? Possible
questions might include:

What volunteers want to know:

 What will I be doing?

 How  much will it cost? In time? In money?
 Who sponsors the program?
 Are curriculum materials and supplies provided?
 Is  training provided? If so, What? When? Where? At  what cost?
 How  much time will it take to promote the program, prepare lessons, and
conduct group meetings?
 What benefits) will 1 get from this? ("What's in it for me?")

A sample job description for group facilitators is included in Addendum P. Adapt the sample
description to your own specific conditions. Use the job description you develop to recruit
volunteer facilitators.

To recruit group facilitators, make a list of all the people you know who meet the qualifications
and would be good at relating to youth (e.g., doctors, lawyers, nurses, teachers, clergy, perhaps
a married couple as a team, etc.). Ask several people you know or who are recognized leaders
(youth as well as adults) in the community if they know of someone who has the qualifications
and would be interested. The facilitator needs to be an expert in only one area, using
experiential learning methods with youth. Topic experts can be effective resources to present
specific curriculum information. If the names of individuals are recommended more than once,
be sure they are asked to volunteer. Youth are excellent recruiters when provided adequate
information and coaching.

Reminder:

The facilitator's primary job is to create a learning environment where youth can
discuss gender and morally sensitive issues openly as well as develop their decision
making/problem solving skills.

Do not hesitate to ask for volunteers. The main reason people do not volunteer is because
they have not been asked. Most people are flattered to be asked and willing to help. Stretch
your imagination and reach out to find the best people in the community for this assignment. Be
sure they understand what is expected of them and help them recognize the benefits. Find out if
the candidates have the qualifications, characteristics, and commitment to provide exciting
learning experiences for youth. Interview volunteer candidates to learn more about them. Ask
for references. In some areas (e.g., in many U.S. States), the law may require a background
check, including police records for all people who work with "under-age" youth (i.e., 18 years or
younger).
Recruiting competent group facilitators is essential for successful curriculum implementation.
Facilitators trained to implement and use the curriculum will help ensure high quality learning
experiences for youth with greater impact. Recognition for service and contribution to the
community will sustain and encourage volunteers.

Priorities:

“A hundred years from now it will not matter what my bank

account was, the sort of house I lived in,
or the kind of car I drove....
But the world may be different because
I was important in the life of a child."

Facilitator Training:

A training curriculum is developed using the same process used for the curriculum product, but
adapted for training facilitators. Planning for Effective Training: A Guide to Curriculum
Development by Wentling (FAO, 1993) is an excellent resource as well as T3: Training Trainers
to Teach (1989). First, an overall strategy is developed that considers the skills and
characteristics of the group facilitators as well as the tasks to facilitate group learning. Review
the characteristics of adult learners (Addendum C) before planning the training curriculum.
Establish intended outcomes for each major training component. The outcomes will enable the
facilitator to learn group process techniques as well as the content and activities to support the
intended outcome for the learner. Each training component should have a measurable intended
outcome. It should be clear to the facilitators what they need to master to be a skilled group
facilitator. After reviewing this step and the sample three day training program included
in Addendum Q you will know what to include in a facilitator training program to implement the
curriculum developed.

The experiential learning model provides excellent guidance on content and group process (do,
reflect, apply). Keep the characteristics of adult learners in mind when choosing the types of
activities and experiences you want them to do, reflect on, and apply when they are facilitating
youth groups.

An effective facilitator training sequence:

1. Introduce intended outcomes, content, and methods of the curriculum.

2. Show trainees an example of a well presented lesson. Review steps and
procedures. Ask them to critique effective techniques and identify needed
improvements.
3. Have facilitators prepare their own lessons to present to small groups of
facilitators.
4. Small groups participate, observe, and provide feedback to each facilitator
about the activity or lesson.
5. Facilitators share their observations with the whole group.
6. Trends are identified and modifications made.
7. Facilitators rework the same lessons incorporating new
ideas/improvements.
8. Conduct an evaluation of the training.
 9. Analyze "lessons learned" where learners reflect on what they learned.
Identify areas where they excelled and where they need more improvement.
10. Facilitators should complete an evaluation of the training and a plan of
action that prepares them to implement the curriculum once the training is
completed.

