labor

labor market

Definition
The nominal market in which workers find paying work, employers find willing workers,
and wage rates are determined.

Labor markets may be local or national (even international) in their scope and are made
up of smaller, interacting labor markets for different qualifications, skills, and
geographical locations. They depend on exchange of information between employers and
job seekers about wage rates, conditions of employment, level of competition, and job
location.

Work is the poor's main source of earning. Understanding labor markets is essential
to reduce poverty and ensure inclusive labor absorption and efficient development
patterns. Improving labor market operations is also an important element of
strategies to develop human capital, address gender discrimination, and enhance
welfare and productivity.

Labor market interventions:

• Active labor market programs include

 direct employment generation - promoting small and medium
enterprises, public works
 labor exchanges or employment services - job brokerage, counseling -
linking supply with demand for labor
 skills development programs - training and retraining of labor

• Passive labor market policies include

 unemployment insurance
 income support
 an appropriate legislative framework that strikes a balance between
economic efficiency and labor protection including safe working
conditions, minimum wages, social security contributions, and other
labor standards

Cross-border labor migration is an increasingly important labor market issue for

Asian countries. It is important to make sure that sufficient legal frameworks exist
for protecting rights of migrant workers while reducing irregular migration. ADB
addresses safe migration by reducing vulnerability to human trafficking risks among
migrating population.
Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the market for
labour. Labour markets function through the interaction of workers and employers.
Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers), the demanders of
labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages,
employment, and income.

In economics, labour is a measure of the work done by human beings. It is

conventionally contrasted with such other factors of production as land and capital. There
are theories which have developed a concept called human capital (referring to the skills
that workers possess, not necessarily their actual work), although there are also counter
posing macro-economic system theories that think human capital is a contradiction in
terms.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Compensation and measurement

• 2 Demand for labour and wage determination
• 3 Two ways of analysing labour markets
• 4 The macroeconomics of labour markets
• 5 Neoclassical microeconomics of labour markets
o 5.1 Neoclassical microeconomic model — Supply
o 5.2 Neoclassical microeconomic model — Demand
o 5.3 Neoclassical microeconomic model — Equilibrium
• 6 Information approaches
• 7 Search models
• 8 Criticisms of labour economics and recent research
• 9 See also
• 10 Notes
• 11 References

• 12 External links

[edit] Compensation and measurement

Wage is a basic compensation for paid labour, and the compensation for labour per
period of time is referred to as the wage rate. Other frequently used terms include:

• wage = payment per unit of time (typically an hour)

• earnings = payment accrued over a period (typically a week, a month, or a year)
• total compensation = earnings + other benefits for labour
• income = total compensation + unearned income
 • economic rent = total compensation - opportunity cost

Economists measure labour in terms of hours worked, total wages, or efficiency.

• total cost = fixed cost + variable cost

[edit] Demand for labour and wage determination

Main article: Labor demand

Labour demand is a derived demand; that is, hiring labour is not desired for its own sake
but rather because it aids in producing output, which contributes to an employer's revenue
and hence profits. The demand for an additional amount of labour depends on the
Marginal Revenue Product (MRP) and the marginal cost (MC) of the worker. The MRP
is calculated by multiplying the price of the end product or service by the Marginal
Physical Product of the worker. If the MRP is greater than a firm's Marginal Cost, then
the firm will employ the worker since doing so will increase profit. The firm only
employs however up to the point where MRP=MC, and not beyond, in economic theory.

Wage differences exist, particularly in mixed and fully/partly flexible labour markets. For
example, the wages of a doctor and a port cleaner, both employed by the NHS, differ
greatly. But why? There are many factors concerning this issue. This includes the MRP
(see above) of the worker. A doctor's MRP is far greater than that of the port cleaner. In
addition, the barriers to becoming a doctor are far greater than that of becoming a port
cleaner. For example to become a doctor takes a lot of education and training which is
costly, and only those who are socially and intellectually advantaged can succeed in such
a demanding profession. The port cleaner however requires minimal training. The supply
of doctors therefore would be much more inelastic than the supply of port cleaners. The
demand would also be inelastic as there is a high demand for doctors, so the NHS will
pay higher wage rates to attract the profession.

