Thermodynamic System
Thermodynamic system can be any portion of
the universe, an atom, a galaxy, a certain
quantity of matter, a certain volume in space
that one wishes to study. It is a definite area
or space where some thermodynamic processes
are taking place.
Classification of a Thermodynamic System
1. Open System
- mass and energy can cross the systems boundary
2. Closed System
- only energy transfers or crosses the system’s boundary
3. Isolated system
- completely impervious to the surroundings. It is a closed adiabatic (no heat gain
or loss) system
Working Substance
Working substance are fluids in which energy can be stored or from which energy
can be removed.
System’s Property
- descriptive characteristics that express the behavior of working substance in the
system
Classification of System’s Property
1. Extensive Property
- dependent on quantity and the value of the entire system is equal to the sum of
the individual parts
example: mass and volume
2. Intensive Property
- independent on quantity and the value of entire system is equal to the value of
the individual parts
example: temperature and density
Thermodynamic State
- the condition of a substance as identified through its properties. Any two properties can
define a state of a substance.
Thermodynamic Process
- series of equilibrium state or change of state.
Thermodynamic Cycle
- a repetition of a series of equilibrium state.
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Conservation of Mass
The Law of Conservation of mass states that “mass is indestructible”
[ mass entering, mE ] – [ mass leaving, mL ] = [ change of stored mass in the system, ∆mS ]
Flow Rate Equations;
1. Volume flow rate, V units; m3/s, ft3/s, gpd
- the volume of fluid crossing a given section per unit time.
V
V eqn 1
t
but V AL
AL
V and v L
t t
thus V Av eqn 2
2. Mass flow rate, m units; kg/s or lb/s
- the flow of mass for a unit time
m
m eqn 3
t
V
m , but m V and V V
t t
thus; m V eqn 4
From the figure;
V
m
t
but V AL
AL
m
t
L
and v
t
thus; m Av eqn 5
Open Steady Flow System
An open system in which there is no change of stored mass.
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[initially stored mass, mIS] + [mass entering, mE]
= [Finally stored mass, mFS] + [mass leaving,mL]
m IS m E m FS m L
m E m L m FS m IS m S
for a unit time,
m E m L mS 0
mE mL
for any two sections;
m1 m2
The general mass flow equations;
1. Gaseous flow;
m1 m2
1 A1 v 1 2 A2 v 2
A1 v1 A v
2 2
v1 v2
2. Liquid flow
m1 m2
1 A1 v1 2 A2 v 2
but liquids are practically incompressible, 1 2
A1 v 1 A2 v 2
Example
Determine the diameter of pipe which can handle 10m 3/min of water flow.
Solution
V Av
2
V d v
4
m 3 1 min
4 10
4 V min 60 sec 0.0212m 2.12cm
d
v
10 m
s
Example
Water flows through 6 inches inside diameter pipe at 4 gpm. Determine the flow velocity
and the mass flow rate.
Solution
3
V Av
gal 1 ft 3
gal 1 ft 3 lb
4 x m V 4 x 62.4 3
V min 7.481gal ft min 7.481gal ft
v 2
2.72
A 1 ft min lb
6inx m 33.36
4 12 in min
Example
Water enters a 5cm nozzle at 4m/s. What should be the nozzle exit diameter to increase
the speed 5 times?
Solution
m1 m2
A1 v1 A2 v 2 but v1 5v 2
2 2
d 1 v1 d 2 5v1
4 4
d2
d1 2
5 2 2.24cm
5 5
Example
In an oil refinery, cylindrical tanks of 20.0 m diameter and 15m height are used to store
crude oil. A process technician notes down the following data on a particular tank.
Time------------------------------------------------- 8:00 AM
Oil level in the tank------------------------------ 7.0 m
Flow meter reading at the tank inlet--------- 7430 L/min
Flow meter reading at the tank outlet------- 305 m3/hr
Assuming the flow rates remains steady
a) Estimate the oil level in the tank at 10:00Am
b) When (exact clock time) will the tank reach the maximum capacity?
