Module

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Introduction
Almost every great step (in the history of science) has been made by the “anticipation of
nature”. (T.H. Huxley cited in Cohen & Nagel, 1996). Scientific method has been the key standard
for investigating the natural world’s inquiry. It started from the raised questions based on the
observation in the environment. A speculative statement that is to be proven through a research
study is called hypothesis.

Hypothesis bridges a reasonable conjectures between the things you already know and
you don’t know yet. When you go into an investigation with a strong hypothesis, you understand
what you are looking for and how to go about finding it. A strong hypothesis does not have to be
correct, but it does have to be based on a reasonable set of evidence or conceptual
understanding.

This quarter covers the discussion of hypotheses, its functions, how they are tested and
how to formulate one good hypothesis. Also, the different types of hypotheses and their
applications will be covered while the errors in the testing of a hypothesis will be identified.

At the end of Module 1, you are expected to formulate your own research hypothesis.

Objectives
At the end of this module, the learners are expected to:
1. Describe a research hypothesis.
2. Identify the characteristics and functions of a research hypothesis.
3. Recognize the types of hypotheses and their applications.
4. Identify the criteria of a good research hypothesis.
5. Familiarize the process of testing and the chance of error of a hypothesis.
6. Formulate hypothesis from the chosen problem.
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Pre-Assessment

Direction: Read each statement carefully and choose the best answer.

1. Which of the following is an important aspect in solving problem scientifically?

a. hypothesis c. research
b. planning d. scientific method

2. Which of the following can be best used for a precise observation?

a. senses c. theory
b. prediction d. talent

3. Which is NOT a function of a hypothesis?

a. conclude the study
b. enhances objectivity in a study
c. provides study with focus
d. tells what data to be collected and not to be collected

4. Which of the following is the best example of simple hypothesis?

a. Eating plenty of sweet food like chocolates and candies leads to diabetes.
b. Eating too much sweet leads to diabetes.
c. Diabetes is a cause of unhealthy living and eating unhealthy foods.
d. Diabetes is a cause of eating sweets and practicing unhealthy life style.

5. Which of the following is also known as a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an

idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not
know?
a. theory c. facts
b. law d. hypothesis
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Pre-Assessment

6. When do we say that it is a good hypothesis?

a. may or may not testable

b. no clear indication of what is being measured

c. not testable

d. testable

7. While speaking to a colleague, a scientist makes the following statement: "I propose that Bald
Eagle eggs in northern Maine will have thinner shells than those from birds in southern
Alaska due to increased levels of pesticides in the water." This statement is a

a. theory c. law

b. conclusion d. hypothesis

8. The following are the criteria of a good hypothesis, which in NOT?

a. clarity c. theoretical orientation

b. cloudy d. testability

9. Which type of hypothesis believes that there is no significant difference between the two
variables?

a. alternative hypothesis c. null hypothesis

b. simple hypothesis d. statistical hypothesis

10. What is the main thing to consider in formulating hypothesis?

a. chosen problem c. methodology

b. misleading conclusions d. responsible researcher

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Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

Lesson 1: Why hypothesize?

To be able to develop critical-thinking skills, organizational skills and confidence among researchers,
scientific method is important. It involves:
1. Statement of the problem
2. Formulating hypothesis
3. Planning research methodology and design
4. Testing of hypothesis and gathering of data
5. Drawing conclusions from the results.
This lesson will focus on the formulation of research hypothesis.

Activity 1:

Generating Hypotheses Using Senses

Overview: In this lesson, students practice how to approach a problem scientifically. They use their senses to
make a detailed description of a natural object and to generate hypotheses about the identity and features of
the object hidden within a box. (Source: [Link]

Lesson Concepts:

• Scientists rely on using their senses to make observations in order to construct hypotheses.
• A working hypothesis generates expectations/predictions that can be tested.
• Additional information (more observations) can alter and/or refine hypotheses and expectations.