The MRP of the worker is affected by other inputs to production with which the worker
can work (e.g. machinery), often aggregated under the term "capital". It is typical in
economic models for greater availability of capital for a firm to increase the MRP of the
worker, all else equal. The education and training noted in the last paragraph are counted
as "human capital". Since the amount of physical capital affects MRP, and since financial
capital flows can affect the amount of physical capital available, MRP and thus wages
can be affected by financial capital flows within and between countries, and the degree of
capital mobility within and between countries.[1]

[edit] Two ways of analysing labour markets

There are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can generally be seen as the
application of microeconomic or macroeconomic techniques to the labour market.
Microeconomic techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the labour
market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the labour market,
the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how these
interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates,
aggregate income and Gross Domestic Product.

[edit] The macroeconomics of labour markets

The labour force is defined as the number of individuals age 16 and over, excluding
those in the military, who are either employed or actively looking for work. The
participation rate is the number of people in the labour force divided by the size of the
adult civilian noninstitutional population (or by the population of working age that is not
institutionalised). The nonlabour force includes those who are not looking for work,
those who are institutionalised such as in prisons or psychiatric wards, stay-at home
spouses, children, and those serving in the military. The unemployment level is defined
as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed. The unemployment
rate is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force. The
employment rate is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the
adult population (or by the population of working age). In these statistics, self-employed
people are counted as employed.

Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and unfilled
vacancies are called stock variables because they measure a quantity at a point in time.
They can be contrasted with flow variables which measure a quantity over a duration of
time. Changes in the labour force are due to flow variables such as natural population
growth, net immigration, new entrants, and retirements from the labour force. Changes in
unemployment depend on: inflows made up of non-employed people starting to look for
jobs and of employed people who lose their jobs and look for new ones; and outflows of
people who find new employment and of people who stop looking for employment.
When looking at the overall macroeconomy, several types of unemployment have been
identified, including:

• Frictional unemployment — This reflects the fact that it takes time for people to
find and settle into new jobs. If 12 individuals each take one month before they
start a new job, the aggregate unemployment statistics will record this as a single
unemployed worker. Technological advancement often reduces frictional
unemployment, for example: internet search engines have reduced the cost and
time associated with locating employment.
• Structural unemployment — This reflects a mismatch between the skills and
other attributes of the labour force and those demanded by employers. If 4
workers each take six months off to re-train before they start a new job, the
aggregate unemployment statistics will record this as two unemployed workers.
Rapid industry changes of a technical and/or economic nature will usually
increase levels of structural unemployment, for example: widespread
implementation of new machinery or software will require future employees to be
trained in this area before seeking employment. The process of globalisation has
contributed to structural changes in labour, some domestic industries such as
 textile manufacturing have expanded to cope with global demand, whilst other
industries such as agricultural products have contracted due to greater competition
from international producers.
• Natural rate of unemployment — This is the summation of frictional and
structural unemployment, that excludes cyclical contributions of unemployment
e.g. recession's. It is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can
expect to achieve, seeing as some frictional and structural unemployment is
inevitable. Economists do not agree on the natural rate, with estimates ranging
from 1% to 5%, or on its meaning — some associate it with "non-accelerating
inflation". The estimated rate varies from country to country and from time to
time.
• Demand deficient unemployment — In Keynesian economics, any level of
unemployment beyond the natural rate is most likely due to insufficient demand
in the overall economy. During a recession, aggregate expenditure is deficient
causing the underutilisation of inputs (including labour). Aggregate expenditure
(AE) can be increased, according to Keynes, by increasing consumption spending
(C), increasing investment spending (I), increasing government spending (G), or
increasing the net of exports minus imports (X−M).
{AE = C + I + G + (X−M)}

[edit] Neoclassical microeconomics of labour markets

Neo-classical economists view the labour market as similar to other markets in that the
forces of supply and demand jointly determine price (in this case the wage rate) and
quantity (in this case the number of people employed).

However, the labour market differs from other markets (like the markets for goods or the
money market) in several ways. Perhaps the most important of these differences is the
function of supply and demand in setting price and quantity. In markets for goods, if the
price is high there is a tendency in the long run for more goods to be produced until the
demand is satisfied. With labour, overall supply cannot effectively be manufactured
because people have a limited amount of time in the day, and people are not
manufactured.

