Engineering Thermodynamics

Lecture Notes
Chapter 1
(A Very Rough Draft )

Wayne Hacker
Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.1

Contents

1 About the notes 3

1.1 The purpose of the exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Disclaimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Introduction to Thermodynamics 3
2.1 What is thermodynamics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1 Artificial subdivisions of thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Introductory concepts, definitions, and principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 Defining Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Describing systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.1 The continuum hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.2 Property, state, and process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.3 Extensive and intensive properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.4 Equilibrium and quasi-equilibrium states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Physical quantities and dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.1 Dimensional consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5.1 Converting between different sets of units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.2 Determining units from equations governing physical laws . . . . 17
2.6 Density, specific volume, specific weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8.1 Conversion formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.9 The basics of static fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.10 Introducing the four fundamental physics laws of thermodynamics . . . . 22
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.2

3 More Random Thoughts 23

3.1 Forms of energy: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4 Exercises 30
4.0.1 Concepts and definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.0.2 Extensive and intensive properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.0.3 Equilibrium and quasi-equilibrium states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.0.4 Types of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.0.5 Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.3

1 About the notes

1.1 The purpose of the exercises

No set of class notes would be complete without a set of exercises to accompany it. I
view the exercises as mental exercises in thermodynamics. You would not dare step on a
football field, wrestling mat, or track for a competitive event without doing exercises on
your own time. You would then go to every practice (class lecture) before the big game
(the exams). While this analogy is not perfect, you get my point.

1.2 Disclaimer

This set of notes has not been proofread, is not finished, has not been well thought
out, and is not well written. This is my first semester for teaching thermodynamics and
together with my other classes, teaching obligations, and life obligations, I simply don’t
have enough spare time to make this set of notes into something good. Think of these
notes as a random set of collected ramblings, a screed.

2 Introduction to Thermodynamics

2.1 What is thermodynamics?

In a broad-sweeping crude sense, thermodynamics could be defined as the study of energy

and matter. Today thermodynamics is a very broad field, that is ubiquitous throughout
the sciences. In fact, it hard to imagine any event in nature that does not deal with the
interaction between energy and matter. However, it wasn’t always this way. The field
had humble beginnings as inventors struggled to figure out how to turn heat energy into
a form of energy that can do mechanical work.
Thermodynamics did not emerge as a science until the late 1600 hundreds (and some
would say much later) in the study of the first steam engines. The name comes from
the Greek words Therme (heat) and dynamis (dynamite/power), and was first used by
Lord Kelvin (formerly William Thomson) in an 1849 publication. The first textbook was
written in 1859 by William Rankine, for whom the Rankine temperature scale is named
after.
Although most people associate thermodynamics as the study of heat, it has a long and
interesting history with the study of both heat and lack of heat (cold). One of the main
areas of research in modern thermodynamics us the study of cold. In fact, it could be
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.4

argued that Michael Faraday, the famous 19th century scientist, was one of the original
founders of man-made refrigerators. It was his experiments (and failures) with ammonia
that lead him to realize that by compressing and releasing gas in the right order, that
you could cool the surrounding. He even went so far as to suggest ways that compressed
gas could be used to cool food and other perishables and how developing this technology
would have great potential industrial applications . Fortunately, he was far too interested
in science to waist time on such a mundane endeavor.
The engineer’s objective in studying thermodynamics is the analysis and design of large-
scale systems such as power plants, solar farms, air-conditioning systems, etc. Some
examples of areas of interest involving thermodynamics for engineers are listed below

• energy storage

• the transfer of energy through heat and work

• how energy transforms from one form of energy into another

(e.g., heat → mechanical work)

• the economic impact of various materials used for heat insulators and conductors

Energy comes in many forms. It can be thought of as “the ability to cause change”. Here
are a few common forms of energy:

• kinetic energy [energy due to motion]

• potential energy [energy due to position, or the configuration of a system]

• internal energy [energy stored in the molecules–both potential and kinetic–associated

with temperature]

• chemical energy [energy due to chemical composition (i.e., energy due to the ar-
rangement of molecules with respect to other molecules in the system)]

• nuclear energy [subatomic energy (i.e, energy stored in the nucleus of atom)]

In order for energy to change from one form to another it must go through some sort of
transition. The transition process is a mechanism for converting one form of energy to
another. Here are two conversion mechanisms:

• work [mechanical energy in transit]

