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Lesson 1: Introduction to Fire Behavior

Course Overview
In order to fight fire more effectively and reduce injuries and loss of life, it is essential to understand how a fire
develops in response to various conditions such as fuel load and available oxygen.

The goals of this course are to improve firefighter techniques and fire safety and to reduce loss of life by equipping
fire service personnel with an understanding of fire behavior to inform decision making.

Upon completion of this course, you will be able to:

Explain why it is important to understand fire behavior and how it relates to firefighter safety.
Describe the components necessary for combustion.
Describe the elements of building construction as they apply to firefighter safety.
Define basic terms and concepts associated with the dynamics of fire.
Describe the process of burning.
Discuss various materials and their relationship to fires as fuel.
Describe the dynamics that affect how fires start, spread, and develop.
Compare methods and techniques of fire extinguishment.
Describe characteristics and contributing factors related to rollovers, flashovers, and backdrafts.

Lesson Overview
This lesson examines changes in the firefighting environment and how these changes affect fire behavior and
firefighter safety.

Upon completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

Explain how the modern firefighting environment affects fire development and firefighter safety.
Explain how understanding fire behavior can improve firefighter safety.
Explain the fire triangle and fire tetrahedron.
Identify the features of building construction, given a photograph of a building.
List the conditions necessary for combustion.

The Importance of Understanding Fire Behavior (Video Transcript)

The video presents two case studies based on actual events.

Narrator: A family awakens to a smoke alarm and goes downstairs to find hot, smoky conditions. The family exits the
home through the front door, leaving the door open.

The first fire engine arrives approximately six minutes after the 911 call is received and firefighters begin entering the
home using the front door. By now, thick, black smoke is billowing through the doorway.

Within two minutes, firefighters take out the front window on the first floor to provide ventilation. Upstairs, firefighters
are opening more windows at the front of the house. In addition, the occupants of the home had left the second story
windows on the backside of the home open.

On the walkout basement level, firefighters can see through the sliding glass door that the basement is fully charged
with smoke. They break out the glass and enter the basement to conduct a search.

Meanwhile, three firefighters are working on the first floor—one positioned near the open doorway to the basement
stairs, another near the back wall, and a third between them. Firefighters in the basement report a number of small

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fires on the floor, which quickly increase in size after the glass door is opened. The firefighters are ordered out of the
basement and are able to escape just before the basement becomes fully involved with fire.

Flames from the basement extend up the backside of the home. Seconds later, a report comes in that a firefighter is
down. Two of the firefighters working on the first floor die from injuries caused by the fire, as hot gases rush up the
open stairwell, and the third sustains substantial burn injuries.

Better understanding of the effects of ventilation on fire behavior may have prevented this tragedy.

Let's look at another residential fire that ends differently.

Firefighters respond to a fire in a one-and-a-half story wood frame house located in a rural area. The fire is in the
living room area at the front corner of the home.

Firefighters advance from the unburned side and encounter heavy smoke conditions. As the lieutenant on the hose
crew reaches the dining room, he observes the smoke lift momentarily and sees fingers of fire through the smoke at
the ceiling level, while smoke and heat conditions escalate.

Based on the worsening conditions, the lieutenant orders the crew to withdraw to the exterior. Just before the last
firefighter exits, flashover occurs—all combustibles in the area, including the gases produced by the fire, ignite at
once.

If the lieutenant had not understood the signs of imminent flashover, the crew would surely not have been able to exit
safely.

The Firefighting Environment

The firefighting environment has undergone significant changes over the past decades. Changes in housing design,
building materials, and home furnishings have affected the dynamics of how a fire burns.

Housing Design

Compared to homes constructed before 1970, modern homes are much larger and designed with open floor plans and
less compartmentation. Higher ceilings allow additional oxygen to reach the fire. Homes in suburban neighborhoods
are often spaced close together on small lots. All of these factors contribute to rapid fire growth and spread.

Building Materials

Lightweight construction materials used in modern homes burn more quickly and fail faster than solid wood and
plaster components used in older homes. Modern energy-efficient windows fail more quickly than older windows made
with thicker glass. When the windows of a structure break during a fire, the influx of additional air feeds the fire.
Modern building materials generally result in faster fire growth and spread, and could result in structural collapse
more quickly.

Home Furnishings

One of the most significant changes affecting fire behavior is the prevalence of synthetic materials in modern home
interiors and furnishings. These materials are more flammable and combustible, and they consume oxygen much
faster than natural fibers and materials.

All of these changes in the firefighting environment combine to increase heat development and fire spread while
significantly reducing escape time before structural collapse and unmanageable fire conditions may occur.

The Firefighting Environment, cont.

The fire test video, from Underwriters’ Laboratories, shows the dramatic impact that modern furnishings have on fire
dynamics.

Fire Dynamics

According to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), fire dynamics is the study of how chemistry,
fire science, material science and the mechanical engineering disciplines of fluid mechanics and heat transfer interact
to influence fire behavior. In other words, fire dynamics is the study of how fires start, spread, and develop.

Video Transcript

Opening Screen: In November 2009, Underwriters Laboratories conducted a side by side comparison of two
simulated living room fires. The purpose was to gain knowledge on the difference between modern and legacy

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furnishings. The rooms measured 12 ft by 12 ft with an 8 ft ceiling and had an 8 ft wide by 7 ft tall opening on the
front wall. Both rooms contained similar amounts of like furnishings.

Both rooms were ignited by placing a lit stick candle on the right side of the sofa. The fires were allowed to grow until
flashover.

Copyright © 1995-2008 Underwriters Laboratories Inc. All rights reserved. No portion of this material may be
reprinted in any form without the express written permission of Underwriters Laboratories Inc. or as otherwise
provided in writing. (Used with permission.)

Narrator: Two living rooms of the same dimensions were constructed and furnished with similar amounts and types
of furnishings. Items used to furnish the modern room consisted of synthetic materials whereas the contents of the
legacy room were made of natural materials.

Among the various data collected, most notable was the difference in time from ventilation and flashover between the
two fires. A flashover is the rapid transition in fire behavior from localized burning of fuel to involvement of all
combustibles in a room, caused by a massive buildup of heat energy. The fire in the room furnished with synthetic
materials took three and one-half minutes to transition to flashover while the room with natural materials took more
than 29 minutes to flashover.

These experiments demonstrate how changes in the materials affect fire dynamics and how firefighters need to
understand fire dynamics and the need to rethink techniques to fight and extinguish fire more effectively.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Design

Changes in the design of turnout gear have also affected firefighting. Improvements in PPE design have resulted in
greater thermal protection. The enhanced protection, however, can cause a significant delay in detecting dangerous
conditions in the fire environment. This can cause firefighters to advance farther and/or remain longer in an unsafe
area. The PPE design was not intended to enable firefighters to penetrate deeper into a fire.

Your turnout gear consists of several layers and protects you by absorbing energy at high temperatures for a certain
period of time until it becomes saturated. The heat transfers through these layers toward your skin. By the time the
heat reaches your skin, exposure could be significant, and effects will be felt for several minutes after exposure, with
increasing magnitude.

PPE Design, cont.

A study conducted by the University of Maryland shows how you cannot rely on elevated skin temperature to warn
you of a dangerous situation. In the UM tests, firefighters were exposed to a fire in a test room as researchers
monitored the temperature of the outer layer of their gear and their skin. Ceiling temperatures were sustained
between 750 and 1400°F (398.889 and 760°C).

Tests showed no increase in skin temperature during the first two minutes of exposure. At four minutes, skin
temperature increased 7°F (-13.8889°C), and firefighters exited the test room for a cooler area. However, skin
temperatures continued to elevate. By the time the firefighters were away from the fire for two minutes, skin
temperature had risen 14°F (-10°C). This test shows how, if you wait until you feel discomfort from the heat of the
fire before leaving, it is already too late—your skin temperature will continue to rise, and you may sustain serious
burns.