The labour market also acts as a non-clearing market.[citation needed] Whereas most markets
have a point of equilibrium without excess surplus or demand, the labour market is
expected to have a persistent level of unemployment. Contrasting the labour market to
other markets also reveals persistent compensating differentials among similar workers.
[citation needed]

The competitive assumption leads to clear conclusions — workers earn their marginal
product of labour.[citation needed]

[edit] Neoclassical microeconomic model — Supply

See also: Labour supply

An advertisement for labour from Sabah and Sarawak, seen in Jalan Petaling, Kuala
Lumpur.

Households are suppliers of labour. In microeconomics theory, people are assumed to be

rational and seeking to maximize their utility function. In this labour market model, their
utility function is determined by the choice between income and leisure. However, they
are constrained by the working hours available to them.

Let w denote hourly wage. Let k denote total working hours. Let L denote working hours.
Let π denote other incomes or benefits. Let A denote leisure hours.

The utility function and budget constraint can be expressed as following:

max U(w L + π, A) such that L + A ≤ k.

This can be shown in a graph that illustrates the trade-off between allocating your time
between leisure activities and income generating activities. The linear constraint line
indicates that there are only 24 hours in a day, and individuals must choose how much of
this time to allocate to leisure activities and how much to working. (If multiple days are
being considered the maximum number of hours that could be allocated towards leisure
or work is about 16 due to the necessity of sleep) This allocation decision is informed by
the curved indifference curve labelled IC. The curve indicates the combinations of leisure
and work that will give the individual a specific level of utility. The point where the
highest indifference curve is just tangent to the constraint line (point A), illustrates the
short-run equilibrium for this supplier of labour services.
 The Income/Leisure trade-off in the short run

If the preference for consumption is measured by the value of income obtained, rather
than work hours, this diagram can be used to show a variety of interesting effects. This is
because the slope of the budget constraint becomes the wage rate. The point of
optimization (point A) reflects the equivalency between the wage rate and the marginal
rate of substitution, leisure for income (the slope of the indifference curve). Because the
marginal rate of substitution, leisure for income, is also the ratio of the marginal utility of
leisure (MUL) to the marginal utility of income (MUY), one can conclude:

Effects of a wage increase

If wages increase, this individual's constraint line pivots up from X,Y1 to X,Y2. He/she
can now purchase more goods and services. His/her utility will increase from point A on
IC1 to point B on IC2. To understand what effect this might have on the decision of how
many hours to work, you must look at the income effect and substitution effect.

The wage increase shown in the previous diagram can be decompiled into two separate
effects. The pure income effect is shown as the movement from point A to point C in the
next diagram. Consumption increases from YA to YC and — assuming leisure is a normal
good — leisure time increases from XA to XC (employment time decreases by the same
amount; XA to XC).

The Income and Substitution effects of a wage increase

But that is only part of the picture. As the wage rate rises, the worker will substitute work
hours for leisure hours, that is, will work more hours to take advantage of the higher
wage rate, or in other words substitute away from leisure because of its higher
opportunity cost. This substitution effect is represented by the shift from point C to point
B. The net impact of these two effects is shown by the shift from point A to point B. The
relative magnitude of the two effects depends on the circumstances. In some cases the
substitution effect is greater than the income effect (in which case more time will be
allocated to working), but in other cases the income effect will be greater than the
substitution effect (in which case less time is allocated to working). The intuition behind
this latter case is that the worker has reached the point where his marginal utility of
leisure outweighs his marginal utility of income. To put it in less formal (and less
accurate) terms: there is no point in earning more money if you don't have the time to
spend it.
 The Labour Supply curve

If the substitution effect is greater than the income effect, the labour supply curve
(diagram to the left) will slope upwards to the right, as it does at point E for example.
This individual will continue to increase his supply of labour services as the wage rate
increases up to point F where he is working HF hours (each period of time). Beyond this
point he will start to reduce the amount of labour hours he supplies (for example at point
G he has reduced his work hours to HG). Where the supply curve is sloping upwards to
the right (positive wage elasticity of labour supply), the substitution effect is greater than
the income effect. Where it slopes upwards to the left (negative elasticity), the income
effect is greater than the substitution effect. The direction of slope may change more than
once for some individuals, and the labour supply curve is likely to be different for
different individuals.