Solution
a) t t f ti 2hrs 120 min
m IS m E m FS m L
2
2
d hIS V E t d hFS VL t
4 4
3VE VL t 3
l h 1m m h 1hr
7430 xFS 305 x IS 120 min
min 1000l d 2 hr 60 min
hFS 7m 4
20m 2
4
hFS 7.896m
V E VL t
b) hFS hIS
2
d
4
4
2
d hFS hIS (200m) 2 (15m 7 m)
t 4
4 3
17.85hrs
VE VL 7430 305 m
1000 60 min
∆t = 17hrs and 51 min
Therefore the exact clock time the tank is totally filled will be at [Link] Am the following day.
Example
Two gaseous streams enters a combining tube and leave as a mixture. These data apply
at the entrance section;
For one gas; A = 75in2, v = 500 ft/s and = 18 ft3/lb
For other gas; A = 50 in2, m = 16.67 lb/s and ρ = 0.12lb/ft3
At exit section ; v = 350 ft/s and = 7 ft3/lb
Find a) the speed of the other gas
b) the mass flow rate and area at the exit section;
Solution
a) m 2 2 A2 v 2
lb
16.67
m s 144in 2 ft
v2 400
A lb
2
s
0.12 3 50in
2 1 ft
ft
b) m3 m1 m2
A1v1 A3 v 3
m3 m2 m3
v1 v3
75 in 500 fts
2
lb ft 3
31.13 7
1 ft 16.67 lb s lb
2
m3 m3 v3
ft 3 144 in 2 A3
s v3 ft
18 350
lb s
lb A3 0.623 ft 89.65in
3 2
m3 31.13
s
Energy
- the capacity to do work and produce an effect.
Total Energy, E units ; J, Btu, cal, ft-lb
Specific Energy, e units; J/g, Btu/lb, cal/g, ft-lb/lb
E
e or E me
m
Power, P units; W, hp
- the rate of doing work or energy rate.
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E
PE
t
m
but E me and m
t
thus;
P me
Classifications of the Forms of Energy
I. Stored Energy
- forms of energy which are not capable of crossing the system’s boundary.
1. Potential Energy, PE or pe
2. Kinetic Energy, KE or ke
3. Internal Energy, U or u
II. Transit Energy
- forms of energy which are capable of crossing the system’s boundary
4. Work
4a. Non-flow work, Wnf or wnf
4b. Steady flow work, Wsf or wsf
5. Heat
5a. Sensible Heat, Qs or qs
5b. Latent Heat, QL or qL
1. Potential Energy, PE or pe
- energy possessed by a system by virtue of its elevation.
PE
PE Fg h pe
m
mgh mgh
PE
k gh
pe k
m k
Where; h is the elevation above any datum plane
Proof: comparison of work done in sliding block along inclined frictionless plane against
potential energy.
PE F d
as shown in the figure;
F Fg sin
h
d
sin
PE Fg sin
h
sin
PE Fg h
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2. Kinetic Energy, KE or ke
- energy possessed by a system by virtue of its velocity.
KE
ke
mv 2
m
KE
2k v2
ke
2k
where; v is the velocity
proof ;
KE F d
ma
but F , while d v t
k
vo v f v f vo
where v while t
2 a
o vf vo2
2
v f v vo v
thus d f
2 2a 2a
KE
2
2
ma v f vo m v f vo
2 2
k 2a 2k
3. Internal Energy, U or u
- Energy possessed by a system by virtue of the activity and configuration of its
molecules and of the vibration of atoms within the molecules.
U, J or Btu is a total internal energy
U
u , J/kg or Btu/lb is a specific internal energy
m
4. Work
The product of the displacement of the body and the componenet of the force that
acts in the direction of the displacement.
4a. Non-flow work, Wnf or wnf
dw F x d x pAdL
2 2
dw
1
pdV
1
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4b. Steady flow work, Wsf or wsf
2 2
W sf LdF
1 1
2 2
W
1
sf L Adp
1
2 2
Wsf Vdp
1 1
note;
Work is negative if it is done to the system
Work is positive if it is done by the system
5. Heat
5a. Sensible Heat, Qs or qs
Amount of energy taken from or added to the system, which makes a
temperature change.