Source: di Marzo, M., Firefighter and Firefighter Gear Performance in Training Evolutions, Partners for Protection: Fire
Protection Engineer and the Fire Service, SFPE Symposia, October 17, 2006.

The Fire Triangle

Fire has been traditionally represented by the fire triangle which includes three components:

Fuel: Fuel is any combustible substance—put simply, anything that will burn. Fuel may be a solid, liquid, or gas.
Heat: Heat is required to elevate the temperature of the fuel to make it burn.
Oxygen: Most fires will burn vigorously in any atmosphere of at least 20 percent oxygen. Without oxygen, most
fuels could be heated until entirely vaporized, yet would not burn.

The Fire Tetrahedron

The traditional fire triangle falls short of explaining the entire fire process as it fails to account for a sustained or
growing fire. The fire tetrahedron transforms the two-dimensional fire triangle into a three-dimensional pyramid,

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adding a fourth element needed to sustain the fire: a self-sustaining chemical chain reaction. This chain reaction,
which occurs between the fuel and the oxidizer, is known as combustion.

Heat is needed to begin the reaction between the fuel and oxidizer. As heat is applied, vaporous gases are released by
the fuel during the burning process and absorbed by the flame. The heat from the flame drives the chemical reaction
as it continues to heat the fuel and oxidizer. This, in turn, produces the gaseous fuel used in the flame, thus sustaining
the fire. Combustion will continue until one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron is removed.

Oxidizer

An oxidizer is a material that reacts with fuel to promote combustion. Oxygen is the most common oxidizer; some
other oxidizers include nitrates, peroxides, and chlorine.

Basic Combustion
For a fire to occur, these conditions must be met:

A combustible fuel must be present.

An oxidizer (such as oxygen in the air) must be present.
Heat energy (an ignition source) must be applied.
The fuel and oxidizer must interact in a self-sustaining chain reaction.

A decrease in any one of the above conditions would result in a decrease in fire intensity. If any one of these
conditions is removed completely, the fire would cease to exist.

Generally, the fuel must be heated to increase the fuel's temperature to the point of vaporization or gasification. The
gases or vapors mix with the oxygen (or other oxidizing agent) to form a flammable mixture. Ignition occurs once the
flammable gas reaches its ignition temperature.

How Fire Burns: The Sustained Chemical Reaction Illustrated

When solids and liquids are heated beyond their ignition point, they decompose, releasing combustible vapors. (Gas
fuels do not undergo vaporization.) It is the vapor that burns, not the solid or liquid. A burning candle illustrates this
point.

Video Transcript

When a candle wick is lit, the surrounding wax melts, and the liquid is absorbed by the wick and drawn upward. The
heat of the candle flame transforms the liquid wax to a gas state. It is this gas fuel that burns as it mixes with
oxygen. The wick is kept cool by the liquid wax, protecting it from burning. When the candle is blown out, the gas
condenses and appears as white smoke. If you place a flame to the white smoke, a flame will spread down toward the
wick and re-light it. This occurs until the wick cools and no longer vaporizes the wax.

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you learned how changes in modern single family residences have affected fire behavior, resulting in
faster fire spread and significantly reducing escape time before structural collapse and unmanageable fire conditions
may occur.

To prevent your gear from becoming saturated and increase your chances of surviving a dangerous situation, you
must be more aware of your surroundings and understand how fire behaves. Understanding these concepts will help
you be able to more accurately assess the situation when responding to a fire.

Lesson 2: Basic Fire Concepts

Lesson Overview
Before delving further into the dynamics of fire behavior, it's important to ensure a common understanding of
terminology used when describing or discussing fire behavior. This lesson reviews some basic terms and concepts
used to describe how a fire starts, spreads, and develops.

Upon completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

Define common fire behavior terms.

Match units of scientific measurement with the fire-related variables for which they are used.

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Fire Behavior Terms

Fire behavior refers to how a fire reacts to various environmental and fuel conditions. Fire researchers study and
describe fire behavior in terms of:

Fire Growth: the initiation, growth, and decay of a fire's heat release rate over the duration of the fire
Fire Spread: the movement of fire from one place to another
Fire Spread Rate: the rate of movement of a fire from one place to another
Fire Intensity: the quantity of heat energy and the temperatures inside the room produced by the fire

Heat Release Rate

The heat release rate (often shown in charts as HRR) is the amount of energy released over a period of time by an
object as it burns. You will learn more about heat release rate later in this lesson.

Heat Energy

Heat energy is a form of energy needed to change the temperature of an object. You will learn more about heat
energy on the next page of this lesson.

Heat Energy
Heat energy is a form of energy capable of creating and sustaining chemical changes and changes of state. Heat
energy increases the temperature of fuel, causing ignition. Heat energy is also required to support fire growth.

Understanding units of measurement is important for understanding the severity and magnitude of a fire as it affects
extinguishment strategies and the potential for death or injury to a firefighter.

Heat energy is measured in units of joules (J). Equivalent units of heat, energy, or work include:

Calories: 1 Calorie = 4.184 J

BTUs: 1 BTU = 1055 J

For example, the heat energy of a 6-inch and 8-inch burner of a typical electric stove is 4,420 BTU and 6,800 BTU,
respectively.

Heat Release Rate (HRR)

As a fuel burns, it releases heat energy. The measurement of this released energy over a specific time period is called
the heat release rate.

Heat release rate is used to describe how fast energy is released and the material's potential fire severity. Heat
release rate is the dominant fire hazard. Tests show heat release rate is much more important in controlling the time
available for potential victims of a fire to escape than ease of ignition, smoke toxicity, or flame spread.

Heat release rate is the driving force behind fire growth and development. It characterizes the size of the fire and
determines fire spread in the early stages of a fire.

Heat Release Rate (HRR), cont.

The heat release rate of an object is controlled by several factors:

Chemical and physical properties of the fuel

Geometry of the fuel and containment
Ventilation of the fuel
Surrounding fuels

The heat release rate of an object or a room is important to understanding how the energy released from that item
would change the thermal conditions in a room or how it might ignite other nearby fuels via heat transfer.

In terms of measurement, total heat release rate is measured in units of watts (W). A watt is a standard unit of power
equivalent to one joule per second. A kilowatt (kW) equals 1,000 watts (W). A megawatt (MW) equals one million
watts.

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Heat release rate is expressed in kilojoules per second (kJ/sec) or kilowatts (kW). It represents the product of the
theoretical heat of combustion and the mass loss rate.

Heat Release Rate vs. Temperature

People often confuse temperature and heat energy. If someone says that something is hot, is he referring to the
temperature or the heat energy?

Heat energy causes burning, regardless of whether it's a sunburn or a burn from a hot stove. Temperature does not
burn. Temperature is a measurement system of the hotness or coldness of a material in relation to a reference point
and is expressed in degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Centigrade.

If you add energy packages such as 10 candles, they would accumulate to approximately 10 times the energy of one
candle. However, measuring the temperature of one candle or 10 or 100 candles, it remains the same.

If you had 100 candles in a room, it surely would feel hotter but the temperature of each flame is the same and the
temperatures do not add together. What you are feeling is the total energy package.

Heat Flux
Fire produces energy that strikes an object's surface. This is known as heat flux which is the measure of the rate of
heat transfer per surface unit area. Heat flux is expressed as kW/m2.

Imagine how the sun feels on your skin on a sunny day at the equator. That's about 1kW/m2 which is the maximum
heat flux felt from the sun anywhere on Earth. In comparison, the heat flux may reach 0.8 kW/m2 on the hottest day
in Chicago.

To give you another perspective, the typical amount of heat flux striking the turnout gear during a fire in is 2.5
kW/m2. That amount burns skin faster than at the equator.