Other variables that affect this decision include taxation, welfare, and work environment.

[edit] Neoclassical microeconomic model — Demand

See also: Labor demand

This article has examined the labour supply curve which illustrates at every wage rate the
maximum quantity of hours a worker will be willing to supply to the economy per period
of time. Economists also need to know the maximum quantity of hours an employer will
demand at every wage rate. To understand the quantity of hours demanded per period of
time it is necessary to look at product production. That is, labour demand is a derived
demand: it is derived from the output levels in the goods market.

A firm's labour demand is based on its marginal physical product of labour (MPL). This
is defined as the additional output (or physical product) that results from an increase of
one unit of labour (or from an infinitesimally small increase in labour). If you are not
familiar with these concepts, you might want to look at production theory basics before
continuing with this article.

The Marginal Physical Product of Labour

In most industries, and over the relevant range of outputs, the marginal physical product
of labour is declining. That is, as more and more units of labour are employed, their
additional output begins to decline. This is reflected by the slope of the MPPL curve in the
diagram to the right. If the marginal physical product of labour is multiplied by the value
of the output that it produces, we obtain the Value of marginal physical product of labour:

MPPL * PQ = VMPPL

The value of marginal physical product of labour (VMPPL) is the value of the additional
output produced by an additional unit of labour. This is illustrated in the diagram by the
VMPPL curve that is above the MPPL.

In competitive industries, the VMPPL is in identity with the marginal revenue product of
labour (MRPL). This is because in competitive markets price is equal to marginal
revenue, and marginal revenue product is defined as the marginal physical product times
the marginal revenue from the output (MRP = MPP * MR).
 A Firm's Labour Demand in the Short Run

The marginal revenue product of labour can be used as the demand for labour curve for
this firm in the short run. In competitive markets, a firm faces a perfectly elastic supply of
labour which corresponds with the wage rate and the marginal resource cost of labour (W
= SL = MFCL). In imperfect markets, the diagram would have to be adjusted because
MFCL would then be equal to the wage rate divided by marginal costs. Because optimum
resource allocation requires that marginal factor costs equal marginal revenue product,
this firm would demand L units of labour as shown in the diagram.

[edit] Neoclassical microeconomic model — Equilibrium

The demand for labour of this firm can be summed with the demand for labour of all
other firms in the economy to obtain the aggregate demand for labour. Likewise, the
supply curves of all the individual workers (mentioned above) can be summed to obtain
the aggregate supply of labour. These supply and demand curves can be analysed in the
same way as any other industry demand and supply curves to determine equilibrium
wage and employment levels.

[edit] Information approaches

In the classical model it is assumed that both sides know how much work effort and
marginal product the employee contributes.[citation needed]

In many real-life situations this is far from the case. The firm does not necessarily know
how hard a worker is working or how productive they are. This provides an incentive for
workers to shirk from providing their full effort — since it is difficult for the employer to
identify the hard-working and the shirking employees, there is no incentive to work hard
and productivity falls overall.[citation needed]
One solution used recently (stock options) grants employees the chance to benefit directly
from the firm's success. However, this solution has attracted criticism as executives with
large stock option packages have been suspected of acting to over-inflate share values to
the detriment of the long-run welfare of the firm.

Another aspect of uncertainty results from the firm's imperfect knowledge about worker
ability. If a firm is unsure about a worker's ability, it pays a wage assuming that the
worker's ability is the average of similar workers. This wage undercompenstates high
ability workers and may drive them away from the labour market. Such phenomenon is
called adverse selection and can sometimes lead to market collapse.

There are many ways to overcome adverse selection in labour market. One important
mechanism is called signalling, pioneered by Michael Spence. In his classical paper on
job signalling, Spence showed that even if education does not increase productivity, high
ability workers may still acquire it just to signal their abilities. Employers can then use
education as a signal to infer worker ability and pay higher wages to better educated
workers.