Materials:

• One box with an object hidden inside of it per group of three to four students, plus a teacher's box for
demonstration.
• Handout/activity paper
• Tools to assist in making detailed observations and description (e.g., hand lens, ruler) for each group of
students
Module

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Reading Resources and Instructional Activities
Procedure:

1. Guess what is inside the box. It will probably be more efficient and helpful to determine what is in the
box by approaching the problem scientifically. To do so, employ your senses to gather information about
the object inside, and to pose hypotheses about the object's identity. You can use your senses to make
observations with which you can generate hypotheses and expectations. Further observations can
refine these hypotheses and expectations. This discussion can coincide with a demonstration of this
process using the teacher's demonstration box. Do so in a conversational manner with your teaching
partner, emphasizing each step and differences between "observation" of the features you detect with
each sense and the "hypothesis" you formulate based on the observations and expectation — what you
expect using the next sense to test your hypothesis.
2. Within the group, shake the box and record your observations/descriptions. Talk among your group
mates to share your observations. Make a hypothesis about what might be in the box. Based on this
hypothesis, write down your expectations of what your hypothesized object should smell like.
3. Smell the object in the box through the cloth-covered hole. Record and share observations, refine
hypothesis, and write down expectations of what the hypothesized object should feel like.
4. Feel the object through the cloth-covered hole. Record and share observations, refine hypothesis, and
write down expectations of what the object should look like (or draw a picture).
5. Each group must now discuss amongst themselves and come to a consensus about the identity of the
object in the box.
6. Open the box. After a few minutes observing the object, have a detailed description of the object
(include drawing this time, you can pass out rulers to encourage making measurements of the object).
You can also reflect on their previous observations — how accurate were your previous hypotheses?
Which sense was crucial in identifying the object?
7. Name the most important sense that helped you identify the object.

Alternatives:

If time permits, you can have the groups do this more than once or can just have groups swap
boxes.
* Potential objects to put in the boxes:
Noodles, seashells, rubber bands, bagel chips, flowers, fur, hair, feathers, coffee beans, honeycomb, tortillas, bones, snake
skin, spices (cinnamon sticks), herbs (rosemary, mint, fennel, anise, etc.), or onion
* Other ideas for objects should not be sharp, wet, or so small that they can come out of the hole in the box.
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Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

Note:
Have students reflect on what they were doing that scientists do. This could be prompted by the
questions: "Were you doing science? What were you doing that was like what scientists do?" Discussion
should reflect the concepts on how to initialize an experiment like scientists.

A hypothesis is defined as a statement of scientific guess to solve a certain problem. It is the

basis of an investigation in order to gather or collect information. In most studies, the hypothesis will be
based upon observation relating to previous records.
Hypotheses generate clarity, specificity and focus to a research problem. In some studies, a
hypothesis is not essential because one can conduct a valid investigation without construction one
formal hypothesis. While others believe that the formulation of hypothesis is appropriate on the context
of a research study and must be considered for investigation. (Kumar, 2011)
The importance of hypotheses lies in their ability to bring direction, specificity and focus to a
research study. They tell a researcher what specific information to collect, and thereby provide greater
focus.

Hypothesis is characterized as:

1. It is a tentative proposition.
2. Its validity is unknown.
3. In most cases, it specifies a relationship between two or more variables.

The functions of a hypothesis

1. The formulation of a hypothesis provides focus for the study. It tells you what specific aspects
of a research problem to investigate.
2. A hypothesis clear out which data is essential to the study and shall be collected and which is
not.
3. When the focus was pointed out, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a
study.
4. A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of theory. It enables you to conclude
specifically which is true and which is false.
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Activity 2:

Check Your Investigating Skills

(Source: [Link]

1. Write down observations about their school, their family, their society, their friends, or anything
that interests them.

