HANDBOOK FOR BUILDING CONFIRMATORY INSPECTION HANDBOOK FOR BUILDING CONFIRMATORY INSPECTION

CHAPTER 1 - Introduction the building, the State inspector can decide if further investigation is warranted.

The purpose of this Handbook 2 is to provide additional knowledge to the State If he finds that the problems can be rectified at the District level, he can advise
inspectors who already possess some knowledge in building inspection to the District staff on the methods to resolve those problems.
make better informed decisions. However, if the problems are more complicated or of a structural nature or if the
District personnel is not experienced in building inspections, he can then
Handbook 1 provides a guide for the building inspection by the District proceed to conduct a Building Confirmatory Inspection. This involves a more
inspectors and the filling of Conditions Inspection Form (Form JKR/BuI/1-06). detailed study and will probably include some monitoring of structures and the
All minor problems e.g. leakages and architectural problems should be use of common non-destructive test.
resolved at the District level. Should the District inspector have doubts or if the
problems are structural and complicated, the forms together with relevant The procedures for this inspection are covered in Chapter 4. It will assist the
documents and information are then sent to the State JKR. inspector to confirm the effects and determine the root cause of the problem.

This Handbook 2 is meant for State inspectors who are now in possession of Following this inspection, Chapter 5 provide recommendations to the State
the Form JKR/BuI/1-06 submitted by the District inspectors and are reviewing inspector to assist him to decide if the problems are of public safety, require
those forms. The State inspector must decide if the problem can be rectified at urgent action, can be resolved by the District or to be referred to JKR HQ in
the district level, his level or to be forwarded to JKR HQ in Kuala Lumpur. Kuala Lumpur.

Chapter 2 of Handbook 2 provides the inspectors with knowledge of the various The recommendations are also listed in the Building Confirmatory Inspection
building components and its behaviour. form (JKR/BuI/2-06). Clear actions to be taken should be finalized with all
relevant parties.
Chapter 3 discusses the theories behind defects, damage and deterioration
and is meant to assist the inspector to determine the root cause of a problem Finally, it provides the inspector with some information on common concrete
(diagnosis). It provides information and theory on the effects of distress on the and building repair material selection and techniques.
structures and the common causes of problems.

With sufficient knowledge of building distress, coupled with the condition

inspection reports from the District inspectors (completed Form JKR/BuI/1-06),
and with relevant information on

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CHAPTER 2 – Building Components and Structural Behaviour wall, and stairs. Cladding, apron, render or plaster to the wall, screed on the
floor are all examples of architectural elements.
Before the inspector can start his confirmatory inspection work, it is important
that he must also have knowledge on structural behaviour of a reinforced Structural elements and architectural elements are collectively known as
concrete frame structure under load, concrete properties, and mechanisms of building fabric, as distinct from building services such as air-condition ducts,
deterioration. plumbing, etc.

The figure below shows a standard reinforced concrete frame building. Beams are structural members designed to withstand load that is transverse to
their main axis. The load effects induced in a beam are mainly bending, torsion
and shear. Columns are structural member expected to carry compression
(parallel to their axis) and bending forces. The behaviour of beams and
columns under uniformly distributed load can be seen from Fig. 2-2 and Fig. 2-
3, respectively.

Fig. 2-1 Structural Elements in a Standard RC Frame Building

(Adapted from MacGregor)

The components of the building can be broadly divided into structural elements
and architectural elements. Structural elements are those needed to carry the
loads while architectural elements are those for aesthetics or protection and not
for load-bearing. Examples of structural elements are beam, column, Fig. 2-2 Bending effect of a continuous beam under a UDL
Bending Moment Diagram

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Walls could likewise be treated as adjoining beams or columns depending on

the forces they carry and fixities at the ends.

Free edge

Bending Moment Diagram

Fig. 2-3 Bending effect of a column under vertical load Free edge

Fig. 2-4 Yield lines in one-way slab

Note that in both cases, the tension sides of the members can be predicted
from the deflected shape of the member under load; or more objectively, from
the bending moment diagrams. Concrete is known to possess high resistance
in compression but weak in tension. This is why inspector provides steel
reinforcing bars in the tension zone of the structural member of an RC
construction.

Slab and Wall are also structural members. Floor slab which spans over the
beams is known as a one-way slab. Its behaviour can be reckoned as
individual strips of beams. In the case of the two-way slab, which has beams in
an approximately square grid, the behaviour may be more complex. Yield-line
theory* offers some ideas on how a concrete slab, either one-way or two-way Free edge
would fail under a load (see Fig. 2-4 and Fig. 2-5).
a) Four simply supported edges b) Three simply supported edges

Fig. 2-5 Yield lines in two-way slab

*
Yield-line theory is a plastic method of analysis based on Upper bound concept. The reader is
referred to standard text books on structural mechanics. Only limited knowledge is required by
building inspectors.