• heat [molecular energy in transit]

Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.5

Think of these mechanisms as energy in transit. Do not confuse these concepts with the
concept of energy. Conversion mechanisms differs from energy in a fundamental way. The
energy stored in a system is independent of the way it go into the object; whereas, the
work done on an object (i.e., the amount of energy added or subtracted from a system)
depends on the process (the path) used to transfer the energy into or out of the system.
The main forms of energy that we will be interested in are: internal energy, chemical
(phase transitions), potential, and kinetic.
Thermodynamics, as a discipline, can be broken into three broad areas of study:

• the transformation of energy from one form into another

work
(e.g., a car skids to a stop ⇒ kinetic energy −−→ heat)

• the transfer of energy across boundaries

work
(heat + piston-cylinder container of water −−→ move piston)

• the storage of energy in molecules (heat, internal energy)

Of course, in practice these studies overlap.

2.1.1 Artificial subdivisions of thermodynamics

There are two basic areas of thermodynamics: microscopic and macroscopic.

• Microscopic study: This area focuses on microscopic issues. Its main focus is the
structure of matter and the interaction of molecules in collisions. It is known as
statistical physics, or statistical thermodynamics 1 . Topics studied in this discipline
include, but are not limited to: lasers, plasmas, high-speed gases, rarified gases
(such as in the outer atmosphere), turbulence in fluids.

• Macroscopic study: This area focuses on macroscopic (bulk) energy flow. It is typ-
ically referred to as Classical Thermodynamics, or Engineering Thermodynamics.
This field focuses on

– the transfer of energy

– the transformation of energy
– the storage of energy
1
A common sub-division of statistical physics used by engineers is known as kinetic theory
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.6

We will not study the details of molecular motion in this course; however, we will not
ignore them either. While it is true that thermodynamics has its historic roots in exper-
imentation and observation (the macroscopic world), it is also a fact that modern-day
thermodynamics owes much of its success to the study of the behavior of the molecules
composing the matter under scrutiny. That said, the macroscopic study is theoretically
justified by the continuum hypothesis, an assumption used to avoid direct dealings with
molecular interactions. Mathematically, the continuum hypothesis says that if we started
with a fixed amount of matter and kept cutting it in half, then the parts would look just
like the whole. We know that this is not the case. There is a limit where if we go below
it, we will be at the molecular level at it is here that we need the methods of statistical
physics to justify the continuum hypothesis.
We will try to balance the these two approaches by avoiding the technical mathematics
associated with statistical physics, but at the same time not forgetting that all matter
is composed of atoms and molecules, and action of these molecules necessarily affects
the behavior of the substance. Moreover, without studying the molecular behavior we
cannot understand the concepts behind internal energy. We will thus walk a proverbial
tightrope between the macroscopic and microscopic worlds. Be careful, don’t fall off!

2.2 Introductory concepts, definitions, and principles

2.2.1 Defining Systems

A first step in any analysis is to describe precisely what is to be studied. If you can’t do
this, then you have no hope of solving “the problem”. The subject under investigation
is known as the system. In a broad sense, a system is whatever we choose to study.
That said, a more precise definition of system is needed if we are to conduct any kind of
quantitate rigorous analysis of a system.
For pedagogical reasons, it is advantageous to start our study of systems by giving a
general all-encompassing definition of a system together with definitions of the systems
surroundings and boundary, and then to make a further refinement that distinguishes
between two basic types of systems: closed and open. We will find that we gain insight
into the concept of a system by making this further decomposition of the concept of a
system into systems based on observed mass, and systems based observed space.
Definition: A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
For brevity, we will use the verbiage system in place of thermodynamic system from here
forward.
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.7