2. Write down questions they would like to be answered.

3. After five minutes of brainstorming, put students in pairs. Instruct them to discuss their
observations and questions.
4. Discuss some of the questions and channel students into choosing observations and questions
that may provide experimentation opportunities.
5. Instruct each group to choose one observation for their scientific method experiment.
6. Groups should discuss background information and do research, if necessary and possible.
7. Students should construct a hypothesis based on their observations and background
discussion.
8. Students should cite what possible experiment could be done to test the hypothesis.

Note: Data collection, conclusion and sharing of findings might not be included because the
task is intended for bringing out the role of observation and hypothesis in investigating.

Step by Step Example

1. Bob observes that Benjamin is very popular with the ladies and converses with them
frequently. Bob is lucky to speak with one girl per lunch period.
2. Bob asks the question, "If I sat at the end table in the cafeteria (like Benjamin does) and smiles
(like Benjamin does), would the ladies talk to me?"
3. Bob and his group come up with the following hypothesis: If Bob sits at the end of the table in
the cafeteria and smiles, girls will be more likely to talk to him.
4. The group conducts an experiment. Bob sits at the end of the lunchroom table and smiles at
girls as they walk by. They discover that Bob converse with about 1/4 of the girls that come by-
-about 7. They continue the experiment and notice similar results.
5. The group's hypothesis has been proven true. Location + smiling = more girls.
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Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

Lesson 2: Types of Hypothesis

Research variables are mainly categorized into two: independent and dependent variables.
Simply, an independent variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the effect. The independent
variable can be changed whereas the dependent variable is what you're watching for change. For
example: How does the amount of makeup one applies affect how clear their skin is? Here, the
independent variable is the makeup and the dependent variable is the skin. (Kumar 2011)

Forms hypotheses are:

Ex. How does the amount of make up affect the skin?

IV: amount of make up applied 1. Simple Hypothesis

2. Complex Hypothesis
DV: effect on the skin
3. Empirical Hypothesis
4. Null Hypothesis (Denoted by
"HO")
5. Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted
by "H1")
6. Logical Hypothesis
7. Statistical Hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables: the independent
variable and the dependent variable.
Ex. Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to obesity.
A complex hypothesis examines the relationship between two or more independent variables
and two or more dependent variables.
Ex. Overweight adults who 1) value longevity and 2) seek happiness are more likely than other
adults to 1) lose their excess weight and 2) feel a more regular sense of joy.
An empirical hypothesis, or working hypothesis, comes to life when a theory is being put to the
test, using observation and experiment. It's no longer just an idea or notion. It's actually going through
some trial and error, and perhaps changing around those independent variables.

Ex. Roses watered with liquid Vitamin B grow faster than roses watered with liquid Vitamin E. (Here,
trial and error is leading to a series of findings.)
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A null hypothesis (H0) exists when a researcher believes there is no relationship between
the two variables, or there is a lack of information to state a scientific hypothesis. This is something
to attempt to disprove or discredit.
Ex. There is no significant change in my health during the times when I drink green tea only
or root beer only.

This is where the alternative hypothesis (H1) enters the scene. In an attempt to disprove a
null hypothesis, researchers will seek to discover an alternative hypothesis.
Ex. My health improves during the times when I drink green tea only, as opposed to root
beer only.

A logical hypothesis is a proposed explanation possessing limited evidence. Generally,

you want to turn a logical hypothesis into an empirical hypothesis, putting your theories or
postulations to the test.

Ex. Cacti experience more successful growth rates than tulips on Mars. (Until we're able to
test plant growth in Mars' ground for an extended period of time, the evidence for this claim
will be limited and the hypothesis will only remain logical.)

A statistical hypothesis is an examination of a portion of a population.

Ex. If you wanted to conduct a study on the life expectancy of Savannians, you would want to
examine every single resident of Savannah. This is not practical. Therefore, you would
conduct your research using a statistical hypothesis, or a sample of the Savannian
population.

