WEEK 9

CHAPTER 5: ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 Describe the different diastrophic movement in the crust
 Explain how upheavals and depression are formed in the continents
 Trace the origin of mountain ranges and escarpments

INTRODUCTION

Tectonic Processes: Theories and Plate Boundaries

Tectonics is the study of the processes that deform the Barth's crust. How and what causes these
deformation? To learn about these, discover the theories about plate tectonics.

Continental Drift and Plate Tectonic Theory

Early in the 20th century, most geological believed that the geographic positions of the ocean basins and
continents were fixed. However, data proved that continents move. A revolutionary explanation was proposed by
Alfred Wegener called continental drift.
Wegener suggested that the continents were originally all part of a huger landmass called Pangaea (pan-jee-
uh) that was surrounded by a single ocean, Panthalessa.
A few hundred million years ago, Pangaea was supposed to have begun to break up and the continents to
slowly drift to their present locations.
Wegener said that all the continents are moving apart. He noticed that Africa and South America fit together
almost like pieces in a giant jigsaw puzzle. He thought that all the continents might fit together this way. He called
his theory the continental drift theory.
To support his theory, Wegener and his followers gathered evidences. They examined what was known about
the climates of the distant past and tried to arrange the continents in each geologic period so that the glaciers were
near the poles and the hot regions were near the equator. The results were quite convincing. They found out that
deposits of glacial debris and fossil remains of certain plant species follow each other in the same succession in
Argentina, Brazil, South Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia.
Another discovery was the identification of a skull of the Lystrosaurus reptile in a sandstone layer in the
Alexandria mountain range of Antarctica. This reptile lived about 200 million years ago. It lived around rivers and
swamps. Why were its bones found in Africa and South America and its teeth in Antarctica? The only explanation
was that a land bridge could have connected these continents, which disappeared completely later on.
Additional evidence of continental drift came from a study of magnetism in ancient rocks. When iron-
bearing minerals harden, their molecules line up pointing toward the magnetic pole. Rocks containing iron-bearing
minerals have formed throughout geologic time. From these rocks, scientists have determined the pole position for

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rocks of many different ages. It was found that when pole positions are put on a map, the pole appears to wander
about. But when pole positions are plotted through time for both European and North America continents, the pole
positions look alike. The path of the pole is separated by the ocean. If the continents are put back together, the pole
positions would fit. Thus, apparent polar wandering helps support continental drift.
One of the major objections to the continental drift theory is its ability to provide a mechanism that explains
the movement of the continents across the globe.
Studies on the ocean and earthquakes provided new insights in the behavior of the lithosphere. These led to
the development of the plate tectonic theory. It proposes that the Earth’s rigid outer surface called lithosphere
consists of seven large and numerous smaller segments called plates. The plates rest upon the soft layer called
asthenosphere. The plates move relative to each other. Then driving force for plate movement is convection flow in
which warm buoyant rock rises and cooler material sinks.
The plate tectonic theory is supported by the following evidences:
1. Paleomagnetism or fossil magnetism
This refers to fossils especially rocks formed millions of years ago and contain record of the direction of
the magnetic poles at the time of their formation. A study ofrock magnetism showed that the Earth’s magnetic
field periodically reverse polarity.

2. Distribution of earthquakes
Earthquakes, associated with plate boundaries, often occur along faults. Faults are breaks in a rock mass
where plate movement has occurred. Faults are associated with plate boundaries.
Plate Boundaries
All major interactions among individual plates occur along their boundaries. There are three distinct types of
boundaries differentiated by the type of movement. These are convergent boundary, divergent boundary, and
transform boundary.
Convergent Boundary
Convergent boundary occurs when two plates move toward each other. Crust is destroyed when the two
plates move toward each other. The heavier plate dives (subducts) beneath the more buoyant plate. Converge
boundaries are also subduction zones.
1. Oceanic-continental converge forms trenches, destructive earthquakes and rapid uplift of mountain ranges as
well as building of volcanic arc.
2. Oceanic-oceanic convergence also forms trenches (Marianas Trench) and volcanic arc.
3. Continental-continental convergence forms mountain range like the Himalayan range.