Definition: Everything external to the system is the defined to be the system’s sur-
roundings.
Definition: The area separating the system from its surrounding is the boundary of the
system. The boundary may be at rest or in motion.
The boundary is the collection of points that is in contact with both the system and its
surroundings. It is a surface, and since a surface is a two-dimensional object, it has zero
volume.
Definition: A closed system is a definite quantity of matter contained within some
closed surface. A closed system is sometimes referred to as a control mass because the
matter composing the system is assumed known for all time.
Thus, a closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass. That is, no mass can ever
enter or leave the system. This means no mass can ever cross the boundary of a closed
system.
A closed system is appropriate for systems in some sort of enclosure, for example, a gas
being compressed by a piston in a closed cylinder. If we choose the gas as our system,
then the gas cannot escape, although energy could escape through the piston walls.
Although mass cannot leave a closed system, energy can escape in the form of heat or
work. A special type of a closed system that does not allow the escape of energy is known
as an isolated system. An isolated system is necessarily a closed system (since mass is
energy, and if energy cannot cross the boundary, then neither can mass), but a closed
system need not be isolated since energy can be transferred across a boundary in the
form of heat without any mass transfer. This is related to the idea that a wave can occur
in a medium without any net mass transfer.
Definition: A system is said to be isolated if no energy is transferred across the bound-
aries.
Definition: An open system is a definite fixed location in space. The system is called
open because mass may follow in or out of the system. An open system is sometimes
referred to as a control volume because the location composing the system is assumed
known for all time.
The surface surrounding the control volume is sometimes known as a control surface.
The control surface can be along a real surface of the system or it can be an imaginary
surface chosen for convenience.
Choosing a system boundary in practice is somewhat of an art. In general, choosing a
system’s boundary depends on two factors: the objective of the analysis, and what is
known about the system at various location, such as at an intake valve where we would
have explicit information about heat flow at the boundaries.
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.8

As a general rule of thumb, a control volume is used when studying things like turbines,
pumps, or any device where mass flows through a piece of machinery. Although we could
in principle keep track of the mass of a fluid as it flows through a pump, in practice this
method would become unwieldily. It turns out that when one wishes to analyze a piece
of machinery like a turbine, it is just easier to fix a location in space around the turbine
and monitor the flow in and out of it. Notice that the turbine could be on a jet and be
moving through space. In this case we would just choose a frame of reference moving
with the system.
In summary, in a closed system the same matter (mass) is being studied. It follows that
there can be no transfer of matter across the boundary of the system; whereas, with an
open system there must be mass flow across the boundary, otherwise it would be a closed
system (by definition). In general, a control mass can change shape and volume, but a
control volume cannot. Notice that in both types of systems (open and closed) there can
be a flow of energy in or out of the system. In fact, in an open system, just as there must
be a mass flow, there must also be a flow of energy in and/or out of the system.

2.3 Describing systems

2.3.1 The continuum hypothesis

The key to the success of the macroscopic approach is the continuum hypothesis. It is a
well-established fact that all matter is composed of atom and molecules. Thus air, water,
honey, and metal are necessarily discrete even though they feel continuous to the touch.
In fact, there is more space in a full glass of water than there is matter!
Fortunately we don’t need to track each molecule in order to make predictions about
the behavior of various properties of a system. For example, if we are interested in the
pressure in a tire, we don’t have to worry about how each molecule of air is interacting
with its neighbors and with the walls of the tire; all we need is a pressure gage (i.e., a
tire gage).
For definiteness, we will demonstrate how this hypothesis is applied to one of the prop-
erties of a gas. In particular, we’ll use density for its straight-forward graphical interpre-
tation.

Example 1 (continuum). Start with a fixed collection of gas in a closed chamber.

FINISH
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.9

2.3.2 Property, state, and process

Matter may exist in one or more of several phases: solid, liquid, gas, or plasma. We will
not be interested in plasma in this course.
Definition: For a given quantity of matter, a phase is a state where all of the matter
has the same chemical composition throughout. Matter that is in the same phase is
homogeneous.

Example 2 (phase). Water can exist as a solid (ice), liquid, or gas. It can also exist in
mixed phases, such as an ice cube in water.

Definition: A property is any quantity which serves to describe a system. For our
purposes, a property is any macroscopic characteristic of a system that a numerical value
can be assigned at a given time without knowledge of the previous history of the behavior
of the system.

List of Examples 1 (property). Here is a partial list of some typical system properties:

• mass

• volume

• pressure

• density

• temperature

• energy

• viscosity

• modulus of elasticity

• thermal expansion coefficient

• velocity

• elevation

• electrical resistivity
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.10

Definition: The state of a system is the condition of the system as determined by its
properties.
Definition: A process is a transformation from one state to another. Whenever any
property of a system undergoes a change (e.g, a change in pressure), then by definition
the state changes, and the system is said to have undergo a process.
Definition: If none of a system’s properties change with time, then the system is said
to be in steady state.
Example 3. True or False: A system is in steady state if its properties are independent
of time.
Solution: True.