Remember, the difference between heat release rate and heat flux is that the heat release rate is the energy the fire
produces while heat flux is what you feel.

Heat Flux Examples

The chart below displays the corresponding heat flux for various examples of exposures to heat.

Heat Flux Range

1.0 kW/m2 Sunny day at the equator

2.5 kW/m2 Typical firefighter exposure

3-5 kW/m2 Pain to skin (without gear) within seconds

20 kW/m2 Threshold flux to floor at flashover

60 to 200 kW/m2 Flames over surface

Heat of Combustion
As you learned, combustion is a complex chemical reaction involving a fuel source, heat, and oxygen. As the fire
burns, it consumes oxygen and produces additional heat and other gases, such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxides, and sulfur oxides.

The heat of combustion is the measure of the maximum amount of heat energy that can be released by the complete
combustion of a fuel. The heat of combustion is determined by the weight and chemical makeup of the fuel, and the
amount of oxygen. This measure is expressed as the number of joules or BTUs of heat released per kilogram (kg) or
pound of fuel. Sample products and heat of combustion are:

Wood: 12-15 MJ/kg

Plastics: 15-40 MJ/kg
Liquid Hydrocarbons: 43-50 MJ/kg

Fuel Load and Heat Release Rate

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The fuel load is the total amount (not the weight) of combustible contents of a building, space, or fire area, including
the interior finish and trim. The fuel load affects the amount of heat and smoke generated by the fire.

Consider the difference in the heat release rates between a warehouse containing mattresses made of cotton batting
and a warehouse storing polyurethane foam mattresses. Although the quantity of materials may be the same, the
polyurethane foam mattresses would have a much higher heat release rate, and a fire in that warehouse would be
much more dangerous.

The heat release rate is a better indicator than fuel load of the potential severity of a fire. Knowing the fuel load of an
area and the heat release rate will help estimate the potential damage, type of burning (e.g., smoldering or open
fire), and movement that can occur if these materials catch fire or are burning.

Lesson Summary
This lesson reviewed terms and concepts associated with fire dynamics. Several terms are often confused or
incorrectly interchanged such as heat release rate, heat flux, and temperature.

Remember, heat release rate is the energy released by the fire while heat flux is what you feel. Temperature is a
measurement of the hotness or coldness of something.

Of all these concepts, heat release rate is the most significant driving force behind fire growth and development. The
fuel load has a major impact on the heat release rate.

Understanding these concepts will aid in your understanding of the characteristics of a fire, the relationship between
these characteristics, and their effect on fire behavior.

Lesson 3: Development of a Fire

Lesson Overview
The size, spread, rate, and intensity of a fire are affected by many factors. Understanding how these factors impact
fire development and behavior will help you to better respond to a fire situation. This lesson focuses on the process of
burning and how various materials react as fuel in fires.

Upon completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

Define various types of flames.

Distinguish among three methods of heat transfer.
Describe the stages of a compartment fire.
Define the concepts of ventilation-controlled and fuel-controlled fires.
Describe the physical and thermal properties of solid, liquid, and gas fuels.
Describe how the material properties and the geometry of the fuel, compartment, and structure affect fire
behavior.
Explain how the confines of a compartment fire affect fire behavior.

Types of Flames
The flames of a fire are produced by the chemical reaction between vaporized or gaseous fuels and oxygen (or other
oxidizing agent). The type of flame may change during a fire, possibly indicating a change in the fire conditions.

The type of flame produced is determined by two factors: how the fuel and air are mixed, and the gas flow rate.
Examples of each type of flame are listed in the table below.

  How the Fuel and Air Are Mixed

    Diffusion Premixed

Laminar Candle flame Bunsen burner flame

Flow Rate
Turbulent Room fire Furnace flame

Diffusion

A diffusion flame is produced when the fuel gases and oxygen combine in the reaction zone where the ignition occurs.
Compared to premixed flames, diffusion flames tend to burn more slowly and produce more soot. Diffusion flames are
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the most common flames firefighters encounter.

Premixed

If the fuel gas and oxygen are mixed before ignition, the combustion will produce a premixed gas flame.

Laminar

Flames are also categorized by their flow rate. A laminar flame has smooth streamlines and fluctuations are small due
to relatively low gas flow rate.

Turbulent

High gas flows generate turbulent flames, and this is the type most commonly encountered by firefighters. Turbulent
flames display an unsteady, rising fire plume with unpredictable and erratic behavior of large flames burning in high
velocity flows. This behavior is the result of the buoyancy of the heated gases and the influence of gravity upon them.
While the heat gases try to rise, gravity pulls them back down, distorting the laminar flow.

Methods of Heat Transfer

Heat energy is a major factor in the ignition, growth, spread, decay, and extinguishment of a fire. There are three
methods of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation.

Conduction

Conduction is the transfer of heat energy within a solid object or between solid objects in direct contact with each
other. As you crawl on the floor, you can feel the heat from a burning chair as it transfers to the cooler temperature
floor.

Some materials, such as metals, conduct or transfer heat energy better than other materials. Think of holding a hot
iron skillet in your bare hand.

Convection

Convection is heat transfer by the movement of liquid or gases from high temperature areas to cooler areas. As liquid
or gas fuel is heated, it expands, becomes less dense and rises. As the gas fuel loses heat, it becomes denser and
descends. This circulation of heat transfer can occur within a gas or liquid medium, creating convection current.

Convection is the primary means of heat transfer for fires within a structure, especially in the earlier stages of fire
growth.

Radiation

Radiative heat energy is transferred by electromagnetic waves. It does not require a medium through which to move.
An example of radiated heat is a space heater in a home.

Thermal radiation is the principle means of heat transfer in large-scale fires.

Stages of a Compartment Fire

Incipient Stage

Ignition occurs in the first stage as the combination of fuel, oxygen, and heat result in a fire.

Growth Stage

The fire's growth is influenced by many factors such as the available fuel, the arrangement of the fuel, how the fuel
ignited, and the ceiling height.

In a modern fire, the fuel consumes the oxygen very quickly and fills the area with dense smoke and fire gases, thus
possibly initiating an early decay stage. If no further oxygen is introduced to the fire area, the fire will remain in the
decay stage. If additional oxygen does enter the fire area, such as when firefighters open a door or if a window
breaks, it will continue its growth stage.

Fully Developed Stage

The fire has reached its highest output of energy during this stage of development. The fuels' heat release rates and
temperatures have reached their peak. The fire consumes the major fuels and oxygen within the compartment. All
involved fuels will continue to burn as quickly as oxygen is made available and all available fuels are consumed.

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Decay Stage

As the combustible fuel and/or oxygen is gradually depleted and unable to sustain combustion, the fire enters the
decay stage, which is generally the longest stage. If the oxygen level drops below 16 percent, the fire will decline,
even if unburned combustible materials are present. However, some combustion will occur even when oxygen levels
approach 5 percent. Non-flaming combustibles can catch fire if they are not fully extinguished. In addition, if oxygen
reenters an unstable compartment, a decaying fire can quickly develop into an extremely dangerous situation for
firefighters. You will learn more about this in Lesson 4.

Fuel-Controlled vs. Ventilation-Controlled Fires

The decay stage occurs when the fire is running out of either oxygen or fuel.

Fuel-Controlled Fire

When the fire begins to run out of fuel, and there is more oxygen than fuel, the fire is said to be fuel-controlled. An
example of a fuel-controlled fire is a campfire.

Ventilation-Controlled Fire

When the amount of fuel exceeds the level of oxygen, the fire is considered to be ventilation-controlled.

Combustion inside the ventilation-limited compartment will be incomplete. Any unburned gases and other products of
incomplete combustion will leave the compartment and spread. If the gases spread to an area containing sufficient air,
the fire will re-start. If the gases move to an area with insufficient oxygen, such as smoke-filled room, the spread may
stop in that direction; however the heat from the gases can cause damage.