*Revisit students’ answers in Activity No. 2. Process the information by further identifying
the variables (dependent and independent), and the types of hypothesis.
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Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

Lesson 3: Criteria of a Good Hypothesis (Clarity, Theoretical Orientation, and Testability)

Source: ([Link]

A good and strong hypothesis is important in order to frame investigations and inquiries that
brought prior knowledge to a research study. Strong hypothesis clearly define what will be tested or
investigated next. When a scientist has a strong hypothesis, he or she has brought prior knowledge to
bear on a current question or problem and has clearly defined what will be tested or investigated next.

Students should understand that a good hypothesis is not necessarily one that will be proven
correct; however, it should be testable, logical, and backed up by evidence or solid reasoning. The
activities in this lesson will help your high school students practice forming strong hypotheses.

"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."

The question comes first. Before you make a hypothesis, you have to clearly identify the
question you are interested in studying.

A hypothesis is a statement, not a question. Your hypothesis is not the scientific question in
your project. The hypothesis is an educated, testable prediction about what will happen.

Make it clear. A good hypothesis is written in clear and simple language. Reading your
hypothesis should tell a reader exactly what you thought was going to happen when you
started your project.

Keep the variables in mind. A good hypothesis defines the variables in easy-to-measure terms,
like who the participants are, what changes during the testing, and what the effect of the
changes will be.

Make sure your hypothesis is "testable." To prove or disprove your hypothesis, you need to be
able to do an experiment and take measurements or make observations to see how two things
(your variables) are related. You should also be able to repeat your experiment over and over
again, if necessary.
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To create a "testable" hypothesis make sure you have done all of these things:

o Thought about what experiments you will need to carry out to do the test.
o Identified the variables in the project.
o Included the independent and dependent variables in the hypothesis statement. (This helps
ensure that your statement is specific enough.

Good Hypothesis Poor Hypothesis

When there is less oxygen in the water, Our universe is surrounded by another,
rainbow trout suffer more lice. larger universe, with which we can have
absolutely no contact.
"This hypothesis is good because it is testable,
simple, written as a statement, and establishes the "This statement may or may not be true,
participants (trout), variables (oxygen in water, and but it is not a scientific hypothesis. By its
numbers of lice), and predicts effect (as oxygen very nature, it is not testable. There are
levels go down, the numbers of lice go up)." no observations that a scientist can make
to tell whether or not the hypothesis is
correct. This statement is speculation, not a
hypothesis."

Aphid-infected plants that are exposed to Ladybugs are a good natural pesticide
ladybugs will have fewer aphids after a week for treating aphid infected plants.
than aphid-infected plants which are left
untreated. "This statement is not 'bite size.' Whether
or not something is a 'good natural
"This hypothesis gives a clear indication of what is pesticide' is too vague for a science fair
to be tested (the ability of ladybugs to curb an project. There is no clear indication of what
aphid infestation), is a manageable size for a will be measured to evaluate the
single experiment, mentions the independent prediction."
variable (ladybugs) and the dependent variable
(number of aphids), and predicts the effect
(exposure to ladybugs reduces the number of
aphids)."
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Activity No. 3

Hypothesis-Forming Activities

Source: [Link]

Overview:

Before students can learn to develop their own hypotheses, they might benefit from learning what a
strong hypothesis looks like. Begin by showing students three different hypotheses relating to the same
problem or question. For instance, if you are working with the question, 'What makes a model car travel the
quickest?' show them these three hypotheses:

• The car with the biggest wheels will go the quickest.

• The car with the smallest wheels will go the quickest, because it has the least weight to pull.
• The car with the smallest wheels will go the quickest, because I am sure small wheels make cars go
faster.

Emphasize:

Your job is not to determine which hypothesis will be proven correct, but to consider which
hypothesis is formulated most wisely. The samples above will serve as your guide in forming hypothesis.