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CHAPTER 3 – Types of Defect, Deterioration and Damage and Before proceeding further, it is important that the inspectors clearly understand
Determination of Root Cause the meaning of the three terms mentioned above i.e.:

3.1 Introduction Defect is a problem caused by deficiency in design, specification or

workmanship
Common types of problems that JKR is often called upon to tackle are: Deterioration is a problem caused by the deterioration mechanism on the
material.
• Cracks on structural elements Damage is a problem caused by impact, abrasion or chemical spillages
• Cracks on non-structural elements
• Leaking problems 3.2 Types of Building Problems
• Spalling or delamination of concrete
• Settlement of apron due to soil subsidence Almost all the problems in buildings mentioned above manifest themselves as
• Differential settlement cracks in concrete and/or water leak. In the sections that follow, these two
damage will be discussed in details.
These problems can be due to error in design or construction, defective
workmanship, deterioration of material or physical damage. Though each of 3.3 Cracks
these problems is sometimes referred to as defect, deterioration or damage (to
indicate the cause of problem – see Definitions below) they are all identified as What are cracks?
“damage”. Description of common damage found in government buildings is
given in Handbook 1 under the names and codes (in brackets) of: A crack is defined as a fracture in concrete which extends partly or completely
through the structural element.
i. Cracks in concrete (6)
ii. Spalling of concrete (7) Cracks in concrete occur as a result of tensile stresses introduced in the
iii. Exposed reinforcements (12) concrete exceeding the tensile capacity of the concrete.
iv. Delamination (14) There are 2 broad categories of cracks i.e.
v. Water leak (16) i) Structural cracks (load-induced)
vi. Tilting of column (18) ii) Non-structural cracks (corrosion-induced and intrinsic)

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Where do cracks occur?

For Structural members, cracks occur in:

• beams
• columns
• floors (suspended or non-suspended floors incl. flatroofs)
• concrete walls

For Architectural members, cracks occur in:

• plastered brickwall under beams, near staircase
• Incompatible members e.g. door frame and brick wall or aluminium Fig. 3-2 Typical cracks on wall due to shrinkage of the plastered brickwall.
window frames (Fig. 3-1) (architectural problem)
• tiles (wall and floor)
• plastered wall, screed/render cracks (Fig. 3-2) 3.3.1 Structural Cracks (Load-induced)
• aprons (external of buildings)
Structural cracks are load-induced cracks in load-bearing elements. Such
cracks may affect the stability of the structures.

These cracks are considered serious as they are indication of deficiency of the
affected component and therefore should be reported immediately by the
District to State JKR.

The State inspector must review it urgently. The patterns of cracks are normally
as shown below.

Fig. 3-1 Cracks on plaster wall.

See the cracks at interface between
concrete column/beam with the plastered brickwall.
(architectural problem)

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/2$' 

&203
&20355(66
(66,,21

7(1
7(16 ,21
6 ,21
Fig. 3-5 Cracks are due to torsional rotation (twisting) of the beam
&5$&.6

Fig. 3-3 Cracks due to moment (Flexural cracks) The cracks will form the diagonal spiral around the member as in the figure
above.

Imposed load had caused cracking near the mid span of the beam when the
tension at the underside of the beam exceeded the tensile capacity of the Structural cracks are caused either by:
beam. The cracks are normally more and wider at the bottom.
a. deficiency in design or specification
/2$'
/2$' b. increased in loading other than and/or exceeding the intended
design (for e.g., change in use)
c. construction fault/bad workmanship
&5$
5$& .6
& .6
&5$
&5$& .6
& .6 d. foundation movement (differential settlement)

a) deficiency in design or specification

SHEAR CRACK
This can be in the form of:
Fig. 3-4 Cracks due to failure in shear

• Improper foundation and structural design.

• Poor detailing e.g. contraction joints too far away
The cracks normally occur near the supports and exhibit diagonal pattern as
shown above. • Improper mix design e.g. very dry concrete in congested steel
reinforcement members

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b) increase in loading other than the intended design Examples of structural cracks are shown in Fig. 3-6

Beam
A structure may have a change in use, e.g., an office area can be turned into a
store or water storage pump room. Or a new floor or building extension may be Typical profile of
combined flexural
shear crack
added above the existing one.
Bearing Diagonal cracks at
approximately 45°
to the horizontal
Corbel
c) Construction Fault/Bad Workmanship

Due to inadequate vibration, segregation (dropping concrete from high spots), Cracking induced by shear loads or shear/flexure combination

honeycombs, unplanned cold joints or poor curing, cracks will appear.

Poor quality concrete which is porous or have cracks will eventually allow Fig. 3-6 Example of structural cracks (Shear cracks)
carbon dioxide or chlorides to penetrate the concrete to the steel bars leading
to carbonation or chloride attack on the steel bars resulting in corrosion. d) Movement in foundation – Settlement and Subsidence

Some minor problems such as waterproofing problems which at first is These cracks occur when there is movement of the foundation either through
aesthetic in nature may later lead to corrosion and becomes a structural settlement or subsidence. These are also due to increased or unanticipated
problem if it is not rectified early. loading or problems to the soil/ground underneath.

Structural cracks are detrimental to a building and public safety as it may lead For the purpose of JKR building maintenance management procedure, a
to collapse. distinction is made between settlement and subsidence by definitions.
Definition of settlement: Differential downward movement of structure caused
Engineers design structural members to fail in ductile failure and not brittle by compression of the ground by foundation loads.
failure. This means that steel reinforcement bars will yield substantially and
concrete will crack severely giving time to the occupants before the structure Definition of subsidence: Downward movement of soil caused by activity in the
actually collapses. This however does not mean that inspectors can take for ground. Subsidence may or may not affect the structure. Although it may be
granted the time to rectify the problem as sudden collapses have occurred in architectural in some instances, e.g. tied aprons, if left unattended may later
the past due to a culmination of defects. become a structural problem.