Fuel Properties
As you learned, a fuel is anything that will burn. To expand on that definition, a fuel is any substance that contains
potential energy which will release heat energy and maintain combustion under certain environmental conditions.

Fuels may be in a solid, liquid, or gas state. Recall that solids and liquids decompose when exposed to high heat,
transforming into a vapor state (although there are some solids that can mix directly with oxygen without
decomposing).

Vapors are the gas form of a solid or liquid after decomposition. The vapor mixes with the oxygen and undergoes
combustion.

Fuel Configuration
The severity and duration of a fire is determined by the arrangement and/or placement of a fuel. Understanding how
the fire burns under certain conditions can be helpful in determining where the fire is going and how fast it will get
there.

Corner vs. Edge

In the test shown in this video, the outer edge and inner corner of the same material are ignited simultaneously. As
the video demonstrates, the fire in the corner burns much more aggressively. Note how the fire spreads out
horizontally as it moves up the center corner of the material.

[In this video supplied by NIST, two L-shaped structures are ignited simultaneously: one on the outer edge of one
wall, and the other on the inside corner. The fire that began in the corner grows much faster and spreads out
horizontally as it moves up the wall.]

Top vs. Bottom

[In this video, "The Geometry of Ignition," supplied by Ron McCardle, two rolled pieces of paper are ignited
simultaneously, one at the top and the other at the bottom. The fire that began at the bottom burns much more
quickly and consumes the paper faster than the fire that began at the top.]

Upright vs. Lateral

The test in this video consists of six pallets stacked on end or upright and six pallets stacked flat on top of one
another. Both pallets are ignited simultaneously in the same location. Which do you think will burn faster?

[This video by NIST shows a test in which six pallets laid on their ends and six pallets stacked flat were ignited at the
same time in the same location. (Pallets = 65kg, Exelsior = 14.8kg). The pallets laid on end burn more quickly; at ten
minutes, they are nearly completely consumed by fire.]
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Fuel Geometry
The shape or form of the fuel affects heat transfer. Understanding the relationship between the fire and the
surrounding geometry can better prepare firefighters in making proper decisions while extinguishing the fire.

Liquid Spray vs. Spill

Liquid fuels, such as diesel oil or gasoline, will burn faster and more complete when they are in the form of a fine mist
or spray than a large pool of gas.

The droplet size is an important factor. It takes less energy to ignite a liquid when it is in droplet form.

Low Density vs. High Density

High density fuels such as solid wood furniture transfer the heat energy away from the ignition source faster than
lower density fuels, resulting in slower time to ignition.

In contrast, lower density materials such as glass and plastics, provide more ventilation, allowing the heat to remain
at the surface longer, causing the surface to rise in temperature and ignite sooner than the high density material.

Flat vs. Convex vs. Concave

A fire burning on a flat or convex surface loses a lot of energy to the surrounding environment as it spreads straight
across the surface. The concave surfaces on an object, however, radiate the heat energy back and forth between them
as the fire burns and, as a result, the fire will burn more intensely.

For example, if a fire starts in the center cushion of a couch, it will burn straight across for a while, but if the fire
starts in the corner of the couch, where the arm and back meet, the fire it will burn more intensely and faster. That's
because the heat is able to re-radiate off of three surfaces (the seat, the side, and the back of the couch).

Convex surfaces cause the fire to change speed because fire burns up faster than it burns down.

Moisture Content and Surface Texture

Moisture content and the texture of the fuel surface also affect fire behavior.

A fuel will assume the same moisture content of the surrounding air after it has been exposed to the air for a
sufficient time. Ignition becomes difficult when the moisture content is greater than 15 percent.

Imagine, for example, that an old, weathered barn made of rough-cut lumber catches fire at the same time as a
newly built storage shed made of smooth, solid wood lumber. Which do you think will burn faster and sustain more
damage?

The old barn will burn faster and sustain more damage than the newly built shed, for three reasons.

First, the wood is old and is likely to be very dry; thus it will ignite more quickly than the new wood, which is likely to
contain moisture.

Second, the rough surface will ignite more quickly because there is a higher surface-area-to-mass ratio. Consider an
example of igniting five pounds of toothpicks versus a five-pound block of wood. The toothpicks would burn more
quickly because there is more surface area for the fire to travel across. In this example, the rough-cut lumber is like
the pile of toothpicks; there is more surface area caused by the dips and grooves of the rough surface.

Third, the rough surface of the barn wood causes turbulence as the hot gases move across the surface. This
turbulence will cause larger, more unpredictable flames and result in greater damage.

Structural Properties
The construction of the structure also has an effect on fire development. Determining factors include whether the
structure is:

Combustible
Noncombustible
Sprinklered or nonsprinklered

You can learn more about how building construction affects fire behavior and firefighter safety in the online course,
Q0751, Principles of Building Construction, available through NFA Online.

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Structural Geometry
The shape and arrangement of the compartment and the location of the fuel within the compartment affects the rate
of fire spread. The chart compares the heat release rates and times for a two-, three-, and four-sided workstation
configuration. Note the increase in heat release rate and speed of fire development with each additional side. The
confinement of the four-sided workstation causes the fire to reach a higher energy output quicker. Now consider the
implications to home fires—for example, kitchen layouts.

Structural Geometry Fire Test

Fire tests were conducted to compare open burning and confined burning. In the video, note the time of the burn of
the sofa and the surrounding environment in each test.

Video Transcript

Fire tests were conducted to compare open burning and confined burning. Each fire test consisted of igniting identical
sofas in a different setting. In the first test, the sofa was placed in an open area with plenty of air. At six minutes, the
sofa cushions are completely consumed while the wooden frame continues to burn after eight minutes.

The second sofa was placed in a confined area which included carpeting and a doorway. Smoke begins to fill the
confined space in approximately two-and-a-half minutes and spreads throughout the room in around three minutes,
and eventually transitions into a flashover.

Structural Physical Properties

Other physical characteristics of an area which influence fire development include:

Volume
Ceiling Height
Ceiling Shape

Volume

Larger spaces take longer to maximize the energy output of the fuel, but have more air to aid fire growth.

Smaller spaces, on the other hand, maximize the heat transfer as all fuels are normally close together.

Ceiling Height

High ceilings may delay early detection of smoke and heat. In addition, the additional height allows for more
accumulation of smoke and carbon monoxide during a fire. Because this buildup is above firefighters’ heads, they may
not observe the warning signs that flashover is imminent.

Lower ceilings allow for a faster buildup of the fire and the possibility of a flashover is more likely. Additionally, a lower
ceiling receives direct impingement from flames below, which tends to breach the ceiling and travel upward to another
room or an attic.

Ceiling Shape

Steeply angled surfaces or ceilings with multiple levels may change the heat transfer flow into other areas and/or trap
unburned gases that could possibly lead to a flashover.

Structural Geometry: An Example

The photos show the aftermath of an upholstered easy chair in a fire. The chair was located in the living room near
the staircase to the second floor. The vaulted ceiling was at the level of the second floor ceiling, approximately 20 feet
above the chair.

Since other fuel packages were not close enough to the chair and the heat output from the chair had sufficient area to
cool below the ignition temperatures of the surrounding objects, the fire was unable to spread to them.

Noting these shapes, arrangements, and orientation will better inform your decision regarding fire control and
extinguishment.

Flame Plumes

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A flame plume is a column of hot gases and combustion products that rise in the space directly above the fire. If the
environment around the plume is relatively stable and not greatly affected by ventilation, the plume will rise in the
shape of a cone. If a door or window is opened or the arrangement of combustible objects is irregular, the path of the
plume may vary dramatically. The takeaway for the firefighter is to follow the plume to the source of the fire.