Task:

Formulate a strong hypothesis using the following topics:

• What kinds of pollutants are most prevalent in our local water source?
• Which of the foods in our school cafeteria have the worst nutritional profile?
• What features enable a car to go fast without sacrificing safety?
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Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

Lesson 4: Testing Hypothesis

Hypothesis testing enables a researcher to generalize regulation from relatively small

samples. In many instances, a researcher can only rely on the information provided by a part of the
population (Kumar 2011).
Testing of hypothesis go through a three-step process:
1. Constructing a hypothesis
2. Gathering appropriate evidence
3. Analyzing evidence to draw conclusions as to its validity

Phase I Phase II Phase III

Analyze data to
Formulate Collect the
draw conclusions
your hunch or Required Data about the hunch-
assumption true or false

Figure 1. The Process of Testing a Hypothesis

You can conclude whether your hypothesis is true or false only after analyzing the
evidences.

When concluding about a hypothesis, conventionally, you specifically make a

statement about the correctness or otherwise of a hypothesis in the form of “the hypothesis
is true” or “the hypothesis is false”. It is therefore imperative that you formulate your
hypotheses clearly, precisely and in a form that is testable. In arriving at a conclusion about
the validity of the hypothesis, the way you collect your evidence is of central importance and
it is therefore essential that your study design, sample, data collection method(s), data
analysis and conclusions, and communication of the conclusions be valid, appropriate and
free from any bias.
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Lesson 5: Errors in Testing a Hypothesis

As already mentioned, a hypothesis is an assumption that may prove to be either correct or incorrect.
It is possible to arrive at an incorrect conclusion about a hypothesis for a variety of reasons (Kumar
2011). Incorrect conclusions about the validity of a hypothesis may be drawn if:

1. The study design selected is faulty;

2. The sampling procedure adopted is faulty;
3. The method of data collection is inaccurate;
4. The analysis is wrong;
5. The statistical procedures applied are inappropriate; or
6. The conclusions drawn are incorrect.
When the null hypothesis is actually…

Accept Correct Type I error

When your decision is to…

decision

Reject Type II error Correct

decision

Figure 2. Type I and Type II errors in testing a hypothesis

Any, some or all these aspects of the research process could be responsible for the inadvertent
introduction of error in a study, making conclusions misleading. Hence, in the testing of a hypothesis there is
always the possibility of errors attributable to the reasons identified above.

Hence, in drawing conclusions about a hypothesis, two types of error can occur:

1. Rejection of a null hypothesis when it is true. This is known as a Type I error.

2. Acceptance of a null hypothesis when it is false. This is known as type II error.
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Pattern of Interpretation:

Ho VI

Sig < or = to 0.05 R S

Sig > 0.05 FR NS

Sample problem:

Variable df xc2 sig Ho VI

Self-concept of Grade 8 students
from intact families and from the 6 20.00 0.00 R S
broken one

It was statistically found out that there is a significant difference on the self-concept of Grade 8
students from intact families and from the broken one since the obtained p value of 0.00 is less than
0.05 level of significance. Hence this null hypothesis is rejected.

*Note: Related studies and implication can be added to the interpretation to make it more meaningful

Activity 4

Procedure: Give the decision on the sample case below followed by an interpretation.

[Link] response of mothers and their sons to preferences and children’s clothing yielded by the following
results.

Variable df xc2 sig Ho VI

Mother and son preferences and
4 23.03 0.03
children’s clothing
2. The performance of salesmen included and not included in the training program.

Variable df xc2 sig Ho VI

Salesmen performance who are 6.5 25.00 0.78
included and not included in the
training program
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Developmental Activity
Activity title: HOW SCIENCE WORKS: EXTRA CREDIT OPPORTUNITY
Source: [Link]

Overview:
One of the very important things to learn from this class is the knowledge of how science
works, and the knowledge that you can do “scientific inquiry” in your everyday life. You’ll find that
this is a lot like Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) or Sherlock Holmes.