[edit] Search models

Main articles: Search theory and Matching theory (macroeconomics)

One of the major research achievements of the last 20 years has been the development of
a framework with dynamic search, matching, and bargaining. Work started in the early
1980s with contributions from Peter A. Diamond, Dale T. Mortensen and others which
characterised equilibrium in such model economies. Later, this framework was tailored to
the labour market. More recently, Mortensen and Christopher A. Pissarides have
extended the framework to include labour market institutions such as unemployment
insurance and employment protection.[citation needed]

[edit] Criticisms of labour economics and recent

research
Some sociologists and political economists claim that labour economics tends to lose
sight of the complexity of individual employment decisions.[citation needed] These decisions,
particularly on the supply side, are often loaded with considerable emotional baggage and
a purely numerical analysis can miss important dimensions of the process.

Also missing from most labour market analyses is the role of unpaid labour. Even though
this type of labour is unpaid it can nevertheless play an important part in society. The
most dramatic example is child raising. However, over the past 25 years an increasing
literature, usually designated as the economics of the family, has sought to study within
household decision making, including joint labour supply, fertility, child raising, as well
as other areas of what is generally referred to as home production.
 Labour market flexibility
Labour market flexibility refers to the speed with which labour markets adapt to
fluctuations and changes in society, the economy or production.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Definition
• 2 Theory
o 2.1 External numerical flexibility
o 2.2 Internal numerical flexibility
o 2.3 Functional flexibility
o 2.4 Financial or wage flexibility
• 3 Flexibility for workers
• 4 See also
• 5 Notes
• 6 References

• 7 External links

[edit] Definition
In the past, the most common definition of labour market flexibility was the neo-liberal
definition. This entailed the ease of labour market institutions in enabling labour markets
to reach a continuous equilibrium determined by the intersection of the demand and
supply curve [1]. In the words of Siebert [2] labour market institutions were seen to inhibit

"the clearing functions of the market by weakening the demand for labor, making it less
attractive to hire a worker by explicitly pushing up the wage costs or by introducing a
negative shadow price for labor; by distorting the labor supply; and by impairing the
equilibrating function of the market mechanism (for instance, by influencing bargaining
behavior).”
[3]

[edit] Theory
The most famous distinction of labour market flexibility is given by Atkinson [4]. Based
on the strategies companies use, he notes that there can be four types of flexibility.

[edit] External numerical flexibility

External numerical flexibility refers to the adjustment of the labour intake, or the number
of workers from the external market. This can be achieved by employing workers on
temporary work or fixed-term contracts or through relaxed hiring and firing regulations
or in other words relaxation of Employment Protection Legislation, where employers can
hire and fire permanent employees according to the firms’ needs.

[edit] Internal numerical flexibility

Internal numerical flexibility, sometimes known as working time flexibility or temporal

flexibility. This flexibility achieved by adjusting working hours or schedules of workers
already employed within the firm. This includes part-time, flexi time or flexible working
hours/ shifts (including night shifts and weekend shifts), working time accounts, leaves
such as parental leave, overtime.

[edit] Functional flexibility

Functional flexibility or organizational flexibility is the extent employees can be

transferred to different activities and tasks within the firm. It has to do with organization
of operation or management and training workers. This can also be achieved by
outsourcing activities.

[edit] Financial or wage flexibility

Financial or wage flexibility is in which wage levels are not decided collectively and
there are more differences between the wages of workers. This is done so that pay and
other employment cost reflect the supply and demand of labour. This can be achieved by
rate-for-the-job systems, or assessment based pay system, or individual performance
wages.

Other than the 4 types of flexibility there are other types of flexibility that can be used to
enhance adaptability. One way worth mentioning is locational flexibility or flexibility of
place [5]. This entails employees working outside of the normal work place such as home
based work, outworkers or teleworkers. This can also cover workers who are relocated to
other offices within the establishment.