Ceiling Confined Plumes

When the fire is located in an open area such as the center of a room, the plume is confined by the ceiling only.

Consequently, the plume is able to entrain all the air surrounding the fire (in a 360 degree angle), resulting in more
heat loss to the atmosphere and reducing the size of the fire.

Wall Confined Plumes

When the fire is located along a wall, air entrainment is from one side, reducing the area by one-half the size of an
unconfined area. There is less cooler air for the plume to entrain. As a result, heat loss is reduced, which promotes
flame height.

Corner Confined Plumes

Fire plumes confined to a corner have even less cool air to draw from. More re-radiation of heat occurs, promoting fire
growth.

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you learned how a fire develops. Understanding how a fire develops and reacts is crucial to knowing
how to respond to a fire.

The heat from the flames of a fire is transferred through conduction, convection, or radiation. Most modern homes
transfer heat through convection and radiation.

Compartment fires occur in four stages: ignition, growth, fully developed, and decay. In the decay stage, fires may
become ventilation-controlled or fuel-controlled, as the fire begins to run out of oxygen or fuel.

Fuels may be in solid, liquid, or gas form. Ignition speed and fire growth are also affected by the geometry of the fuel,
compartment, and structure, as well as the confines of the compartment.

Lesson 4: Dynamics That Affect Fire Behavior

Lesson Overview
As you learned in previous lessons, several factors can influence how fast and hot a fire burns. Ambient conditions of
a room can also contribute to the fire development.

When, where, and how ventilation is applied during a compartment fire can lead to a successful outcome or tragic
results. There are many records of firefighters and building occupants who have fallen victim to events brought on by
improper ventilation.

As you proceed through this lesson, keep in mind that new studies and research have influenced our understanding of
fire behavior, as it has evolved over the years due to changes in the firefighting environment, as discussed in lesson 1.
See the course Resources page, accessible from the button at the top of the screen, for links to more information.

Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:

Describe how temperature, fuel wetness, and humidity affect fire behavior.
Explain how ventilation affects fire.
Differentiate among different methods of fire extinguishment.

Ambient Conditions
The ambient conditions of a compartment, namely humidity and temperature, directly affect the moisture content of
the materials within it. The humidity could be stated as the wetness of the air; however, humidity is different than the
wetness of a material, even though they are related in some aspects.

Humidity mainly affects the surface of a material whereas the wetness of the materials (fuels) is the amount of
moisture internally. If the surface is wet (from humidity), the fire will be harder to ignite; however, once the moisture

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evaporates, the fire will continue to burn. If the wetness of a material is 15 percent or more, the materials become
difficult to ignite, diminishing the heat release rate and slowing down the fire spread.

Ambient Conditions, cont.

If the room temperature is high for a long period of time, it will dehydrate the material. The material becomes drier as
the amount of moisture, or wetness, in the material decreases. Consequently, the drier materials become easier to
ignite and the fire will spread quicker.

The video compares the difference in burn rates and fire spread between a dry and wet pine tree.

[In this NIST video, 2 Christmas trees are ignited simultaneously, 1 with needle moisture content above 100%, and 1
below 10%. The dry tree is fully engulfed within 20 seconds. After 90 seconds, the dry tree is consumed. The wet tree
has self-extinguished with the tree intact.]

Review of Fuel-Controlled and Ventilation-Controlled Fires

In the early stages of a compartment fire, the fire is basically fuel controlled. There is a sufficient amount of oxygen
and heat to burn the material (fuel). All the smoke and unburned particles/gases emitted by the fire begin to fill a
compartment from the top down. If there is no upward escape for the smoke/gases, they will fill the area until they
can escape the compartment. The lower the smoke/gases get, the more they will limit the amount of oxygen the fire
can get. At this point, the fire becomes ventilation controlled.

The lack of oxygen causes the fire to enter the early decay phase of development. During this stage, the fire may self-
extinguish if the air supply or ventilation is cut off. Conversely, if the room becomes ventilated, the fresh supply of
oxygen will increase the heat release rate and promote fire growth and spread.

Ventilation
Ventilation can have a significant impact on fire growth and fire spread.

Ventilation can originate from several sources such as a window or door left open by the occupant, forced entry by the
firefighters, or a failed window induced by the fire. Ventilation may be used by firefighters to remove heat and smoke
from the structure.

When properly executed, ventilation can improve visibility, control air flow, prevent fires from becoming out of control,
increase survivability, and help extinguish the fire when water is applied to the seat of the fire when ventilating.

However, improper or unintentional ventilation (such as when a window breaks) can provide additional oxygen to the
fire, increasing the heat release rate and promoting growth, spread, and intensity. There are many records of
firefighters and building occupants who have fallen victim to events brought on by improper ventilation. Planned
control and coordination efforts among the firefighters are critical when discussing ventilation of a fire.

For more information on ventilation, refer to three-part video, ATF FRL Understanding the Modern Fire: Flow Paths,
Fuels and Ventilation produced by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Fire Research Laboratory
(ATF FRL).

Ventilation

As defined by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), ventilation is circulation of air in any space by natural
wind or convection or by fans blowing air into or exhausting air out of a building. The term also refers to a fire-fighting
operation of removing smoke and heat from the structure by opening windows and doors or making holes in the roof.

Flow Path
When a ventilation opening is made during a compartment fire, a flow path is formed. The flow path is the movement
of the air from the opening or inlet to the seat of the fire and from the heat and smoke of the fire to the exhaust
opening or outlet. Under most circumstances, the cool air enters and travels along the bottom of the path while the
heated gases move upward toward the low pressure areas.

The flow path can greatly affect fire spread and pose a life-threatening situation as the superheated gases travel along
the flow path toward the outlet. The maximum speed of smoke and convection heat transfer has been measured at 15
miles per hour. Being caught in the flow path can have devastating consequences.

Ventilation Control Factors: General Conditions

Be aware of the general conditions of the firefighting environment which can further affect a ventilation-controlled fire.

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Open/Closed Doors

Doors can be used to control the amount of air entering a compartment during a ventilation-controlled fire. Closing
the door restricts the amount of air entering the compartment and, in effect, limits the fire development. Conditions
can deteriorate rapidly when opening the door as the heat and temperature significantly increase. Chances for survival
are greatly reduced if these conditions are not brought under control.

Fire tests have shown that closing the door of a room located between the fire and an individual can improve the
chance of survival. The closed room (in this case, a bedroom) exhibited little or no change in the temperature while
the fire continued outside the compartment, and the oxygen levels within the confined area supported survivability.
The closed compartment can provide time to escape through a window or wait for rescue.

As a result of these tests, researchers suggest that firefighters need to think of forced entry as ventilation which
promotes fire development, and should coordinate efforts to close the door after forcing entry and consider how
opening a door will affect fire behavior.

Condition of the Structure

The age and condition of a building can contribute to ventilation. Older buildings tend to dry out over time. Some
locations may even have dry rot, which weakens the structural stability.
Consider:

Has the structure been kept up or regularly cleaned? Cluttered structures add fuel to what is already burning.
Is the structure in good repair? Be alert for anything that could affect structural stability.
Have walls been compromised? Holes drilled through walls to permit wiring runs, vent pipes, wear and tear to
walls, and holes in the drywall all allow fire to travel from one area to another, or the opening serves as an air
source from which to ventilate.

Windows and Vents

If windows and other structures are closed, the lack of ventilation will result in one of two possible events. The fire will
burn off the available oxygen and enter an early decay phase of development, or the structural elements will fail and
the structure will self-ventilate. The latter event introduces fresh air into a fuel-rich environment, increasing the heat
release rate and the fire development that follows.