Q = mc∆T
Where c is the specific heat capacity or specific heat defined as the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of a system on degree higher.
5b. Latent Heat, QL or qL
Amount of energy taken from or added to the system that makes a
change in phase.
Note;
Heat is positive if it is added to the system
Heat is negative if it is rejected from the system
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed
The first law of thermodynamics states that one form of energy maybe converted to
another
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∆Esystem + ∆Esurrounding = ∆Euniverse=0
The change of energy in the universe is zero
Closed Nonflow System
- the working substance within the boundary is taken as the system
Initial Final
stored Energy stored Energy
Entering Leaving
energy
energy
U1 + Q = U2 + W
dQ dU dW
Open Steady Flow System
- there is neither accumulation nor diminution of mass within the system
- there is neither accumulation nor diminution of energy within the system
- the state of the working substance at any point in the system remains constant
Energy Energy
brought in Energy carried out Energy
entering leaving
by fluid by fluid
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PE1 KE1 Wsf 1 U1 Q PE2 KE2 Wsf 2 U 2 W
Q PE KE Wsf U W
Enthalpy, H
- composite property applicable to all fluids taken as the sum of internal energy
and flow work
H U pV
H U Wsf
General open steady flow energy equation
Q PE KE H W
THERMODYANAMICS 1
Practice Problems on The First Law of Thermodynamics
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF SAN CARLOS
1. Water flows from faucet filling a 16-liter container in four minutes. Determine the volume flow rate
and mass flow rate.
2. What size (diameter ) of pipe can carry 2.36 m 3/s of flow at an average velocity of 3.0 m/s.
3. A kgm/m3 gaseous stream enters a nozzle at 13m/s and leaves at a velocity of 69 m/s. Determine
the density of the gas at the exit stream if the entrance and exit nozzle diameters are 10 cm
and 2 cm respectively.
4. A 10ft diameter by 15ft height vertical tank is receiving water (ρ=62.1 lb/ft 3) at a rate of 300gpm
and is discharged through a 6inches inside diameter line with a constant speed of 5ft/s. At a
given instant the tank is half-full. Find the water level in the tank 15 min later.
5. A fluid moves in a steady flow manner between two sections in a flow line. At section 1; A 1=10
ft2, v1=10 fpm, v1 = 4 ft3/lb. At section 2; A2 = 2 ft2, ρ2=0.20 lb/ft3. Calculate (a) the mass flow
rate and (b) the speed at section 2.
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6. If a pump discharges 75 gpm of water whose specific weight is 61.5 lb/ft 3 ( g=31.95 fps2), find (a)
the mass flow rate in lb/min, and (b) the total time required to fill a spherical tank 10 ft in
diameter.
7. Two gaseous streams containing the same fluid enter a mixing chamber and leave as a single
stream. For the first gas, the entrance conditions are A 1=500cm2, v1=130m/s, ρ1= 1.60kg/m3.
For the second gas, the entrance conditions are A 2=400cm2, m 2 8.84kg / s ,
v2 0.502m3 / kg . The exit stream conditions is v3=130m/s and v 3 0.437 m3 / kg . Determine
(a) the total mass flow leaving the chamber; (b) the velocity of gas 2.
8. In an oil refinery, cylindrical tanks of 20.0 m diameter and 15m height are used to store crude oil.
A process technician notes down the following data on a particular tank.
Time------------------------------------------------- 8:00 AM
Oil level in the tank------------------------------ 7.0 m
Flow meter reading at the tank inlet--------- 7430 L/min
Flow meter reading at the tank outlet------- 305 m3/hr
Assuming the flow rates remains steady, estimate the oil level in the tank at 10:00Am. When
(exact clock time) will the tank reach the maximum capacity?