[edit] Flexibility for workers

However, labour market flexibility does not only refer to the strategies used by employers
to adapt to their production/business cycles as it is in the definitions above. Increasingly
the common view is that labour market flexibility can potentially be used for both
workers and companies/ employers and employees. It can also be used as a method to
enable workers to ‘adjust working life and working hours to their own preferences and to
other activities’ [6]. As companies adapt to business cycles and facilitate their needs
through the use of labour market flexibility strategies, workers adapt to their life cycles
and their needs through it (Chung, 2006). The European Commission also addresses this
 issue in its Joint Employment Report and its new Flexicurity approach, calling for an
adequate methods to enhance flexibility for both workers and employers that is
“capable of quickly and effectively mastering new productive needs and skills and
about facilitating the combination of work and private responsibilities.” (Chung, 2008)
[7]
ETUC also emphasize the importance of the development of working time
flexibility as an alternative to implementing external flexibility as the sole method of
increasing flexibility in the labour market (ETUC, 2007). In their report on working
time, TUC has also argued that flexible working should be extended to all workers
through stronger regulations (Fagen et al. for TUC, 2006).

Labor Standards and Development

All Asian and Pacific Developing Member Countries (DMCs), by virtue of being
member of the International Labour Organization (ILO), are held to respect and
promote the fundamental Core Labor Standards (CLS), namely:

• abolition of all forms of forced or compulsory labor

• elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation
• elimination of child labor
• freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective
bargaining

There are additional standards to assist labor markets, such as those on

occupational health and safety, protection of migrant workers, working hours for
young workers, industrial relations, minimum wages, labor administration, etc.

At the beginning of the 21st century, violations of labor standards remain alarming.
According to the ILO:

• 20 million people worldwide are in bonded or slave labor

• 250 million children around the globe are working children, many of them in
hazardous conditions
• 2 million work-related deaths occur annually, most of them in Asia

Progress in compliance with labor standards has been uneven in Asia and the Pacific.
There are 127 million working children (ages 5-14) in the region and bonded labor is
reported in some Asian countries. Discrimination at the workplace for reasons such
as gender, race, caste, age, religious belief, and political opinion, is widely reported.
Many workers are exposed to health hazards and suffer accidents that could be
avoided easily.

However, there is overwhelming evidence that promoting decent working conditions

reduces poverty, raises living standards, and enhances the quality of growth by
increasing productivity. For instance, child labor is not only a consequence of
poverty, but also a cause of poverty - despite short-term benefits to families, child
labor deprives the young of their childhood, generates stunted growth, removes
children from education and skills formation, and deprives them of their right to
study and become more productive adults. Child protection is needed.
 Similarly, unsafe working conditions may bring short-term gains
to employers but result in long-term losses to the national
economy. For example, if injured workers become disabled or
sick, and they generate further expenses to the economy by
having to depend on family support, welfare benefits, disability
or health insurance.

A failure to respect labor standards carries specific and

measurable costs to national economies, harms economic
development, and violates the rights of working people
throughout the region. Failure to respect laws is also a grave
governance issue. Enforcing labor standards is a good corporate
responsible practice.

The Asia and Pacific region is not alone in this respect - this is a phenomenon
common to all developing countries and developing regions, and is found in pockets
in developed countries as well. The fast economic and social progress achieved in
developed countries during the 20th century is intrinsically linked to promotion of
labor standards.

For these reasons, many countries, development agencies, companies and civil
society organizations are supporting improved labor standards. ADB is committed to
the challenge. Since the approval of ADB's Social Protection Strategy, labor
standards are an integral part of ADB's development mission. As a good social
corporate practice, ADB complies with the internationally recognized core labor
standards in the design and implementation of its projects.

Among other activities being undertaken to promote labor standards, ADB has been
working since 1999 in collaboration with ILO on a regional technical assistance
project on Improving the Role of Labor Standards. The objectives of the final
Regional Technical Workshop were to

• discuss selected issues on labor standards for both the public and private
sectors, as part of social corporate responsibility
• identify best practices to reduce violations on core labor standards and
promote good social corporate responsibility practices
• make recommendations for governments and multilateral financial institutions

Participants included high level decision-makers from both public and private sectors,
labor and employer organizations, nongovernment organizations, and international
development agencies.

The regional technical assistance and workshop recommended that Governments,

ADB, and ILO will:

• highlight labor standards in policy dialogue with governments

• promote improved labor standards by designing projects to address critical
issues such as child labor, improve occupational safety, reduce
discriminations at the workplace or eliminate bonded labor
• strengthen monitoring of working conditions in the region
 • develop capacity building and awareness raising activities to improve labor
standards

Review the agenda, papers, presentations and participants of the worksho