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We note that total settlement usually does not cause any distress to a structure. 3.3.2 Corrosion-induced Cracks
It is only differential settlement that is of major concern. Differential settlement
will affect the building (e.g.: 45° cracks will be seen on walls) and is considered These cracks occur when the underlying reinforcement had corroded and its
a structural problem. Some examples on cracking due to differential settlement expansive products (rust expands 3-5 times its volume) exerts pressure on the
are shown below. concrete causing it to crack. The cracks normally follow the line of
reinforcement. Cracks, when left unattended, may lead to spalling (small
fragments) or delamination (large panels).

Corrosion of reinforcement is normally caused by:

a. Carbonation of concrete

Normal concrete has a pH value of about 12.5. Due to such high alkalinity, the
steel bars in the concrete are protected with a passivating layer against
corrosion.

Fig. 3-7 Settlement cracks on a wall at staircase area (45° Wall Carbon dioxide in the air may enter the concrete through the cracks or pores
Cracks)(structural problem-to be monitored) and react with the calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 (a by-product of cement
hydration) and in the presence of moisture, form calcium carbonate (CaCo3).

This reaction results in reduction of pH in the concrete from pH 12.5 to pH 9.5

making the concrete less alkaline. This is known as carbonation. Carbonation
destroys the passivating layer that is protecting the steel and allows corrosion
to occur.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 = CaCo3 9+2O

b. Chloride-induced
Fig. 3-8 Subsidence cracks at external apron of building
Salts (e.g., NaCl) can be found in the concrete as they are already in the
(Non-structural turned structural problem-to be monitored)
aggregates or water during mixing or due to
Classification of crack damage due to settlement/subsidence can be found in
Appendix D.

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ingress/penetration from an outside source e.g. seawater on marine concrete

structures.
The negatively charged free chloride ions Cl- , in the salt destroys the
passivating layer of the steel bars allowing corrosion to propagate.

As mentioned above, corrosion-induced cracks often lead to spalling or

delamination. Spalling is a fragment which has been detached from a larger
concrete mass. This happens when small isolated areas develop pittings which
have expansive forces during the corrosion process (see Fig. 3-9 till Fig. 3-11).

Fig. 3-10 Spalling in beam soffit due to chloride-induced corrosion

(structural problem)

Fig. 3-9 Spalling of concrete wall caused by expansion of corroded

reinforcement (due to carbonation)
(structural problem)

Fig. 3.11 Spalling at base of column due to carbonation

(structural problem)

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As corrosion spreads, the reinforcing bars which are tied in a grid-like position • Fine vertical cracks at regular interval in beams
(e.g. in beams, floors and wall) will break in a large panel. This is termed as • Fine vertical or horizontal cracks at regular interval in columns
delamination. This usually occurs in the concrete slab or beam soffit, columns • Transverse cracks at regular interval in slabs
or in concrete walls (see Fig. 3-12).
Crack pattern and the time of crack appearing give a broad guide in diagnosing
the type of cracks.

Intrinsic cracks affect only the aesthetics and do not endanger the stability of a
structure. However, in some situations when left unattended may lead to
structural problems. For example, a shrinkage crack may allow water to leak
and lead to corrosion problems in the reinforcement bars that will then reduce
the carrying capacity of a structural member.

There are several types of intrinsic cracks:

a. plastic shrinkage cracks

b. plastic settlement cracks
c. thermal cracks (internal restraint and external restraint cracks)
Fig. 3.12 Delamination caused by corrosion
d. long term drying shrinkage cracks
(structural problem)
e. crazing or map cracks
3.3.3 Intrinsic Cracks
a. Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
Intrinsic cracks in concrete occur due to its own nature (by itself). When
These occur within the first few hours after casting of concrete when the
concrete undergoes a volumetric change due to shrinkage, creep, hydration or
concrete is still fresh or “plastic”. They occur randomly (Fig. 3.1 top right and
change in temperature is restrained, intrinsic cracks will occur.
Fig. 3.2), diagonally at 45°(Fig. 3.1 top left) or in equally spaced cracks (Fig.
Non-structural cracks due to intrinsic movement in concrete can be in the 3.3).
following form:
They appear in slabs and beams 30 minutes to 6 hours after casting but are
Random pattern usually noticeable the next day during inspection.
•
• Following line of reinforcement

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Plastic shrinkage is primarily due to rapid drying of concrete.

A basic method to reduce this crack is to improve early curing or to protect the
concrete against excessive evaporation by shielding against direct sunlight and
having wind breaks.

(a) D iago nal (b) R and om

C rack along joint N o crack a t this joint

(c) In a re straine d bay

C a sting sequen ce 1 2 3
Fig. 3-15 Shrinkage cracks in the form of equally spaced transverse cracks in
beams or slabs.
Fig. 3-13 Plastic Shrinkage cracks
b. Plastic settlement cracks

These cracks will occur when there is excessive bleeding* of the concrete. The
top surface settles around the bar. The section beside the bar will settle more
becoming a “U” shaped settlement. This produces tensile stresses. As the
concrete is still weak the tensile stress causes the concrete to crack. These
cracks follow the direction of the steel bars.