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Divergent Boundary
Divergent boundary occurs when two plates move
away. Most divergent boundaries occur along the crest of
oceanic ridges. When the plates move apart, there is
upwelling of magma from the hot mantle below. As the
magma cools, new seafloor is created called seafloor
spreading. The spreading rate is too slow considering the
human time is rapid enough to have created the Earth’s
ocean basin.
Divergent plate boundaries can also occur within
a continent called rift. Continental rifting may initiate
Divergent boundary is caused by two plates moving
volcanic activity and generate rift valley. Further rifting
away.
may form narrow sea and eventually result in an ocean
basin and ridge system.

Seafloor spreading is caused by upwelling of magma.

Transform Fault Boundary

Transform fault boundary occurs when plates slide
horizontally past one another. Most transform faults occur within the
ocean basin. Few are found in continental drift.
Transform faults commonly affect the active spreading
ridges, producing zig-zag plate margins. They are generally defined
by shallow earthquakes. The San Andrea fault is one of the few
transform
faults found
on land.

San Andrea fault is Transform fault

Transform fault boundary

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Ocean Basin: Evolution and Characteristics
Recall that the oceanic crust forms at zones of upwelling mantle heat and material along mid-ocean ridge.
During the early formation of the oceanic crust, it is hot so that mantle adheres to it. As the ocean crust cools, it cools
the mantle beneath it, which starts to be joined to the base of the crust. As the ocean floor continues to age, the solid
lithosphere beneath it thickens. As the proportion of dense materials to the less dense materials increases, the density
of the lithosphere increases. When the lithosphere becomes denser than the underlying asthenosphere, it begins to
subduct. The sinking old lithosphere pulls the rest of the plate along behind it away from the mid-ocean ridge.
Oceanic rock is returned to the Earth’s mantle when ocean crust is subducted. Many of these subduction
zones occur at the continental margins where oceanic crusts meet continental crusts.
The ocean basins are not featureless. The
dominant features found in the ocean basins are
shown in figure.
Continental shelf is a relatively shallow
gently sloping part of the continental crust that
borders the continent. Its average depth is 130
meters with a maximum width of about 1300
kilometers. It is of economic significance. It is a
rich fishing ground and contains deposits of
Ocean basin includes continental self, continental slope,
minerals, petroleum and gas. continental rise, and ocean floor.
After the continental shelf is the
continental slope. It leads to deep water. The slope is quite deep. It represents the true edge of the continent and
extends downward to a depth of about 4 kilometers.
The boundary between the continental slope and shelf is called continental break, A significant features of
the continental slope is the presence of submarine canyons.
After the steep continental slope is the more gradual incline called the continental rise. It links the deep
ocean basin floor to the continental slope.
The ocean floor is formed at the base of the continental rise. It is 4000 to 6000 meters deeps. It accounts for
nearly 30% of the Earth’s surface. It consists of relatively thin basaltic rock. There are many volcanoes found on the
floor of the ocean basin.
Mid-ocean ridge is found rising above the ocean floor. This feature is involved in the generation of new
oceanic crust produced by mantle up-welling from the volcanic fissures. Some volcanic islands are part of the mid-
ocean ridge system. In the center of the mid-oceanic ridge is a rift valley.

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SECTION REVIEW

1. (a) What are the basic assumptions of the continental drift hypothesis?

(b) Give evidences to support the continental drift hypothesis?

2. What are the basic assumptions of the plate tectonic theory?

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3. What are the major types of plate boundaries? Describe their distinguishing features?