2.3.3 Extensive and intensive properties

Thermodynamic properties can be placed into two general classes: extensive and inten-
sive.
Definition: A property of a system is called extensive if its value for the overall system
is the sum of the values of the parts to which the system has been divided into.
Example 4 (property). Some examples of extensive properties are:

• mass
• volume
• energy

Extensive properties, as the name suggests, depend on the extent (size) of the system.
Definition: A property of a system is called intensive if its value is independent of
the extent (size) of the system, and may vary from place to place and from moment to
moment.
Example 5 (property). Some examples of extensive properties are:

• mass
• volume
• energy

Intensive properties may be functions of position and time; whereas, extensive properties
can only be functions of time.
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.11

2.3.4 Equilibrium and quasi-equilibrium states

A system is in equilibrium if at each moment in time its properties are approximately

independent of space. If a system such as a piston-cylinder container is filled with an ex-
plosive gas and the gas is ignited, then that process cannot be a quasi-equilibrium process
since the pressure for example could not possibly be the same throughout the cylinder
(there would be shock waves everywhere!). On the other hand, if the piston cylinder
device is a syringe that is slowly being compressed, then this process could be described
as a quasi-equilibrium process since the gas inside the cylinder would have time to adjust
to the increasing pressure and every point inside the syringe would approximately be at
the same pressure.
FILL IN: Give examples of the ball in a bowl, temperature equil.

2.4 Physical quantities and dimension

Definition: A dimension is a name given to any measurable physical quantity.

Thus any physical quantity that you can think of can be characterized by dimensions.
Some examples of common physical quantities are: mass, length, time, velocity, temper-
ature, pressure.
The set of all measurable physical quantities (dimensions) are divided into two categories:
fundamental and derived, which are sometimes reffered to as primary and secondary. Just
what constitutes a fundamental dimension and a derived one is a matter of convenience,
tradition, and personal preference. There are no holy dimensions! One could build a
physical system with only one fundamental dimension, time. It would make working with
such a system difficult, but it could be done. Once a set of derived quantities are chosen,
all other quantities are described in terms of the fundamental quantities using definitions,
and mathematical representations of physical laws. Thus derived quantities are just that,
they can be expressed entirely in terms of the fundamental physical quantities. Of the set
of all dimensions, the derived dimensions are merely the ones that didn’t make it into the
collection of derived quantities, they are the leftovers. In the languish of mathematics,
if Sdim is the set of all dimensions, the set of fundamental dimensions SF , then the
complement of the fundamental set SFc = Sdim − SF is the set of derived dimensions.
Most modern systems of dimensions and corresponding units take mass, length, and time
(M LT ) as the fundamental dimensions. Although, the old-english system took force,
mass, length, mass, and time as the fundamental dimensions. If this isn’t confusing
enough, there is a system referred to as the absolute english system that takes force,
length, and time (F LT ) as the fundamental, or primary dimensions and treats mass as
a secondary unit.
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.12

We now list the fundamental dimensions that were chosen for the SI system and their
abbreviations:
The Fundamental Dimensions:

• Mass → M

• Length → L

• Time → T

2.4.1 Dimensional consistency

A formula that is not dimensionally homogenous, is not correct.

A formula that is dimensionally homogenous, is not necessarily correct.
Thus,
formula dimensionally inconsistent (inhomogeneous) ⇒ formula is wrong
formula dimensionally consistent ; formula is correct
In the following problems, determine which of the formulas could not be correct because
it violates the consistency-of-dimensions principle discussed in class. Do not worry about
the origin or application of the formulas: just focus on the issue of consistency of units.
That is, based solely on consistency of units in an equation, could the given formula be
correct?
Definition: The Dimensionator [ ] is the “take the fundamental dimensions of” op-
erator.
Warning: Do not let the subscripts confuse you. The subscripts are only used to label
variables, they are dimensionless numbers and letters and do not affect the outcome of
dimensionator one bit.
The dimensions of the fundamental quantities: {Length L, Mass M, Time T} are

• d = distance; [d] = L

• x = distance; [x] = L

• R = radius; [R] = L

• h = height; [h] = L
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.13

• m = mass; [m] = M
• t = time; [t] = T

The dimensions of the derived quantities (i.e., the quantities derived from the fundamen-
tal quantities) are

• v = velocity; [v] = L/T

• r = rate (speed); [r] = L/T
• A = area; [A] = L2
• V = volume; [V ] = L3
Example 6. d = rt
 
L ?
Solution: [d] = [rt] = [r][t] ⇒ L = = T = L ⇒ dimensionally consistent
T
Example 7. v = x + t

L ?
Solution: [v] = [x + t] = [x] + [t] ⇒ = = L + T ⇒ dimensionally inconsistent
T
Example 8. Convert the expression ρv 2 , where ρ is density = mass/volume, into the
fundamental dimensions: L, T , and M .