S E C T IO N
S ettle m e n t

R ein fo rce m e n t V o id

C ra c k s
Fig. 3-14 Random pattern plastic shrinkage cracks on flatroof
(Architectural Problem)

Fig. 3-16 Plastic settlement cracks. Cracks are directly over the steel bars.

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Plastic settlement cracks due to bleeding occur 10 minutes to 3 hours after

casting. C rac k s

Some methods to reduce bleeding is by having a good mix design with low
water cement ratio. Another remedy is to revibrate the concrete while it is still
plastic.

*bleeding is a phenomenon where water in the concrete rises to the surface

after compaction. Fig. 3-17 Thermal Cracks (Horizontal Crack-Internal restraint crack, Vertical-
External restraint crack)
c. Thermal Cracks
d. Long term drying shrinkage cracks
During the hydration of cement, heat is produced and the concrete expands.
After a few days the concrete will cool and shrink. If this contraction is As a rule-of-thumb, total shrinkage of concrete is ≈ 600 microns i.e., 0.6mm in a
restrained, the concrete will crack. 1m long concrete member
In thick structures where the surface cools much faster than the internal core,
cracks will occur. These cracks are called internal restraint thermal cracks. Shrinkage at 28 days = 15% of total shrinkage
Shrinkage at 365 days = 65% of total shrinkage
If a thick concrete structure is cast onto existing floor, the floor will become the
restraint. When the structure cools to ambient temperature a vertical crack is The above shows that concrete will continue to shrink even after 1 year.
formed. It is known as external restraint thermal cracks. The crack is wider at
the base and tapers to a fine crack at the top. It is usually uniformly spaced. Long term drying shrinkage cracks will occur if the strain is restrained.

Thermal cracks occur within one to several weeks later and is usually seen In slabs and long continuous wall where such cracks usually occur, joints are
when the formwork is removed. introduced to relief the stresses to minimize the cracks.
Such joints are called crack-induced joints.
One method to reduce thermal cracks is to reduce the heat build-up of the
concrete or to insulate the structure during casting. e. Crazing

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Crazing are shallow cracks on the concrete surface due to rapid loss of water interface to have a gap which will allow the water in the toilet to seep through.
or overtrowelling of the surface during powerfloating.
Water seeping through will react with unhydrated calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
These cracks appear one to several days after casting. (a by-product during the cement hydration) and when exposed to carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere will become calcium carbonate, CaCo3 (lime), a
With good curing and finishing (no overtrowelling) crazing can be avoided. whitish precipitate. This will flow down from the pipe to form “stalactites” on the
ceiling and “stalagmites” on the floor. Although a good waterproofing system
will prevent the leakages such problems are common in Malaysia.

Water leaks are aesthetic/architectural problems and should be handled at the

District level.

Fig. 3-18 Crazing/Mapping Cracks

3.4 Water Leak

Water leak occurs due to several reasons:

a. Failed waterproofing system

b. Due to poor concrete (porous or having cracks) Fig. 3-19 Leakage at toilet water pipe penetration
c. Shrinkage of concrete (architectural problem)

a. Failed Waterproofing System b. Poor Concrete

For instance, the plastic water pipes in the toilet are installed through the Poor quality concrete which is porous or have cracks will eventually allow
concrete floor slab. The concrete has no bond to the plastic pipes and in carbon dioxide or chlorides to penetrate through
addition will shrink in time. This causes the

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the concrete to the steel bars leading to carbonation or chloride attack on the Chapter 4 – Procedures for Confirmatory Inspection
steel resulting in corrosion.
Such areas are usually damp and can be seen on walls and ceiling. It soon 4.1 Introduction
becomes even more unsightly as fungus and mould growth grows on it.
This chapter will provide guidance to the building inspector on how to fill up the
c. Shrinkage of Concrete Building Confirmatory Inspection Form. The inspection involves the inspector
identifying, quantifying and confirming the effects of the distress by recognising
Due to shrinkage of concrete, cracks will widen and allows water to seep the defects, damages and deterioration reported in the building.
through. This will lead to corrosion of steel bars.
Whilst conducting the inspection, the inspector will be able to determine the
Although most water leakage problems are at first aesthetic in nature it may root cause of the distress. With this confirmation he will be able to take the
later lead to corrosion and structural failure if the problem was not rectified necessary action.
early.
A confirmatory building inspection covers the following areas:

i. Desktop study/review/evaluation of data/documentation

ii. Visual inspection, Monitoring, equipment and NDT
iii. Evaluation and determination of root cause
iv. Filling of Inspection Forms (Form JKR/BuI/2-06, Confirmatory
Building Inspection Report)

4.2 Desktop Study (Preparatory Work)

Prior to the site visit and inspection, the State inspector must request and
obtain as much information as possible from the district inspector or the
building maintenance team.
Fig. 3-20 Water leakage (failed waterproofing) leading to corrosion.
(architectural problem but may become structural problem)
The first document he must review is the District inspector’s Condition
Inspection Report Form (Form JKR/BuI/1-06). This document will be attached
with other relevant information (See Appendix A for Types of Document).