'The greatest good you can do for another is not just to share your riches
but to reveal to him his own."

Benjamin Disraeli

STEP 10: IMPLEMENT CURRICULUM

"When all is said and done, it is what is done that counts."

This step identifies considerations and strategies to implement the developed curriculum
product. Curriculum development is usually part of a larger and broader program initiated to
address a major issue or problem. Members of the curriculum development team have collected
knowledge about the learners (rural out-of-school youth), their needs, environment, and
communities. They also understand how the curriculum addresses the issue. Their knowledge
of the target audience and the ways to address the issue through curriculum learning processes
uniquely qualifies them to plan how the curriculum can be incorporated into the total program.
After reviewing this step team members will know what to consider to develop and implement a 
plan to promote and use the curriculum developed.

Considerations and strategies for implementation:

1. What is the most effective way to recruit members of the target

audience to participate in the curriculum activities? Are there existing
organizations that can collaborate (i.e., rural youth groups, religious groups,
older boy scout and girl scout organizations, etc.)? Are there co-sponsoring
opportunities with program and service organizations (e.g., Rotary, Lions,
Extension HomeMakers Clubs, etc.)? Are there additional organizations or
ways of recruiting participants in your community?
2. What is the most effective way to promote the program with other
organizations? Would it be appropriate in your area to promote
participation through the radio, television, and newspapers? Consider a
puppet show, short role play or dramatic presentation in a public square, at
a village fair, or some other community gathering. Are there ways to use the
creative and performing arts to promote participation? Can music draw
attention and recruit participation? Consult with team members, try target
audience focus groups to identify suggestions for the most effective
recruitment strategies.
3. What promotional support could be included for facilitators? Would a
promotional flyer be effective? Would slide sets, overheads, posters, audio
video aids, and/or promotional tapes be helpful? The best promotional
supports for facilitators need to be simple and effective. Consult with
 facilitators to determine what they would use.

Key leaders in the community or collaborating organizations must be convinced of the value of
the curriculum product and the potential success of the program to benefit individuals and the
community. Volunteer facilitators should be enthusiastic and see the curriculum as important.
They should also recognize the personal benefits they may receive from volunteering (e.g.,
training and experience in population education).  Create a system of recognition to thank them
for their contributions of time and talent, if there is not one already in existence,.

Youth are often the most enthusiastic promoters of an idea or program, especially if they are
recruiting peers to participate. They must be enthusiastic to get involved. Recruit participants
from the pilot testing groups to plan and carry out the marketing plan. Focus on the activities
and interactions among the group members (as appropriate to the situation, stage of
development, and level of education) of the target audience. The performing arts are a creative
medium to involve youth in learning.

The promotion and implementation of curriculum materials requires attention and sensitivity to
the customer (i.e., the target audience), the environment in which it is presented, and
the issues it addresses (with focus on the benefits to individuals). Know where a strong interest
exists among youth. Identify then build on successes. Learn from experiences and strive for
continuous improvement. Be inclusive and collaborative in selecting your support.

Although the implementation step is discussed near the end of the curriculum development
process, it should be part of the overall planning strategy from the beginning. By "keeping the
end in mind" throughout the whole development process, most of the considerations in this
step will already be known. The same principle applies to the next phase, evaluation and
reporting.

PHASE IV: EVALUATION AND REPORTING

This phase of the curriculum development process is divided into two steps, 1) evaluation
strategies and 2) reporting and securing resources. At the beginning of the curriculum
development process, a reminder was given to "start with the end in mind." Formative
evaluations were conducted in two of the previous steps, Step 3: Needs Assessment and Step
8: Test and Revise. The evaluation strategy step (11) describes summative evaluations and
their use. The twelfth and final step focuses on what to report and how to use the reports for
securing or accounting for funding. These two steps are important to make judgements
regarding the extent the intended outcomes are achieved, to determine accountability (i.e., was
the outcome worth the investment of time and resources), and to provide evidence that further
investments will have a greater impact on the problem. The summative evaluation process
provides the reporting information to secure additional resources.