Solution: Start by writing each component ρ and v in terms of the fundamental dimen-
mass mass length
sions. ρ = density = volume = length 3 and v = velocity = time . Using bracket notation:

M L2 M
[ρ] · [v 2 ] = L3
· T2
= LT 2
.

The general fundamental kinematic equations are:

Fundamental Equation 1: vf = vi + a(tf − ti )

Fundamental Equation 2: vf2 = vi2 + 2a(xf − xi )

1
Fundamental Equation 3: xf = xi + vi (tf − ti ) + a(tf − ti )2
2

where a is acceleration, v is velocity, x is position, t is time, and the subscript i and f

denotes initial and final values, respectively.
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.14

Exercise 1. Verify that the 3rd fundamental equation is dimensionally consistent.

2.5 Units

In order to compare two similar quantities, such as length, we need to introduce a stan-
dard. The arbitrary, but fixed standardized dimensions of physical quantities are known
as units. For example, one way of measuring the length of an object is to compare it
to the standardized length of the foot, or the meter. Both the meter and the foot are
arbitrary standards, but they are fixed standards, and that’s the important part.
The units corresponding to the fundamental dimensions are known as Base Units. The
units corresponding to the fundamental dimensions must be “independent” of one an-
other, and they must be able to “span” the other physical quantities of interest in the
following sense: the units of all other quantities of interest must be able to be expressed
in terms of these proposed fundamental quantities). Such a complete set is known as a
basis 2 and the collection is typically referred to as the Fundamental Physical Quanti-
ties, or the Fundamental Dimensions; however, the corresponding fundamental units are
referred to as the Base Units.
The General Conference of Weights and Measures produced the SI system based on six
fundamental physical quantities (dimensions) and their corresponding units, which are
listed below.
The Base SI units:

• For Length the meter, denoted by m.

• For Mass the kilogram, denoted by kg.

• For Time the second, denoted by s.

• For Temperature the kelvin, denoted by K (this is an absolute temperature).

• For Electric Current the ampere, denoted by A.

• For Luminous Intensity the candela, denoted by cd.

2
The name is derived from the concept of a basis in linear algebra, although it is a bit more complicated
in this case since the combination of units is nonlinear. However, by taking the natural log of the physical
quantities one can reduce all of the physical quantities to a linear system. For more details, look up the
Buckingham Pi Theorem.
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.15

They also set down the following rules for abbreviations:

• The degree symbol was to be dropped from the absolute temperature scale. This
only applies to SI units, although some people apply the rule to the Rankine tem-
perature scale in the English system.
• All unit names we to be written without capitalization, even if they were derived
from proper names. However, the abbreviation was to be capitalized if the unit
was derived from a proper name.
• The full name of a unit maybe pluralized, but the abbreviation may not.

For example, the SI unit of temperature is the kelvin. It was named after Lord Kelvin,
so its abbreviation K is capitalized. They probably didn’t want the unit capitalized so
that there would be a clear distinction between Kelvin the scientist, and kelvin the unit.
All other units are referred to as derived units. For example, the SI unit for force, the
newton (N), can be expressed in terms of the base units using Newton’s second law:

[ ] m
F = ma −−−−−−→ [F ] = [m][a] ⇒ 1N = 1kg .
s2
Such a technique of defining derived units in terms of base units using a physical equation
to connect the units is known as aliasing.
The English System or United States Customary System of units

• The unit for length is the foot

• The unit for mass is the slug
• The unit for time is the second

The unit for mass in the old British system was the pound-mass, denoted lbm. The unit
for force, which was considered to be one of the fundamental units, was the pound-force,
denoted lbf. The reason the pound was a fundamental unit was mostly historical. The
pound lb is an abbreviation for libra, a unit used for weight by the Romans. Today,
we mostly just refer to the pound, but in thermodynamics there is a difference. The
pound-mass requires the conversion factor: gc = 32.174 lbm = 1 slug.
The British/English system is no longer used in the UK. In fact, this system hasn’t been
the standard for a long time. This system’s last strong hold is the US. However, with
more and more outsourcing the British system, like the US industrial base, is becoming
obsolete. In this course we will give little attention to the United States Customary
System.
STOP
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.16

2.5.1 Converting between different sets of units

We can convert between different sets of units by using conversion factors. FINISH
Example 9. You have a measuring stick that has centimeters and inches on it. You
notice that 1.00 in = 2.54 cm. Using only this information together with the relationship
1 mile = 5,280 ft., find a relationship between miles and kilometers. That is, 1 mile =
how many kilometers?