Vents include any open/closed HVAC registers and returns, any attic vents, or other types of ventilation openings in a
structure. All of these can be an exit for the smoke and gases or entry points of fresh air that would provide the fire
with more oxygen.

Types of Materials and Building Techniques

Today’s building materials such as Oriented Strand Board (OSB), and foam insulation beneath vinyl/aluminum siding
have an impact on fire spread and heat release rate, and can aid in spreading a fire with such velocity that it
endangers the firefighter. Having knowledge of what materials are present both as part of the structure and within the
structure assist in making decisions on fire suppression.

Consider:

What type of building techniques were used in the construction of the compartment?
Are the ceilings arched, flat, slanted, or high?
Are there different levels of ceilings?
Where are the windows and doors in relation to the materials (fuel)?
Are there any closets and/or alcoves?

There are hundreds of combinations that can occur in a given structure. For instance, if a fire is burning at the base of
a slanted or sloped ceiling, the fire will tend to travel up the slope. If the fire is at the other end where the highest
point of the ceiling is above the fire, only the smoke/gases will rise above the fire and the fire itself will either go out
or travel horizontally.

Each presents different fire behavior conditions. A firefighter should always be watching videos presented by NIST
and/or UL demonstrating these various conditions and learn to be familiar with all of them.

Ventilation Control Factors: Fire Created Conditions

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As a fire burns, it's not only destroying all that is in its way, but it's also making a flow path behind it for entrained air
to resupply the fire's need for oxygen.

As the fire burns upward, it can create vents through the ceiling and/or roof. This gives the fire a place to get rid of its
waste (smoke and fire gases) and draw in new air for itself.

This also creates new paths to continue its progress to any unburned areas. Fire can and does create additional
ventilation areas, allowing the fire to spread and increase in intensity.

Ventilation Control Factors: Fire Suppression Activities or Conditions

Several control factors can change the ventilation.

Hose Streams

Careful use of hose streams is important. Consider an example in which a fire is traveling along a hallway, and at the
end of the hallway, the fire will either go left or right, depending on the fire's flow path, because a wall interrupts its
progression forward. Now consider what happens when a firefighter is aiming a hose stream on a fire. The hose
stream acts like the wall at the end of the hallway in that it could change the flow path, causing the fire to go left or
right rather than continuing to travel forward. This could redirect the fire into another unburned area, potentially
creating a hazardous situation for firefighters.

Hose streams can also create ventilation for a fire that is shielded from the hose stream. Hose lines can actually draw
air to them. For example, if a hose line is being used, a person could put his face near where the water comes out the
hose (but not touching) and find fresh air to breath.

A hose stream has enough pressure to penetrate walls and break windows. In contrast, a spray does not have the
pressure that a hose stream has, and would not be as likely to create unwanted ventilation issues.

Releasing Smoke and Fire

It is important that heat and smoke be removed by ventilation. If the ventilation is done properly, it reduces the heat
and smoke by dissipating it through the ventilation process. Conversely, if improper ventilation is done, the heat and
smoke not only will not be dissipated, but it can move into other portions of the structure at a greater speed that
endangers everyone in the area.

Positive-Pressure Ventilation (PPV)

The correct placement of the positive-pressure ventilation fan is essential to the successful removal of fire, smoke,
and heat from the structure. When using a PPV fan, there must be a single inlet and a single, smaller outlet to allow
for the build-up of air pressure inside the structure. The positive air pressure attracts and withdraws the smoke and
heat from the compartment as the heat and smoke from the fire travels along the flow path toward the outlet and
exits the structure.

However, if there is a hidden fire, such as in a void space or partition, the introduction of air from the PPV could cause
the hidden fire to spread rapidly. PPV can also result in a sudden increase in fire. To reduce the risk of a tragedy, place
the outlet between the fire and the firefighter or the fire and the occupant so that they do not become trapped in the
flow path.

Overhaul

Creating openings during overhaul operations may introduce fresh air into a potential fire area and result in a rekindle
situation.

Fire Extinguishment Methods

Extinguishing a fire requires the elimination or disruption of one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron. As such,
there are four methods for extinguishing each of these elements.

If the fire is a smoldering combustion, however, only three methods are available.

Cooling

Cooling involves lowering the temperature of the burning fuel below its ignition point, disabling the fuel from
producing the vapors needed for combustion. Water is the most common substance used to cool a fire. As water is
applied to the fire, the water becomes vaporized and absorbs the heat from the fire, reducing the temperature of the
fuel. Water should not be used to extinguish fires involving flammable liquids or gases, electricity, or combustible
metals unless there are extenuating circumstances.

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An example of cooling a fire is using water from a garden hose to extinguish a small fire in a burn barrel.

Starvation

A fire will extinguish when it runs out of fuel. Starvation is achieved by depriving the fire of its fuel supply in two
ways:

Stop the progression of the fire by physically removing the solid fuel from the fire's path, or
Allow the fire to burn until it has consumed all the available fuel.

For example, during a wildland fire, firefighters remove brush as a fire travels toward that area. By removing the
brush, the fires will become starved of fuel and self-extinguish. In addition to removing brush, firefighters also burn in
wildland settings to remove fuel and starve an approaching fire.

Smothering

To smother a fire, remove the supply of oxygen in the fire area, or reduce the level of oxygen in the fire area to 6
percent. This is accomplished in two ways:

Expose the fire to an inert gas or dry chemical, or

Isolate the fire from the supply of oxygen by shutting doors and windows or sealing off areas where oxygen can
flow in.

Smothering is used on electrical fires and fires produced by flammable liquids and gases. Smothering is not effective
in some instances. Self-oxidizing substances and certain metals are unaffected by smothering.

A simple example is placing a lid on a pot that is burning.

Interference

The interference method is used to break up the self-sustaining chemical reaction of the fire process by the use of
extinguishing agents such as dry chemicals. This method is not effective for extinguishing smoldering fires exhibited
by solid fuels without providing additional cooling.

A Class ABC fire extinguisher is an example of a dry chemical extinguisher.

Fire Extinguishing Methods by Fuel

The type of fuel that is burning determines which type of fire extinguishing agent to employ.

Type of Fuel Method Extinguishing Agent

Water
Cooling
Solids Foam
Smothering
Dry chemicals

Carbon dioxide (for use on gases)

Smothering
Flammable liquids and gases Foam (for use on liquids)
Interference
Dry chemicals

Carbon dioxide
Electricity Smothering
Dry chemical powder

Combustible metals Smothering Dry powder agents

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you learned how ambient conditions of a compartment can delay or speed up ignition and fire spread,
how some factors control ventilation and the flow path, and fire extinguishment methods.

It’s especially important to understand the relationship between ventilation, the flow path, and fire behavior. Knowing
the location of the ventilation openings and the direction of the flow path can prevent you from being in the path of
the heat and smoke. Tests have shown putting an obstruction between yourself and the fire, such as a closed door,
can save your life. Knowing the direction of the flow path can help you avoid becoming caught in the path and also
save your life.

Lesson 5: Fire Phenomena

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Lesson Overview
As you have learned in the previous lessons, today's building construction, materials, and their furnishings have
changed fire behavior, resulting in faster and hotter fires. These factors have also affected the development of
extreme fire conditions, notably flashovers and backdrafts. With proper coordination and control, however, these fire
phenomena may be prevented or mitigated.

Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:

Explain the factors that contribute to rollovers, flashovers, and backdrafts.

Recognize the characteristics of a rollover fire.
Recognize the characteristics of a flashover fire.
Recognize the characteristics of a backdraft.

Rollovers
Rollovers, also known as flameovers, are sometimes confused with flashovers; however, they are not interchangeable
terms. There is a distinct difference between these fire phenomena.

Rollovers develop before flashovers during the growth stage of a fire. Unburned fuel gases, produced by the
originating fire, rise upward and ignite when they reach their ignition temperature. The resulting flames appear to roll
across the ceiling—hence, the name rollover.