(11) Design Evaluation Strategies

↪ (12) Reporting and Securing Resources

STEP 11: EVALUATION STRATEGIES

 "If You Don't Know Where You Are Going,
 You'll End Up Somewhere Else."

Evaluation:

To make a specific assessment about the value of all or part of the curriculum by collecting
evidence to determine if acceptable standards have been met.

Two types of evaluation are highlighted here. Formative evaluation uses data to make

judgements about how well a portion of the process has achieved the intended outcome. The
aim of formative evaluation is to provide information helpful to final product design. It also
provides baseline data and lays the foundation for the summative evaluation (i.e., the sum of all
parts). The aim of a summative evaluation is to step back, put all the parts together, and make
judgements as to how well the overall intended outcomes have been achieved. It answers the
question: Did we achieve what we intended?

The following strategies are adapted and synthesized from several resources (Boone, 1985;
Boyle, 1981; Case, 1987; and Rossi & Freeman, 1985) listed in the evaluation reference
section.

The purpose of evaluation is to:

 determine what happened (or did not happen)

 improve  future  curriculum  development  processes
 communicate results to current and future shareholders (stake holders)
 effect policy - organizational, programmatic, local, regional, and national

At six phases in programs or projects, evaluations should occur. The evaluations either improve
activities to help learners attain the intended outcome or assess if the intended outcomes have
been achieved.
 Six phases of program or curriculum development where evaluation is useful:

1. Needs assessment (Formative). Who is the target audience and what are their needs
and characteristics? Provides information to help design the product or program.
2. Pilot test and revision   (Formative).
What works well and what needs improvement?
3. Beginning of the implementation of the program, project, or curriculum using pre-
and post-tests (Formative). Are there ways to help learners achieve the intended
outcomes better?
4. During the implementation (Formative). Assesses if intended outcomes are being
attained.
5. Completion of implementation (Summative). Provides evidence of the extent
intended outcomes have been achieved.
6. Follow-up data sometime after the program or implementation for long term impact
analysis (Summative). Provides evidence the curriculum or program has had long
term, lasting impact on the learners. Identifies areas of changed attitudes, skills,
behavior, and/or practices.

In the curriculum development process described in this guide, the needs assessment process 
provides the baseline data for a summative evaluation. The target audience needs are
assessed. The curriculum is developed to meet those needs. The summative evaluation
provides evidence if the identified needs have been met.

Procedures for developing an evaluation include:

1. Establish standards or criteria (i.e., the standard of measurement to determine the 

extent to which an outcome has been attained). Review intended outcomes and baseline
data during the needs assessment. Transform them into a criteria (a standard of
measurement) to collect evidence. Consider the levels of need (knowledge, attitude, and
practices) and the levels of learning (knowledge, attitude, skills, aspirations, and
behavior).

Population Education Example:Criteria

Intended outcome = Through participation in the curriculum activities, learners

will be able to identify three ways overpopulation effects agricultural production.

Criteria = ability to recall one or more of the six ways agricultural production is
directly effected by overpopulation.

2. Gather evidence about the criteria.   Identify indicators: words, numbers, or things

as proof of the extent to which the criteria is present.

Population Education Example: Evidence (Indicators)

Criteria = ability to recall one or more of the six basic elements of agricultural
production most directly affected by overpopulation.

Evidence = Eighty percent of the learners were able to recall three of the six major
impacts of overpopulation on agricultural production. Ten percent recalled all six
and six percent recalled two.

There are three primary methods used to gather evidence:

 1.  Question Learners:

 Group discussions  
 Questionnaires 
  Informal conversations
 Exposition: learners write
 Interviews: personal, telephone, structured, & unstructured.
 Learners keep a running  log or diary of their experiences

2.    Observe Learners

3.    Examine Documents

Before gathering data, consideration should be given to the type of data needed for the  reports
generated. "Once again, start with the end in mind", know where you are going and the data
needed support your intended outcome. It is time to step back, anticipate what you want and
need to say about the impact the curriculum has had or could have if additional resources can
expand the effort. Planning how to report impact must be based on the knowledge already
gained from formative evaluations and pilot testing the materials and training program.