9. A girl weighing 470N holds suspended on the end of a rope 8m long. What will be her gain in
potential energy when a friend swings her to one side so that the rope makes an angle of 35 o
with the vertical? If local g=9.70 m/2, what is her mass in kg and in lb?
10. Water enters a nozzle of a fire hose with a velocity of 10m/s. The inner diameter of the nozzle at
entrance and exit is 50mm and 30mm respectively. Determine the kinetic energy of water jet
at exit. Use density of water equal to 1000 kg/m 3.
11. The 600-kg pile driver is lifted 20cm above a pilling head. What is the change in potential
energy? If the hammer is released, what will be the velocity at the instant it strikes the pilling?
Local g=9.65 m/s2.
12. The flow energy of 142liters/minute fluid passing a boundary to a system is 108.5kJ/min.
Determine the pressure at this point.
13. Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of steel forging with mass=180kg from 23 to
950oC. The specific heat of steel =0.49 kJ/kgK.
14. A copper vessel of mass 1.35 kg contains 6.97kg of water at a temperature of 25 oC. Find the
heat required to warm the vessel and water to 90oC. Take specific heat of copper =
0.406kJ/kgK and specific heat of water = 4.187kJ/kgK.
15. A reciprocating compressor draws in 500 cubic feet per minute of air whose density is 0.079
lb/cu ft and discharges it with a density of 0.304 lb/cu ft. At suction, p1= 15 psia; at
discharge , p2= 80psia. The increase in the specific internal energy is 33.8 Btu and the heat
transferred from the air by cooling is 13 Btu/lb. Determine the work on the air in Btu/min and
in hp. Neglect change in kinetic energy.
16. A thermodynamic steady flow system receives 4.56 kg per minute of a fluid where pi=137.90kPa,
v1 0.0388m 3 / kg , v1= 122 m/s and u1=17.16 kJ/kg. The fluid leaves the system at a
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boundary where p2=551.6kPa, v 2 0.193m 3 / kg , v2=183 m/s and u2=52.80kJ/kg. During
passage through the system, the fluid receives 3,000J/s of heat. Determine the work.
17. A turbine operates under steady flow conditions, receiving steam at the following state: pressure
1130kPa, temperature 188oC, enthalpy 2800kJ/kg, speed 13m/s and elevation 13m. The
steam leaves the turbine at the following state; pressure 31kPa, enthalpy 813kJ/kg, speed
80m/s and elevation 10m. Heat is lost to the surrounding at the rate of 8kJ/s. If the rate of
steam flow to the turbine is 6 kg/s, what is the power output of the turbine in kW?
18. In a steady flow apparatus, 130kJ of work is done by each kg of fluid. The specific volume of the
fluid, pressure, and speed at inlet are 0.33m 3/kg, 140kPa, and 18m/s. The inlet is 25m above
the floor, and the discharge pipe is at floor level. The discharge conditions are 0.66 m 3/kg,
105kPa, and 290m/s. The total heat loss between the inlet and the discharge is 13kJ/kg of
fluid. In flowing through the apparatus, how much is the change in internal energy?
19. In a process industry, a centrifugal pump is used to draw water from an underground tank and
deliver it to an overhead tank. In the underground tank the water is at standard atmospheric
pressure and located at 6m below the pump center. The overhead tank is tightly closed and
contains air and water under pressure. The air pressure is 4 bar abs and the water level is
5m above the pump center, the required volume flow rate of water is 660 liters per minute.
Neglecting heat and the change in kinetic energy determine the theoretical horsepower
required to run the pump. Assume specific weight of water is constant at 9.8066kN/m 3. Local
gravity acceleration is 9.8066m/s2.
20. Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.5kg/s through an air compressor, entering at 7m/s speed,
100kPa pressure and 0.95 m3/kg specific volume and leaving at 5 m/s, 700kPa, and
0.19m3/kg. The internal energy of the air leaving is 90kJ/kg greater than that of the air
entering .Cooling water in the compressor jackets absorbs heat from the air at the rate of 58
kW. Compute the work in kW.
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