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During the desktop study, the State inspector can carry out checks to confirm e. Deflection
that the structure is in compliance to drawings, specification and standards. f. Leakage

Some checks on loading requirements and allowable stresses can be reviewed Visual inspection may involve some simple measurements on verticality,
prior to his next action. ground levels, floor levels, deflections, slope angles and general crack
mapping. Such actions are usually only to confirm the correctness of the
4.3 Visual Inspection information in the district inspector’s report.
It also includes interviewing the maintenance crew and residents.
Should the State inspector decide that further action is required, he can
proceed with the Building Confirmatory Inspection (using Form JKR/BuI/2-06). 4.4 Monitoring
This will involve conducting a visual inspection, mapping of defects, monitoring
and non-destructive testing. He can identify the distress or effects on the By monitoring the cracks, the inspector will be able to assess if the cracks are
building structures. This will lead to a better evaluation and determination of the “dormant” or still active.
root cause of the building problems.
The inspector must decide on location, frequency and type of monitoring to be
The confirmatory report consists of a visual site inspection. The purpose of this carried out. Some of the common monitoring devices are:
inspection is to:
• To assess the condition of the building i) Glass strip - A piece of thin glass strip is glued with rigid epoxy over the
• To identify the defects (architectural, structural or non-structural) crack. Any movement will cause the glass to crack.
• To identify building distress
• To identify misuse of building or overloading ii) A thin straight line is drawn across the crack (use a thin permanent marker).
Any movement will cause the line to skew. Measure the gap with a crack scale
The visual inspection includes a walk around and taking photos of general and to determine if the movement is large.
critical areas. This will allow inspector to note the type of problems such as:
iii) Tell Tale Crack Width Gauge monitoring device (Fig. 4.1)
a. Cracks A monitoring gauge may also be installed rigid epoxy over the crack to monitor
b. Settlement the horizontal and vertical movement of the structure.
c. Spalling
d. Delamination

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iv) Mechanical Strain gauges (eg. “Demec gauge”). 2 stud pins are fixed across although some tests are easy to perform, the analysis and interpretation of the
the crack and the distance measured Any strain/movement will change the results may be difficult as concrete is a complex material.
distance between the 2 pins and will measured by the gauge.
Rebound Hammer (Schmidt Hammer) – Strength Test

It consists of an impact hammer with a plunger on one end in contact with the
concrete surface. The plunger is pressed against the concrete surface and
retracts against the force of a spring. When completely retracted the spring is
automatically released. When the impact of hammer hits the concrete a
“rebound number” is recorded. This number is correlated to concrete
compressive strength.
It is recommended to take 15 readings for each area.
Although it only measures the surface hardness of concrete, nevertheless it
provides an estimate of the concrete compression strength.
Fig. 4-1 Tell-Tale Crack Width Gauge for walls/floors

4.5 Testing (Non-destructive Test)

Non-destructive test provides the inspector with additional information on the

problem to assist in the determination of the root cause.
It can also be used to confirm what he may already suspect.

The NDT would be more efficient if the inspector already suspects a certain
problem eg. if there are brown stains on the concrete it is likely to be corrosion.
A half cell potential test can be conducted to confirm the problem and also
determine the extent of the problem.
Fig. 4-2 Rebound/Schmidt Hammer

There are many types of non-destructive test available (See Appendix B on

Types of NDT for concrete). However, we will only discuss on the 7 most
common tests. It should be noted that

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Penetration Resistance Test (Windsor Probe) – Strength Test It is one of the most basic and effective methods of testing. Cores usually 100m
diameter are cored directly from the concrete. Much information can be
A steel pin with a known charge is fired from a power actuated gun into a obtained from cores such as compression strength, density, quality e.g. voids,
concrete member. The height of protruded pin is measured (average of 3 pins) honeycombing, test shrinkage and expansion, concrete cover and depth of
and that provides an indication of concrete strength. carbonation

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) – Strength Test, Quality and Uniformity However core drilling can weaken the structure and should be carried out after
consultation with the consulting inspectors.
This test consists of measuring the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse passing
through the concrete to be tested. Covermeter – Concrete cover, rebar size and location
ACI suggest the following pulse velocity ratings for concrete
A hand held electronic device based on electromagnetic waves that can locate
the reinforcement bars in the concrete and at the same time provide the
Pulse Velocity (m/s) General Condition concrete cover and the estimated steel diameter.
4575 Excellent
3660-4575 Good
3050-3660 Questionable
2135-3050 Poor
2135 Very poor

UPV test is able to assess the quality and uniformity of the concrete. It can also
detect voids and cracks in the concrete member.