 A report can include several types of information based on the evidence in data. Decisions 
about what to include or the focus of the report must also be determined before gathering the
data. A useful guide to the kinds information reported is Bennett's (1976) seven categories of
evaluation evidence:

Categories of Evaluation Evidence:

 End results. The changes or actions by people and communities.  Emphasis

is on the economy, environment, or social and cultural adjustments and
improvements
 Practice Change. The focus is on specific actions the learner is now doing
(e.g., accounting practices, farm practices, business procedures, nutritional
practices, or relationships within a family).
 KASA change.   This category refers to changes in knowledge, attitudes,
skills, and aspirations. The measurements may be validated or they may
simply be opinions on the extent of change.
 Reactions. The views of the learners often are useful in a report. These
views can reveal feelings about the value of a program.
 People   involvement.  Data on the number of people participating in a 
 program can be used in a variety of ways in a report. Numbers can be
described in terms of student-contact hours, as a percentage of the total
population, of social-economic groups, or of professional groups.
 Activities. The inclusion of information about what was made available
through various learning opportunities is useful in a report. This type of
information illustrates the efforts of the programmer to assist people
through educational opportunities.
 Inputs. This category includes the staff and other resources that are put into
the program.

After evidence (data) is gathered, it is tabulated and analyzed to determine trends. The 
objective is to gather information to judge the value of the curriculum or program. The reference,
Chase (1987), How are we doing?, includes suggestions on how to design questionnaires,
interviews, and analyze data, both qualitative and quantitative.

3. A judgement is made about the value of the curriculum or program by comparing the
evidence (presence of indicators) with the criteria.

Population Education Example: Judgement.

Evidence = Eighty percent of the learners were able to recall three of the six  major
impacts overpopulation has on agricultural production. Ten percent were able to
recall all six and six percent recalled two. Four percent did not respond.

Judgement = Evidence suggests learners understood the relationship between

overpopulation and agricultural production given the comparison between the  pre-
test (needs assessment) results where only 29% of the learners could identify two or
more of the six major impacts of overpopulation on agricultural production
compared to 80% of the learners who recalled three or more of the impacts after
participation in the curriculum activities.

Once the value of the program has been determined, by the evidence supplied by the
indicators,  the next step is to report the value of the program to clients, stakeholders
(shareholders), funding sources, and policy makers.

STEP 12: REPORTING AND SECURING RESOURCES

Sometimes there is no next time, no second chance, no time outs. Sometimes it is now
or never."         

This step includes two important aspects of the curriculum development process: 1) reporting
curriculum impact and 2) securing resources for future development, expanding training and 
the scope of the program through the curriculum and/or the development of additional
curriculum.

Reporting
 Perhaps one of the most neglected, yet one of the more important steps in the curriculum
development process, is reporting the value and impact of the curriculum and the program it
supports. The evaluation provides the evidence of the program's value and the impact it has 
had on the lives of the learners. The report is vehicle to communicate that information.

 Functions of reports are to:

  "Provide a basis for further program (curriculum) development  and

improvement. Reporting the effectiveness of a program will allow various
clientele and support groups to suggest new directions for programs, new
topics, and needed changes in format, promotion, and methodology.
 Provide the necessary information or data for support and defense for
continuing or expanding programs where such action is appropriate.
Individuals who hold financial decision-making responsibilities are
supportive of quality or success. They want continuous evidence that they
are making correct decisions.
 Provide the basis for promotion and public relations. Findings and
conclusions for evaluations are useful in creating a positive image for the
institution and in the promotion of future program efforts. A strong
promotional effort is essential for maintaining the interests and commitment
to continuing education (Boyle, 1982)."