4. What is seafloor spreading?

5. Describe the ocean basin.

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Tectonic Forces and Processes
Rocks that are deposited in horizontal layers are deformed Tensional stress
by tectonic forces. (stretching)

Tectonic Forces
There are three types of tectonic forces that can deform
rock. The type of deformation (strain) depends on the
tectonic forces (stress). These are shown beside. Compressional stress
(squeezing)

Types of Tectonic Processes

There are different tectonic processes. These
include: folding, faulting and shearing.
Shearing stress
(side to side shearing)

Stress and strain

Folding
Folding or folds occur when rocks are pushed towards each other from opposite sides. The rock layers bend
into folds. Folds are produced by horizontal compressive stresses such as continent-continent collisions or collisions
at any convergent plate boundary. They may occur in groups and may be large scale or small scale.
The common types of folds are anticline and syncline. The upward arching is called an anticline. The
downward arching is called a syncline. The sides of a fold are called the limbs. The following figure illustrates the
parts of a fold.
A dome is a circular or elliptical anticline in which the limbs dip away in all directions. A basin is a circular
or elliptical syncline in which the limbs dip toward the center.
Faulting
It is the fracturing and displacement of brittle rocks strata along a fault plane. Faults are fractures in the crust
along in which displacement has occurred. There are different faults based on the relative movement of the blocks on
either side of the fault.

Normal fault: In a normal fault, the blocks being Transform fault: In a slip or transform fault, two blocks
pulled open, so one block sides down the other. slide past each other
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 Dip-Slip Fault-The movement of the two blocks is vertical. Examples of the dip-slip fault are the normal and
reverse faults. In a normal fault, the hanging wall block moves down relative to the foot wall block. In reverse fault,
the hanging wall moves up relative to the foot wall block.
Strike-Slip Fault- The dominant displacement is horizontal and parallel. A special kind of strike slip fault is
called transform fault. Some transform faults cut the oceanic crusts. Others occur between transform fault is San
Andreas fault in California. The Philippine fault is another example of transform fault.

Volcanism
Volcanism is one of the endogenic processes. It is a phenomenon in which materials are erupted from the
Earth’s interior onto the surface.
A volcano is a vent or a series of vents on the earth’s crust. The vent is like a chimney. It is where magma,
ash, and gases are released. The mouth of the vent is referred to as the crater. The large, almost circular depression
formed either by the collapse or explosion of the volcano is caldera. Crater lakes sometimes form in these calderas.
About 70% of Earth's volcanic activity occurs along a circle of subduction zones in the Pacific Ocean. It is
called the ring of fire.
Another belt of volcanic activity lies near the convergent margin of the African plate. It covers the area of
southern Europe through the Middle East. Volcanic Activity is also detected along the Australian plate boundary and
is concentrated beneath the ocean. Volcanoes located along the divergent plate margins include those in the East
African rift valleys and those along the margins of the basin and range province in western United States.

Magma and Other Volcanic Materials

As you drill into the crust, the temperature rises 30oC for every kilometer of depth. In the upper mantle,
between depths of 100 and 350 km, the temperature is high enough to melt large amounts of rock materials. Molten
rock is called magma. At this depth lies the asthenosphere. It is a layer characterized by weak, soft, and plastic rock.
Magma does not form everywhere. It forms in three particular environments: subduction zones, divergent
(spreading centers) zones, and hot spots or mantle plumes.
Magma production at the subduction zone occurs due to the following conditions:
1. Increased temperature due to friction-Friction heats rocks as one plate moves downward. The additional heat
contributes to melting.

2. Addition of water to the asthenosphere-A subducting plate is covered by oceanic crust which is soaked in
seawater. As the soaked oceanic crust dives into the mantle, the water boils to generate steam. The
temperature increases with depth. Steam rises, adding water to the hot asthenosphere directly above the
subducting plate. The addition of hot water melts portions of the asthenosphere, forming large quantities of
magma.

3. Pressure-relief melting-Melting due to pressure relief happens when rocks in the asthenosphere flow upward
when a subconducting plate descends.
Magma generated at the subduction zone is andesitic. It is richer in silica than basalt and therefore, more
viscous. Entrapped gases cannot escape easily. Because of this, the eruption is explosive and produces ash.