Only the gases in the ceiling area ignite during a rollover; they do not produce enough heat energy to ignite other
contents in the room.

Rollovers, cont.
The presence of a rollover may or may not indicate that a flashover is forming, depending on how much unburned
gases have formed in the ceiling area.

During the onset of a rollover, orange flames appear sporadically and may be hard to detect in the dense black smoke.
As conditions in the compartment intensify, the flames grow in size and appear as a large orange cover, signaling that
a flashover is forthcoming.

Flashovers
A flashover is the rapid transition in fire behavior from localized burning of fuel to involvement of all combustibles in a
room, caused by a massive buildup of heat energy.

A flashover may develop when the furnishings in the fire area are made of materials that produce high amounts of
unburned gases and smoke. As these gases rise, they begin to cover the ceiling area.

When there is no means of exiting the area (such as a vent or stairwell), the unburned gases and smoke begin to fill
the compartment from the ceiling downward, forming a fuel cell.

This fuel cell will continue to grow as long as the originating fuel continues to burn. If there is enough entrained air
(oxygen) to maintain combustion, the fuel cell in the ceiling area will begin to increase turbulence. Usually when this
occurs, objects and debris from the ceiling area will begin falling to the floor. When that occurs, typically a flashover
is imminent.

The fuel cell of smoke and gases has an ignition temperature of approximately 1,100 degrees Fahrenheit and is
typically ignited by a fuel burning below it. When the fuel cell ignites, it produces a large amount of heat energy or
heat flux—typically around 20kWm2. This level is sufficient to ignite all of the furnishings below it. This is the
phenomena called flashover.

Flashovers (Video Transcript)

Another sign that a flashover is imminent is seeing a thermal radiation pattern developing. This looks like a fuzzy
semicircle shape that is growing downward or sideward from the fuel cell. This semicircle indicates radiation moving
outward from the energy source. If you see this pattern, you need to get out immediately.

Factors Affecting Rollovers and Flashovers

Several factors determine whether or not a fuel cell will ignite into a rollover as well as a flashover, and how quickly it
will transition to a flashover. These factors are listed below
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Fuel Properties

Remember that a fuel's shape, density, moisture content, texture, and heat of combustion can greatly affect fire
behavior. In addition, most furnishings in modern homes are made of synthetic materials. These fuels burn hotter and
faster, produce a higher amount of unburned fire gases, and emit more radiated heat, which results in rapid flashover.

Compartment Size and Geometry

The size of a room affects the velocity of radiated heat. Radiated heat moves faster in a smaller room whereas it loses
energy when it travels in a large volume room. The close space between furniture items in a smaller room also
increases the amount of radiated heat absorbed by the materials in the room. As a result, the smaller room may flash
over more rapidly than a larger compartment.

If, in the geometry of the room, there are variations of the shape that provide a greater distance between the fuel cell
and the fire source, then, there will be no ignition of the fuel cell, and thus, no flashover.

Ventilation

Most compartment fires are ventilation-controlled fires. The amount of air in a room affects the fire growth. As more
air is allowed to enter the room, the fire will continue to develop and could transition to a flashover. If there is any
vent opening at ceiling level that will allow the above fuel cell to leave the room, flashover is unlikely.

Building Construction

Energy-efficiency features found in modern homes, such as insulated walls, ceilings, and insulated windows, retain
more heat in a compartment. The increased heat can result in an earlier flashover.

Concealed spaces can cause the heat level to continue to rise even after you have vented and cooled the area. For
example, suspended ceilings that allow the heat to accumulate until it reaches enough pressure will quickly flashover.

Flashover Simulation
When the conditions of the compartment are prone to flashover, the fire will transition to a flashover at the end of the
growth stage. The following fire test video demonstrates how a flashover develops in a sample living room.

Video Transcript

Flashovers are caused by the massive buildup of heat energy in the compartment. The fire is releasing heat at a rate
much faster than the room can ventilate. When the superheated gases in the upper level of the room can no longer
absorb the heat, it radiates downwards. In doing so, the temperature rises to the point where all combustibles in the
room appear to ignite almost simultaneously. This rapid combustion and heat make flashovers the deadliest stage of a
fire.

[Video of a Christmas tree in the corner of a living room. The tree ignites at the bottom; after 10 seconds, the fire
ignites gases at the ceiling, and the room begins to fill with smoke. By 20 seconds, a nearby armchair is engulfed in
flames. Flashover occurs at 35 seconds.]

Flashover Characteristics: Warning Signs

It's critical that you recognize the signs of an imminent flashover. Your life and the lives of your fellow firefighters and
the building occupants depend on it.

Exterior Signs

Exterior building conditions can indicate whether the fire is ventilated or unventilated. Smoke appearing outside the
building with little or no flames indicates the fire is rich in fuel but is deprived of oxygen—in other words, a
ventilation-controlled fire. Introducing oxygen into this environment, such as by forcing entry, could feed the fire and
quickly result in a flashover.

Interior Signs

Upon entering the building, signs of a potential flashover include:

Ignition of the fuel-rich smoke as it mixes with air outdoors, signifying the volatile conditions inside the
building.
An increase in the speed of intensely dark smoke as it exits the opening, indicating a rise in temperature.
Changes in color, speed, or density of the smoke.

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A rapidly falling smoke layer as the room approached flashover conditions.

Tightly curled, intensely dense, black smoke appearing to push out through a door or other opening. Full of
energy, the smoke may fill voids and hidden spaces as it exits the fire area, increasing the chances of extending
the fire.
Rollover: As noted in the beginning of the lesson, a rollover is the rolling fire within the black smoke. Rollovers
may be an early sign of a developing flashover. As the rollover intensifies, orange flames appear overhead,
signifying a flashover is imminent. Keep in mind that flashovers can occur without rollovers.
Development of a thermal radiation pattern that looks like a fuzzy semicircle shape growing downward or
sideward from the fuel cell. This may be accompanied by objects and debris falling from the ceiling.

Backdrafts
A backdraft is an explosion resulting from the sudden introduction of air/oxygen into a confined space containing
oxygen-deficient superheated products of incomplete combustion. Backdrafts usually occur during the decay stage of
a fire, before the vaporized fuel has cooled below its auto-ignition temperature.

The heat and unburned gases emitted by the fire rise in the fire area and evolve into a huge fire cell. If the smoke and
fire gases continue to build with no opening for an exit, the fire will use up nearly all the oxygen available. The fire
can smolder as long as it has around 5 percent oxygen.

As the fire smolders, the temperature rises very slowly and more toxic gases and combustible fuel are produced. If
oxygen enters the area, the gases will reach their flammable range and explode into a fireball.

Toxic Gases

One of these products of combustion is carbon monoxide which can explode in an atmosphere with as little as 12
percent oxygen.

Backdrafts, cont.
Both flashovers and backdrafts are activated by an influx of air, but they differ in speed and heat release rate.
Whereas flashovers are driven by temperature, backdrafts are air-driven phenomena.

Unlike flashovers which always transition to a fully developed fire, the explosion from a backdraft may or may not
develop into a fire.

Factors Affecting Backdrafts

Several conditions affect whether or not the giant fuel cell will trigger a backdraft explosion. Most of these conditions
are the same as those conditions which determine whether or not a flashover will occur.

Fuel properties
Compartment size and geometry
Ventilation
Building construction

The higher amount of unburned fire gases produced by synthetic materials can lead to a flashover or a backdraft.

If, in the room geometry, there are no areas where the fire can obtain the needed oxygen, it might develop into a
backdraft mode if the integrity of the building failed.

Insulation can create a seal, preventing air from entering the room. Once the air enters the room, either due to
building failure, forced entry, or venting near or at the smoldering fire, a deadly backdraft could occur.