Unfortunately, UPV test require experienced technicians to operate the

instrument and expertise to interpret the results.
Fig. 4-3 Covermeter measurement
Core Test – Strength test, quality, density, shrinkage, carbonation

Depth of Carbonation Test (phenolphthalein test) – Corrosion Test

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Concrete surface is freshly broken or drilled incrementally and then sprayed

with phenolphthalein. The solution identifies alkaline zones.
Pink colour = Non-carbonated areas – OK
No colour = Carbonated areas – Corrosion may occur at this depth

Fig. 4-5 Half Cell Potential Test

Non-destructive test gives the State inspector more information on the defect or
can confirm his suspicions of the building problem. He can decide if Non-
destructive Test (NDT) should be carried out, the locations and frequency of
Fig. 4-4 Carbonation Test the test.
Half –Cell Potential test – Corrosion Test
He should coordinate the Non-destructive Test programme with the help of the
Electrical potential is measured relatively to a reference electrode (half-cell). district personnel. The State inspector can then analyse and interpret the
Here a potential contour can be plotted. It has been established that potentials results.
more negative than -350mV indicates high probability of corrosion while
potentials less than -200mV indicated high probability that the steel is not 4.6 Determination of Root Cause (Diagnosis)
corroding.
Following the Building Confirmatory Inspection and having carried out the
visual survey, monitoring and testing, the inspector can now examine the
causes of the problems further. He may classify the problems into 3 main
categories- 3D’s:

i. Defect is a problem caused by deficiency in design, specification or

workmanship,

ii. Deterioration is a problem caused by the deterioration mechanism on the

material, and

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iii. Damage is a problem caused by change in use of building, impact,

abrasion and chemical spillages.

i) Defect

a) Design Defect

Examples of design defects include inadequate/inefficient joints provision, error

in design etc.

b. Specification Defects

Fig. 4-6 Honeycombed concrete

Wrong/inadequate material specification e.g. use of High Alumina Cement for
structural members.
Bad concrete mix design eg. fresh concrete too dry, steel bars too congested.
ii Deterioration – Mechanism
No protection of concrete surface.

Old and existing buildings are exposed to deterioration or disintegrating

c. Poor Workmanship/construction
mechanism such as:
The following conditions below are due to poor workmanship:
• Chemical
• Honeycomb concrete (Fig. 4.6)
• Physical
• Cold joints
• Biological
• Cracks (eg. intrinsic cracks)
• Thermal
• Bleeding
• Dusting
Chemical mechanism
• Crazing (map cracks)
• Delamination of floor surface
Corrosion (carbonation or chloride-induced).
• Water leakages See 3.3.2 Corrosion-induced Cracks.

Sulfate attack (DEF-delayed ettringite formation/ISA-internal sulphate attack).

Sulfates (eg. sodium and calcium sulfates) in the soluble form react with
hydrated lime in the cement to form

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gypsum and ettringites. These will then expand and cause disintegration in the b. Impact- impact by heavy vehicles knocking into columns
concrete. c. Abrasion - Dragging of pallets, equipment
d. Chemical spillages – as concrete is alkaline, acidic spillages will wear
Physical mechanism away the concrete.

a. Abrasion occurs on the surface of the concrete. It is common in corridors After completing the Building Confirmatory Inspection, the inspector shall
with heavy traffic where wheels are moved or dragged across the floor. discuss with his colleagues or make the best educated guess of the root cause
b. Erosion of concrete through constant rubbing or friction. of each problem.
c. Cavitation (usually in river or marine structures)
Determination of the root cause is both an “art” and a “science”. Factors that
Erosion of concrete due to bursting of vapour bubbles when water flows down a influence the problems are varied and can sometimes be from a single cause
slope. or an accumulation of factors. Also, much information may not be available e.g.
time of crack, making the determination a subjective matter. Many effects such
Biological mechanism as cracks on slabs or on walls may already be covered e.g. by plaster, paint or
ceiling boards. Nevertheless, it is usually still able to make a good guess.
Mosses and plant roots
Mosses and plant roots penetrate the concrete and expand as it grows It is recommended that State inspectors are properly trained on building
breaking up the concrete. inspections and with experience will be able to determine the root cause
accurately.
Thermal mechanism

Temperature changes
The temperature of the roof or exposed areas is greater than areas under
shade or indoors. This causes the exposed areas to expand while the shaded
areas do not. This uneven expansion produce stresses leading to cracks.

iii. Damage

Damage in a building are usually caused by:

a. Change in use of building, overloading

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CHAPTER 5 – Recommendation The inspector will need to assess the situation and give recommendations to
the District personnel on the actions to be taken.
Following the building inspection and the determination of the root cause, a
decision on the structural integrity can be made; e.g.: is the structure safe? Is 5.2 Recommended Remedies to Building Problems
there immediate danger to the occupants and public or can we wait for further
testing or decisions from the Forensic Unit in JKR HQ, KL? This section is intended to assist State JKR to coordinate remedial works that
are to be carried out by District inspector.
5.1 Overall Assessment
It must be acknowledged that concrete repair is a complex process and
A 6-point condition assessment adapted from ACI 364.1R-94 found in the form requires specific skills. This section will only provide a brief material selection
may be used as a guide. The distress structure can be classified as Grade A to guide and repair techniques for common problems.
F:
5.3 Repair Material Selection
Gr. Condition Recommended Action to be taken
A Good Do nothing. The majority of repair materials are either cement based or resin based (epoxy
Condition or polyurethane).
B Minor Resolve problem at State level.
C Moderate Resolve problem at State level. Cement based materials is a blend of binder/cement, aggregates, polymer
D Severe Remove all heavy live loads eg. furniture, modifiers (e.g. latex and acrylic), fibres and special fillers (silica fume, fly ash).
safe. Install temporary measures eg. Epoxy based materials consist of epoxy (2 part resin) and aggregates.
props, scaffolding etc. Cordon off area.
Inform all relevant authorities. Inform HQ, Below is a table to assist in the selection of repair materials.
KL.
E Potentially Remove all heavy live loads eg. furniture, Properties Cement and Epoxy Based
Hazardous safe. Install temporary measures eg. Polymer Materials
props, scaffolding etc. Cordon off area. modified based
Inform all relevant authorities. Inform HQ, Materials
KL. 1 Compression Good Good
F Unsafe Evacuate the occupants. Cordon off the strength
area. Inform all relevant authorities.
Inform HQ, KL.