Solution: We will use a total of 5 conversion factors. That is, we will apply the one-
factor 5 times (via multiplication).
1 mile = 1 mile · 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · 1
     
5280ft 12in 2.54cm 1m 1km
= 1 mile ·
1mile 1ft 1in 100cm 1000m
5280 · 12 · 2.54
= km
105
= 1.61 km
where the second equality follows from the one-factor. Thus, 1 mile = 1.61 km. Crudely,
1 mile ≈ 23 km.
Example 10. An engine burns fuel at a rate of 11.2 g/s. What is the consumption rate
in kg/hr? Round your answer to the nearest 0.1 kg/hr.

Solution: Use the conversion factors: 1000 g/kg and 3600 s/hr. To make the units
work, multiply by the second factor and the reciprocal of the first:
 −1
g s g g s kg kg
· · = · · =
s hr kg s hr g hr
The engine consumes fuel at a rate of
 
g  s  1 kg kg
11.2 · 3600 = 40.3
s hr 1000 g hr
Exercise 2. The pressure at the bottom of a swimming pool is 18 lb/in2 . What is the
pressure in Pascals (Pa = N/m2 )? Round your answer to 2 significant figures.

Solution: We need to convert pounds to newtons, and inches to meters. Use the
conversion factors: 4.45 N/lb and 2.54 cm/in. To make the units work, multiply by the
first conversion factor, and divide by the square of the second, and lastly we’ll need to
convert centimeters to meters. The pressure is

  2  2
lb N 1 in 100cm N
18 2 · 4.45 = 12 × 104 2 = 12 × 104 Pa
in lb 2.54 cm 1m m
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.17

2.5.2 Determining units from equations governing physical laws

In the following problems use the given physical governing equation to determine the
dimensions of the given derived quantity in terms of the fundamental dimensions of
length, time, and mass, or in terms of other derived quantities as specified in the problem.
Use the SI units when expressing the dimensions.
Example 11. Determine the expression for the unit of force (the Newton N) in terms
of the fundamental dimensions mass, length, and time from the equation expressing
Newton’s 2nd Law F = ma.

Example 12. Determine the expression for the unit of work in terms of the fundamental
units from the definition of work (in one spacial dimension by a constant force) as force
times distance W = F d, where W is the symbol for work (a method of transferring
energy), F is the force exerted on the object and d is the distance that the force acts on
the object.

Exercise 3. Determine the expression for the unit of kinetic energy (K.E.) in terms of
the fundamental units from the definition of K.E. as K = 12 mv 2 where K is the symbol
for kinetic energy, m is the mass of the object, v is the speed of the object.

Exercise 4. Determine the expression for the unit of pressure (the Pascal Pa) in terms
of the SI units for pressure and area from the equation defining pressure P = FA , where
F is force and A is area.

Exercise 5. In the study of thermodynamics on the common expressions that you en-
counter is pressure P times volume V . Show that P V has the unit of work.

Exercise 6. Determine the units of the universal gas constant R from the equation for
the ideal gas law: P V = nRT , where P is pressure, V is volume, n is moles (denoted
mol), and T is temperature (with SI units of absolute temperature the kelvin).
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.18

Example 13. Express kinetic energy in terms of the base SI units: the kilogram, meter,
and second. Write your answer in terms of the abbreviations ({kg, m, s}).

Example 14. Express work (force × distance) in terms of the base SI units: the kilogram,
meter, and second. Express your answer in terms of the abbreviations (kg, m, s).

Example 15. Express power in terms of the base SI units: the kilogram, meter, and
second. Write your answer in terms of the abbreviations ({kg, m, s}).

Exercise 7. Express specific weight in terms of the base SI units: the kilogram, meter,
and second. Express your answer in terms of the abbreviations ({kg, m, s}).