Similar to the curriculum development process, the first consideration in the reporting process 
is to identify the target audience for the report. The rest of the process is focused on what is
being communicated, to which audience, and for what purpose. Additional tips for preparing an
evaluation report include:

 Tips for preparing reports:

1. Know who you are reporting to and why. Clarify the purpose of the report.
Clarify what you want to report.   More than one report may be necessary if
the audiences are quite different. Consider: clients, members of the
community, funding sources, and policy makers.
2. Keep the report short, to the point, and well organized. Do not clutter it
with  information not relevant to the central message. The main ideas
should be clear.
3. Relate the information to a few questions that need to be answered for the
reader and to recommended actions.
4. Put the most important information up front. The summary should be at the 
beginning (for those who will not read the entire report). Start each part or
section with the most important information.
5. Make the report interesting and appealing. Use simple visuals, graphs, and 
illustrations. The style and layout of the report is important no matter how
simple it is. Explore using more than printed formats, (e.g., use video
tapes).
6. Use clear and concise wording. Keep the reader in mind. Define basic terms
that may be unfamiliar to the reader.
 7. Include anecdotal remarks or comments by learners to help make the report
"come alive."

The content of the report will depend on the evaluation evidence (refer to Categories of 
Evidence (Bennett) and the targeted audience of the report. Be sure to recognize the whole
curriculum development team, including the test facilitators and youth participants.

Reports should be interesting to read as well as useful to promote and explain the program, it's 
impact, and to secure resources. But if it is not disseminated and used for what it was intended,
it is a waste of time and effort to gather the data and prepare it. One of the most important
strategies is your plan for using die report effectively to accomplish the outcomes you intend.

Securing Resources

 An area of primary importance in the program and curriculum development process is the 
project's source of funding. Whether funds are secured from non-governmental or governmental
organizations, justification and accountability are essential. The evaluation and reporting
strategies are focused on providing evidence the curriculum developed is justifiable in terms of
cost-benefit analysis and expenditures.

 The same basic principles used throughout the curriculum development process apply to 
securing additional resources. A list of the key components of a funding proposal includes:

Funding Proposal Components:

 Know your audience. Know the priorities of the funding source and how
your project meets their priorities (needs). Help them understand what
benefits they get from funding the project.
 Clearly communicate the needs of the targeted audience and
the intended outcomes.
 Outline the expected subject matter (content) and methods to help the
targeted audience achieve the intended outcomes.
 Link budget items to each phase of the project: planning,  implementation
(producing products, testing and revising, recruiting and training volunteers,
and promoting the program and/or product), evaluating, and reporting. The
cost of each phase is the basis of the budget and need for funding. Show
"in-kind" values (i.e., projected costs of volunteer services and/or staff
salaries) as well as direct and indirect costs.
 Outline your evaluation strategy. Show how you will measure the project
achievement by the intended outcomes. The evaluation section should be
very clearly communicated.
 Include a reporting and communications schedule with key components
identified.

This completes the curriculum development process and provides a foundation to "begin all 
over again." The curriculum development process is much like program development. It is a
continuous cycle where the completion of one cycle leads to the next either because of new
issues and needs or for revision and updating. The processes and procedures outlined in this
guide are a systematic approach to curriculum development. It is my intention that it will support
programs addressing major issues and problems. It is my expectation that it can and will be
adapted to specific situations and conditions, modified, and improved upon with use, feedback,
and evaluation. It is my aspiration that it will support the efforts of the many dedicated and
talented people who are planning and implementing programs aimed at impacting major issues
and problems, especially those of youth. There is no greater task, nor better measure of a
society, than that of preparing youth to transition into a rewarding and productive life. There are
many opportunities!

"It takes a whole village to raise a child"

An African Proverb

 CURRICULAM    DEVELOPMENT    PHASES    AND    STEPS

PHASE I: PLANNING

(1) Identify Issue

↪ (2) Form Curriculum Development Team

↪ (3) Conduct Needs Assessment &  Analysis
PHASE II; CONTENT AND METHODS

(4) State Intended Outcomes

↪ (5) Select  Content

↪ (6) Design Experiential Methods
PHASE III; IMPLEMENTATION

(7) Produce Curriculum Product

  ↪(8) Test and Revise Curriculum

↪(9) Recruit and Train Facilitators

↪(10) Implement Curriculum
PHASE IV; EVALUATION AND REPORTING

(11) Design  Evaluation  Strategies

↪(12) Reporting and Securing Resources