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Cracks can be repaired structurally or non-structurally by injection of special

2 Bond strength Good Very Good materials directly into the cracks. The 2 classes of injection material are:
3 Strength Slow Fast Structural Injection Material
development • Epoxy
4 Shrinkage Yes No • Superfine cement
5 Thermal Similar to concrete Not similar to Non-Structural Injection Material (usually for leakages)
Expansion concrete • Polyurethane (PU) Foam
6 E-modulus Similar to concrete Slightly different to • Acrylic
concrete
7 Permeability Permeable Impermeable
8 Heat Resistant Yes No. Turns soft at
70Û&
9 Exothermic Yes Yes but not critical
10 Curing Yes No
required
11 Pourable Yes Yes
12 Pumpable Yes No, only low
viscosity epoxy.
13 Cost Low High

5.4 Repair Techniques Fig. 5-1 Injection Repair System (Epoxy or PU)

The common repair techniques are: b. Hand patch

This is a simple method where repair materials are hand applied in a towelling
a. Crack injection action. Mortar used can be polymer modified cementitious material or epoxy. A
b. Hand patch common polymer used in such materials is SBR (Styrene Butadiene Resin),
c. Form and place/ “letterbox” method commonly called latex/rubber.
d. Form and pump (neat and pre-pack technique)
e. Dry packing technique c. Form and place/”letterbox” method
f. Full depth repair Here a formwork is placed over a wall to be repaired. Repair grout material (eg.
g. Overlays non-shrink grout) is poured into the form via
h. Shotcrete

a. Crack Injection

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the “mouth on the top” until the entire formwork is filled above the topmost of A special concrete mixture in a slurry form is “shot” onto the area to be repaired
the repair area. The “mouth” is cut off the next day. using pneumatic machines. This technique is usually for large area repairs.

d. Form and Pump The selection of material and the appropriate technique is important to ensure a
Formwork is erected over the defective area and repair grout is pumped into durable repair.
the cavity. This usually carried out by pumping from a low spot to the highest
spot to ensure the cavities are completely filled. The formwork is then removed As the root cause of the problem had been determined, the inspector can now
the next day. give recommendations on the repair methods.

The repair grout can be neat (or with some aggregates such as 10mm
chippings). In large and deep repairs, pre-pack or pre-placed technique is
recommended. This involves placing large single-sized aggregates (eg. 20mm
to 40mm) inside the formwork to dissipate heat generated by the cement-rich
grout.

The sequence of pumping is similar to the form and pump technique.

e. Dry packing Technique

A dry repair mortar (polymer modified cementitious material or epoxy) is placed
on the area and is compacted manually using a hammer.

f. Full Depth Repair

The defective area is fully removed and mortar (grout or concrete) is poured
into the member.

g. Overlays
These are thin mortars (epoxy, polyurethane or polymer modified cementitious
material) applied over a defective layer.

h. Shotcrete (gunite)

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Recommended Reading Appendix A - Types of Documents

The Concrete Society. Non-structural cracks in concrete (Technical Report No. Valuable information can be obtained immediately from existing documents.
22), 1992 Much time and effort is saved and a better decision can be made from such
information.
ACI 364.1R-94. Guide for Evaluation of Concrete Structures Prior to
Rehabilitation, 1999 a. Structural and architectural drawings, plans and layout, elevations,
sketches
P.H. Perkins. Repair, Protection and waterproofing of concrete Structures, b. Architect or Inspector’s Instructions and variation orders
1997 c. Test reports, Specifications, product data sheets, method

Peter Emmons. Concrete Repair and Maintenance Illustrated, 1994 d. Daily records (RE and contractors record)
e. Photographs of work in progress
Denison Campbell, Harold Roper. Concrete Structures: Materials, maintenance f. Site/field observation/inspection record
and repair, 1991 g. Concrete documents eg. docket (with slump records),
sieve analysis, mix design
Robert W. Day, Forensic Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering. h. Minutes of site meeting, correspondence
j. As-built drawings (piling records, M&E)
k. Previous and current use of buildings/rooms or current loads
l. QA/QC documents eg. NCR (non-conformance report)
m. Maintenance history
n. Inspection records,
o. Records of major incidents eg. fire, flooding, slope
collapse, settlement, freak-storm.