Exercise 8. Express specific volume in terms of the base SI units: the kilogram, meter,
and second. Express your answer in terms of the abbreviations ({kg, m, s}).

Exercise 9. Express P V , where P is pressure and V is volume, in terms of the base SI

units: the kilogram, meter, and second. Express your answer in terms of the abbreviations
(kg, m, s). Compare this answer to the previous one. What do you notice?

2.6 Density, specific volume, specific weight

specific weight w
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.19

W = mg
÷V W mg m
−−−→ w ≡ = = g = ρg
V V V
Example 16. The mass of an unknown gas mixture in a room that is 3 m × 4 m × 5
m is known to be 500 kg. What is the density of the gas?

Example 17. Your new roommate has left the water running in the sink of your rect-
angular water-tight dorm room, and the room is now full of water. If the dimensions of
the room are: length = 5.0 m, width = 4.0 m, and height = 3.0 m, and the density of
water is 1.0 × 103 kg/m3 , then what is the weight of the water in the room? Round your
answer to two significant figures.
(a) 6.5 × 106 N (b) 5.9 × 105 N
(c) 6.0 × 104 N (d) 5.4 × 103 N
(e) None of these

2.7 Pressure

Example 18. A town in the middle-of-nowhere is built up around a large 100 meter hill.
Since the hill is in the center of a town, it is proposed at a town-hall meeting that a water
tower be placed at the top of the hill. However, the town barber points out that when
water flows through a pipe there is a great amount of resistance owing to viscosity and
turbulent mixing of the fluid. He estimates that the gauge pressure in the pipe at the
bottom of the hill must be at least 100 kPa in order for water to make it to the outskirts
of town. Find what the gauge pressure would be at the bottom of the hill.

2.8 Temperature

Derive formulas from temperature scales.

Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.20

2.8.1 Conversion formulas

Between relative temperature scales:

9
• TF = TC + 32 (Convert from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius)
5
5
• TC = (TF − 32) (Convert from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celcius)
9

Between absolute temperature scales:

• TK = TC + 273.15 (Convert from degrees Celsius to Kelvin )

5
• TR = TF + 459.67 (Convert from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Rankine)
9
Example 19. Convert 98◦ F to ◦ C.

Example 20. Convert 20◦ C to ◦ F.

Exercise 10. Convert 20◦ C to K (kelvin).

Exercise 11. Convert 98◦ F to ◦ R.

Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.21

2.9 The basics of static fluids

Problem 1. Which of the following is a statement of Pascal’s law?

(a) If a gas is maintained at a constant temperature, then its volume will be
inversely proportional to its pressure.

(b) Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every

portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container.

(c) A body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up with a force equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the body.

(d) One mole of any ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure will have a
volume of 22.4 liters.

Solution: The answer is (b).

Problem 2. Which of the following is a statement of Archimedes’s principle?

(a) If a gas is maintained at a constant pressure, then its volume will be propor-
tional to its absolute temperature.
(b) Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every
portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container.
(c) A body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up with a force equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the body.
(d) Don’t be rude to armed Romans.

Solution: The answer is (c).

Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.22

2.10 Introducing the four fundamental physics laws of thermo-

dynamics

Much of engineering thermodynamics is based on experimental observations that have

been summarized and are expressed in mathematical statements known as physical laws.
For completeness of this introductory discussion, these laws are listed below after giving
and discussing the definition of the zeroth law. For technical reasons will not get to the
first and second law until later in the course; furthermore, will never discuss the third
law, which involves topics far beyond the scope of this course.
The zeroth law is defined in terms of the transitive property. Recall from algebra class:

The Transitive property: If a = b and b = c, then a = c.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two systems A and B are each in ther-
modynamic equilibrium with a third system C, then A and B are in thermodynamic
equilibrium with each other.
This law may seem obvious, but it is not. The fact that thermodynamic equilibrium
satisfies a transitive law, allows us, for theoretical reasons, to classify it from other
physical laws that do not satisfy a transitive law. For example, magnetic attraction does
not satisfy a transitive law. Let A and B be iron nails and C be a magnet. Then C
attracts A and C attracts B, but A and B do not attract each other.