Backdraft Simulation
The following recording shows what happens to a fire in a test chamber simulating backdraft conditions.

Video Transcript

As the fire burns in the confined area of the test chamber, it consumes all of the available oxygen. The flames
eventually disappear as flammable gases expand and fill the area.

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During this time, the temperature continues to rise slowly while the pressure increases. If this were a house, smoke
would appear to be pulsating through the openings in the house such as the doors and windows.

When the entrance to the chamber is opened, the oxygen-starved fuel reacts with the incoming air, and explodes as it
moves towards the opening.

Signs of a Potential Backdraft

One of the most distinctive or recognizable signs of a backdraft condition is a thick smoke pulsing out of
compartment, appearing as if the house is breathing in and out.

Some other signs or indicators of a backdraft include:

Dense black, brown, or mustard yellow-colored smoke, signifying large presence of carbon monoxide
Change in the direction of the smoke, from outwards to inwards, as it returns to the opening
Few or no flames
Sound or feeling of air as it speeds towards the fire

Be aware that although these conditions usually exist when a backdraft occurs, their presence does not necessarily
indicate that a backdraft is inevitable but that a backdraft is possible.

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you learned the characteristics and warning signs of rollovers, flashovers, and backdrafts.

Knowing the factors that can affect the development of a flashover or backdraft such as the building construction and
compartment size can help you anticipate whether or not a fire phenomenon will occur and help prepare you to
prevent or mitigate the destructive force.

However, this information may not be available; therefore, you need to be able to recognize the signs of a potential
flashover or backdraft both outside and inside the building. You can't depend on your turnout gear to alert you to
imminent danger. By the time you feel the heat, it may be too late. You must be aware of the situation at all times in
order to take preventive or evasive action.

Lesson 6: Course Summary

Lesson Overview
This lesson will provide you with the opportunity to review the information you have learned in this course.

If you have not already done so, be sure to save and/or print the list of fire behavior resources for future references.
It is available in portable document format (PDF) from the Resources button at the top right of the screen.

Lesson 1: Introduction to Fire Behavior

In lesson 1, you learned how changes in the modern firefighting environment affect fire behavior and firefighter
safety.

Larger, spacious homes constructed with lightweight materials and energy-efficient features, and home furnishings
consisting primarily of synthetic materials have contributed to fires that burn faster and hotter than older, smaller
homes constructed and furnished with natural materials.

Improvements in PPE design have also affected firefighter safety. Greater thermal protection provided by today's
turnout gear can cause a significant delay in detecting a dangerous situation. As a consequence, firefighters may
unknowingly advance further or remain longer in a fire area before they realize the dangerous situation.

This lesson also reviewed the elements of fire represented by the fire triangle and the fire tetrahedron. As heat is
applied to the fuel, the fuel releases vaporous gases which combine with the oxygen to form a flammable mixture and
create a self-sustaining chain reaction. To extinguish the fire, you must remove any one of these elements.

Lesson 2: Basic Fire Concepts

In lesson 2, you learned terms and concepts used to describe and understand fire behavior, and some measureable
characteristics of a fire.

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10/5/21, 9:06 PM Course Summary
Fire growth, fire spread, fire spread rate and fire intensity are terms associated with how a fire reacts to fuel
conditions as well as various changes in the environment.

The heat release rate is indicative of the potential severity of a fire. It is the measure of the amount of heat energy
released over a period of time. Factors affecting the heat release rate include the chemical and physical properties of
a fuel, the geometry of the fuel and its containment, ventilation of the fuel, and surrounding fuels.

Heat release rate is often confused with other heat measurements such as temperature and heat flux. Heat flux is the
energy which strikes the surface of an object. Heat flux is what you feel whereas the heat release rate produced by
the fire.

Understanding these terms is essential to understanding fire.

Fire Growth

The initiation, growth, and decay of a fire's heat release rate over the duration of the fire

Fire Spread

The movement of fire from one place to another

Fire Spread Rate

The rate of movement of a fire from one place to another

Fire Intensity

The quantity of heat energy and the temperatures inside the room produced by the fire

Lesson 3: Development of a Fire

In lesson 3, you learned about the three methods of heat transfer and the stages of fire development.

Fire development is influenced by various fuel properties such as its state, shape, and arrangement. The geometry of
the compartment can also influence fire development.

Knowing how a fire develops and its influences can assist you determining how to fight the fire.

Three Methods of Heat Transfer

The movement of heat is generally from hot to cold. As heat seeks cooler air, it travels via one of three methods:

Conduction is the transfer of heat within a solid fuel or between two solid fuels in direct contact with each other.
Convection heat transferred by the movement of liquid or gases. It is the primary means of heat transfer,
especially during the early stages of fire development.
Radiated heat is transferred by electromagnetic waves. As an object burns, it emits radiated heat to all objects
within its line-of-sight.

Lesson 4: Dynamics That Affect Fire Behavior

In lesson 4, you learned how ambient conditions such as humidity and temperature can influence fire development.

Most fires are ventilation-controlled fires, meaning the fire area is rich in fuel but lacking in oxygen needed by the fire.
The introduction of oxygen under these conditions can have catastrophic affects. Ventilation is used to remove the
heat and smoke that has built-up in the fire area.

Open/closed doors, windows and vents, condition of the structure and the type of building materials and techniques
can affect or control the amount of air/oxygen that enters a fire area. Hose streams and positive-pressure ventilation
can be employed to control ventilation. The fire itself also creates vents as it burns.

Be mindful of the flow path formed by creating a ventilation opening. Always position yourself and any occupants out
of the way of the flow path.

This lesson also examined four methods for extinguishing a fire: cooling, starvation, smothering, and
interference.

Cooling

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10/5/21, 9:06 PM Course Summary
Water is the most common substance used to cool a fire, but it should not be used to extinguish fires involving
flammable liquids or gases, electricity, or combustible metals unless there are extenuating circumstances.

Starvation

Starvation is achieved by physically removing the solid fuel from the path of the fire or letting the fire consume all the
available fuel.

Smothering

Removing the oxygen or reducing it to 6 percent will smother the fire.

Interference

Interference method is used to break up the chain reaction through the use of an extinguishing agent such as dry
chemicals.

Lesson 5: Fire Phenomena

In lesson 5, you learned about rollovers/flameovers, flashovers, and backdrafts.

Whereas flashovers are temperature-driven, backdrafts are air-driven phenomena.

Both are created by the buildup of superheated gases and smoke trapped in a confined area. Factors which can
contribute to the development of these phenomena include the fuel properties, the size and geometry of the
compartment, ventilation, and building construction.

Rollovers

Rollovers develop during the growing stage of a fire and their presence usually signifies a flashover is forming. Gases
produced by the heated materials in the compartment rise upwards and ignite when they reach their ignition
temperature. The resulting flames appear to roll across the ceiling.

Flashovers

A flashover is the rapid transition in fire behavior from localized burning of fuel to involvement of all combustibles in a
room, caused by a massive buildup of heat energy.

A rapidly falling smoke layer appears as the room approaches flashover conditions.

Backdrafts

Backdraft explosions occur during the decay stage before the vaporized fuel has cooled. As the entrapped fire
smolders, it continues to release combustible fuel. The introduction of air will result in an explosion.

Course Summary
You have completed the course, Introduction to Fire Behavior in a Single Family Dwelling.

You should now be able to:

Explain why it is important to understand fire behavior and how it relates to firefighter safety.
Describe the components necessary for combustion.
Define basic terms and concepts associated with the dynamics of fire.
Describe the process of burning.
Discuss various materials and their relationship to fires as fuel.
Describe the dynamics that affect how fires start, spread, and develop.
Compare methods and techniques of fire extinguishment.
Describe characteristics and contributing factors related to rollovers, flashovers, and backdrafts.

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