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 Magma production at the divergent plate is facilitated by pressure relief melting. It is associated with
spreading—as hot asthenosphere oozes up to fill the gap. Magma is basaltic.

Magma and plate tectonics

The third environment in which magma forms but is not related to plate boundaries is called hot spots or
mantle plumes. These are columns of rising mantle material that begins to melt as it rises to lower pressure;
shallower depths. If the lithosphere is weak, the magma breaks through to form a volcano. If mantle plume rises
beneath the sea, eruptions build submarine volcanoes and volcanic islands. An example of a volcanic island is the
Hawaiian Islands.
Sometimes, the magma on its way upward does not reach the surface. It coals at various depths giving rise to
magma babies of characteristics features called pluton or intrusive igneous rock. The phenomenon is known as
intrusive vulcanity. If the magmatic bodies are expelled onto the surface, the phenomenon is called extrusive
vulcanity. The magma that solidifies at the surface (lava) is called extrusive igneous rock with distinctive defining
features.
When a volcano erupts, three states of matter—solid, liquid and gas are ejected.

Gases
Volcanic eruption emits a variety of gases. In addition to
water vapor and carbon dioxide, toxic gases, such as carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrochloric acid
are emitted.
Gases sometimes react with the lava on the walls of
rocks to form brightly colored sublimates.

Liquid (lava)
During volcanic eruption gases are ejected.

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 Lava refers to magma that flows out of the earth’s surface. Its temperature may be from 500°C to over
1400°C. Because of its high temperature, combustible materials like houses, trees and gases burn when engulfed by
lava. As the cools, it darkens in color and forms frothy crust.
Lava consists of mixtures of oxides, generally silicon dioxide (SiO 2). Depending on the percentage of SiO 2,
lava may be classified as:
1. Granitic- SiO2 is greater than 66%
2. Intermediate - SiO2 is between 56% to 60%
3. Basaltic- SiO2 is less than 52%
Viscosity, which is resistance to flow, is affected by the
composition of the lava. Granitic lava is more viscous. It solidifies
within the crust before reaching the surface it results in explosive
eruptions. On the other hand, basaltic lava is less viscous and flows
easily. Because of its fluidity, it rises rapidly to erupt at the surface
of the earth. The intermediate type of lava known as andesite has a
varying type of eruption.
Lava is composed of molten rocks which flow during
volcanic eruption.

Solids
The solid particles thrown out in volcanic eruption are known as pyroplastics (fire-broken fragments).
Depending on size and shape, they are named as follows:
 Volcanic blocks -These are large volcanic rocks with size greater than 32 millimeters (mm) in diameter.
They are similar to pumice.
 Cinders or lapilli -These are medium-sized particles about 4 to 32 mm in diameter.
 Volcanic ash-This consists of small particles that are
less than 2 mm in diameter
 Volcanic dust -This consists of every small particle
that is less than 0.25 mm in diameter.
Ash Clouds may cause rains that bring about mudflow
called lahar. Mudflows behave like wet concrete. They move
downhill and bury everything. Flooding due to lahar was the major
source of damage in the province of Pampanga when Mt. Pinatubo
erupted.
Another kind of pyroplastic outburst is nuee ardente, from
the French term for growing clouds. It is a mixture of hot gases and
fine ash which is denser than air and therefore flows down the slope Why is nuee ardente destructive?
of volcanoes. Because the ash flow is very hot, it burns everything
in its path. At night it glows brightly because of its high temperature.
The ash flow has released most of its gases when it stops flowing. It leaves behind a mixture of volcanic ash and rock
fragments. The rock formed is called ash flow-tuff. Tuff is ash compacted into rock.

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SECTION REVIEW
1. How are volcanoes related to tectonics?
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2. How are magmas formed?

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3. What happens after the magmas are formed?

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4. Compare and contrast magma from lava?

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5. What materials are expelled when volcano erupts?

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