1. In the next day or so, I want you to make an observation that is related to some sort
of process. It can be about any process, but the key to a decent observation is to be
able to ask “why is it like that?” or “How does this happen?”

2. Next, ask a question about your observation. This question will usually include the
words “how” or “why.”
3. Then, make at least three more observations that help you answer that question.
4. Once you have made several observations that help answer your question, go ahead
and try to answer your question. The answer to your question is your hypothesis,
and it should come in the form of a confident statement. Then you should justify your
statement with your observations.
5. Finally, make at least two additional hypotheses based on your conclusions that
attempt in increase your understanding of the process or the objects involved.
6. Write it up. You should use formal language and grammar (no text-message speak).
Your submission will be assessed on the appropriateness of your observations, the
logic you used to answer your initial question, the quality of the additional
hypotheses, and the overall quality of your writing.
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Check Points
Hypothesis helps the researchers to gather reliable information and bring focus
on the methods to be used for the purpose of an investigation on the context of a
research study. The extent to which hypothesis is being used and its importance
is different in qualitative and quantitative research. In quantitative research, the
use of hypothesis is far more confidential though it varies from specific discipline.
However in qualitative research, it is almost given with less importance as long as
the research questions are clearly stated (Kumar 2011).
To what extent do you think that the use of hypotheses is relevant to a research
study?

Application
Formulate at least two or three hypotheses that relate to your chosen problem
and consider the factors that might affect their validity.

Bingbingbing
Closure
The students will present their formulated hypotheses. This should follow the
criteria in writing good research hypotheses. The revised hypotheses of the
study will serve as the final output of this module.
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Post-Assessment
Direction: Read each statement carefully and choose the best answer.

1. Supposed you observed that there are more smokers than non-smokers in your class. To test what you noticed,
you ask either all or just some of the class if they are smokers. You can then conclude whether your hunch was
right or wrong. What part of the research best describes your hunch in your class?

a. statement of the problem c. review of related literature

b. hypothesis d. statistical treatment

[

2. The following are the functions of hypothesis EXCEPT

a. It tells you what specific aspects of a research problem to investigate.

b. A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby providing focus to the study.

c. Hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study.

d. It enables you to conclude the research study.

3. What is the primary difference between a hypothesis and a theory?

a. A hypothesis is based on a hunch, and a theory is based on data.

b. A hypothesis is an untested theory.

c. Hypotheses are used to generate theories.

d. A theory is a collection of data-based hypotheses.

4. You feel sick after eating leftovers you found in the back of the refrigerator. Occam’s razor would favor the
hypothesis that you have

a. food poisoning.

b. been poisoned by your roommate.

c. stomach cancer.

d. contracted swine flu.

5. Why do scientists develop a hypothesis before conducting research?

a. It gives them direction on how to interpret the results of their research.

b. It helps to predict outcomes and define the parameters of the research.

c. Hypotheses give the researcher an outcome to shape their work around.

d. Hypotheses help a researcher decide which observations to record and which to ignore.
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Post-Assessment

6. Which type of research hypothesis stipulates that there is no difference between two situations,
groups, outcomes, or the prevalence of a condition or phenomenon?

a. complex hypothesis c. logical hypothesis

b. empirical hypothesis d. null hypothesis

7. Which type of hypothesis stipulates the extent of the relationship in terms of the effect of different
treatment groups on the dependent variable or the prevalence of a phenomenon in different
population groups?

a. complex hypothesis c. statistical hypothesis

b. empirical hypothesis d. null hypothesis

8. Which of the following is also considered as alternate hypothesis?

a. hypothesis of no difference c. hypothesis of point prevalence

b. hypothesis of difference d. hypothesis of association

9. Which of the following is NOT the characteristic of a good hypothesis?

a. simple c. conceptually clear

b. general d. related to the existing body of knowledge

10. Which of the following is also known as a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea
about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know?

a. theory c. facts

b. law d. hypothesis