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Appendix B - Types of Non-destructive Test (NDT) on Concrete

21 Spirit Level Verticality, Flatness
Below are some of the non-destructive methods to evaluate concrete 22 Survey Level Ground Settlement
properties: (not all will be selected for testing) 23 Survey Plumb Building Verticality
24 Inclinometer Slope stability
No. Non-Destructive Test Purpose/Determination 25 DIN 1048 test Permeability test
of
1 Rebound/Schmidt Compressive Strength
Hammer (surface hardness)
2 Windsor probe/ Compressive Strength
penetration resistance test
3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Compressive Strength
4 Core test Compressive Strength etc.
5 Covermeter Concrete Cover
6 Phenolphthalein Test Carbonation depth
7 Half Cell Potential Test Corrosion
8 Pull out Test Tensile Strength
9 Pull off Test Bond Strength
10 ISAT Rate of absorption
11 Resistivity Test Corrosion
12 Petrographic Analysis Concrete composition
13 BRE Screed Test Cement screed
14 Moisture probe Moisture in Concrete
(Protimeter/Tramex)
15 Chemical analysis Composition
16 Chaplin Abrasion tester Surface Abrasion
Resistance
17 Mohs Scale Material Hardness
18 Hammer Test Delamination
19 Load test Check Structural Capacity
20 Chain Drag Delamination

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Appendix C - Confirmatory Building Inspection Report 3.0 Non-Destructive Test

Confirmatory Building Inspection Report Form: JKR/BuI/2-06/ NDT results available: Yes/No
JKR District: JKR/BuI/1-06/ (Must be attached)
Cause of problem:
1.0 General Details
Are other NDT required? Yes/No
1.1 Name of Building :
If yes, state type:
1.2 Location :
Location:
2.0 Confirmation of Recorded Observations
Does problem have any patterns? Yes/No
Notes:
D1- Defect is a problem caused by deficiency in design, specification or Comment:
workmanship.
D2- Deterioration is a problem caused by the deterioration mechanism on the
material.
D3- Damage is a problem caused by change in use of building, impact, 4.0 Determination of Root Cause
abrasion and chemical spillages.
Problem Yes Probable Resolve by
Location: /No Root D/S/HQ*
Element: Cause,
3D’s
JKR District State 1 Cracks
Severity of Damage Rating: Agree: 2 Settlement/
Rating of Damage: Agree: Subsidence
Comments: 3 Spalling
4 Delamination
5 Water
leakages

For item 2 refer to Appendix D

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* D= District S=State HQ=HQ, KL

E Potentially Remove all heavy live loads e.g. furniture,
Comments: Hazardous safe. Install temporary measures e.g. props,
scaffolding etc. Cordon off area. Inform all
relevant authorities. Inform JKR HQ, KL.
F Unsafe Evacuate the occupants. Cordon off the area.
Inform all relevant authorities. Inform JKR HQ,
KL.

Building/Area/section Condition:
5.0 Recommendations Recommendation:

Action Recommended: Additional Notes:

Action by:
Name of Building Confirmatory Inspector:

Position :
6.0 Special Recommendations
Date :
The 6 point assessment adapted from ACI 364.1R-9 may be used as a guide to
recommend action to be taken in certain areas or section: Signature:

Condition Action to be taken This report is to be submitted to:

A Good Do nothing.
Condition Position :
B Minor Resolve problem at State level. Attachments see Appendix B - Types of documents
C Moderate Resolve problem at State level. a. Photographs
D Severe Remove all heavy live loads eg. furniture, b. Layout plans etc.
safe. Install temporary measures eg. props, c. Monitoring and NDT reports
scaffolding etc. Cordon off area. Inform all d. ………………….
relevant authorities. Inform JKR HQ, KL. e. ………………..

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Appendix D Classification of Crack Damage due to Settlement be required; doors and

(Adapted from Robert Day; Forensic Geotechnical and Foundation windows stick; service pipes
Engineering, 1998). may fracture; and
weathertightness is often
Damage Description of typical Approx. Resolve impaired
Cat. damage crack by Severe Large cracks requiring 15mm – S/HQ
Width D/S/HQ extensive repair works 25mm but
Negli Hairline cracks < 0.1mm D involving breaking out and also
gible replacing sections of walls depends
Very Slight Fine cracks that can be 1mm D (especially over doors and on
easily treated during normal windows); distorted windows number of
decoration, perhaps an and door frames; noticeable cracks
isolated slight fracture in sloping floors; leaning or
building and cracks in bulging walls; some loss of
external brickwork visible on bearing in beams; and
close inspection. disrupted service pipes.
Slight Cracks that can be easily 3mm D Very Requires a major repair job >25mm HQ
filled and redecoration would Severe involving partial or complete but also
probably be required; several rebuilding; beams lose depends
slight fractures may appear bearing; walls lean and on
showing on the inside of the require shoring; windows are number of
building; cracks that are broken with distortion; and cracks
visible externally and some there is danger of structural
repointing may be required; instability.
and doors and windows may D – District Level
stick. S – State Level
Moderate Cracks that require some 5mm- D/S HQ – HQ, Forensic Unit
opening up and can be 15mm 0r
patched by mason; recurrent a no. of
cracks that can be masked cracks
by suitable linings; repointing >3mm
of external brickwork and
possibly a small amount of
brickwork replacement may

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