• Zeroth Law (temperature satisfies a transitive property, which turns out to justify
the use of thermometers)

• First Law (conservation of energy)

• Second Law (asserts energy a quality as well as quantity)

• Third Law (says you can’t reach absolute zero in finitely many steps)

The zeroth law has an interesting history. The first and second laws emerged in the
middle of the 19th century out of the works of Rudolph Clausius, William Rankine, and
Lord Kelvin. In 1931, Robert Fowler realized that the fundamental physical principle
that was to become the zeroth law could not be derived from the first or second laws
(i.e., it was independent of the two), and was even more fundamental than the first and
second law. This posed a real problem! One option would be to call the new law the
first, and rename the old first law as the new second law, and so on, but this would only
lead to confusion for future scientist that would be reading old papers. The only real
option then was to name the new law the zeroth law.
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.23

The 3rd law comes from the way that various gases were supercooled into a liquid form
on the race to absolute zero. A liquid was cooled using a special apparatus, then that
liquid was used to cool a second liquid, which was used to cool a third, and so on until
the desired gas liquefied, or the lab equipment exploded. The 3rd law states that if one
used this procedure to reach absolute zero, then it would take infinitely many steps.
As a comment, absolute zero does not mean that the atom cease to move. It means that
they are in a state of minimum energy.

3 More Random Thoughts

Closed and open systems; properties of a system

closed-system piston cylinder

open system if you have a flow through a device , use a control volume
real or imaginary
most control volumes have fixed boundaries
ex: water heater
Not all properties are independent. Moreover, the dependence can change with phase
changes. For example, in general, the density of a gas is much more susceptible to a
change in pressure than a liquid or solid. Similarly, a gas expands, becoming less dense,
with an increase in temperature much more than liquid or solid of the same substance.
Consider the density of a gas in a closed container. In particular, consider a fixed amount
of gas in a piston-cylinder device (a cylinder with a movable piston on one end). This
is a closed system with a movable boundary (the piston) on one end of the cylindrical
container.
For a solid, density changes pressure
Furthermore, suppose this system is not isolated. Then energy can enter and leave across
the boundaries.
For a system composed of a fixed amount of matter, say a unit of mass, the specific
volume is the volume occupied by the unit of mass. For definiteness, consider 1 kg of gas
in an open atmosphere. Clearly, this property is not independent of temperature.
Specific volume
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.24

relative density
Show picture with extensive vs. intensive
Uppercase letters are used for extensive properties with mass being the main exception
lowercase for intensive with exceptions of pressure and temperature
Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.
examples: v = V/m , e = E/m total vs specific total energy
continuum, no holes, can define functions at a point, good so long as system length scales
large compared to mean-free path and mean-free path large compared to molecular radius
(size of molecule)
rarefied-gas flow
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.25

State and equilibrium

In general, any property of any system can change with location (x, y, z) and time t.
Hence, both the properties and the state, which is a function of the properties, are
space-time functions (i.e., f = f (x, y, z, t)). We can express this mathematically as
Pi = Pi (x, y, z, t), where Pi denotes the ith property of the system. If the system can be
completely determined by i = 1, . . . , n independent properties, then

s = S(x, y, z, t) ≡ S(P1 (x, y, z, t), . . . , Pn (x, y, z, t)) .

Working with the governing equations in the general case is far beyond the scope of this
course. We will need to make some simplifying assumptions. First, we will assume that
our properties are uniform throughout the system. This will come to be known as the
quasi-equilibrium assumption that will be discussed below.
Consider a system that is in steady state. That is, the system is not undergoing any
change in time. In this case every property of the system can be measured throughout
the entire extend of the system. The values of these
Consider a system that is not undergoing any change. At this point, all of the properties
can be measured throughout the entire system, which gives us a set of properties that
completely describes the condition, or state, of the system. At a given state, all the
properties have fixed values. If the value of even one property changes, then the state
will change to a different one.
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word equil. implies a state of
balance. In an equil. state there are no driving forces, such as temperature gradients
acting on the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no change in state when it is
isolated from its surroundings.
There are many types of equilibrium. A system is in a state of equilibrium if and only if
every relevant equil. which affects the system are satisfied.
Relevant types of equilibrium

• mechanical equilibrium ⇒ no pressure change with time

• thermal equilibrium ⇒ no temperature change with time

• phase equilibrium ⇒ no phase change with time

• chemical equilibrium ⇒ no chemical change with time (no reactions)

Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.26

It should be pointed out that for each type of equilibrium, each of the above properties
can change with location, but not time. However, we will only allow pressure to change
with height in our study of thermodynamics.
Show temperature in a bar with lateral sides perfectly insulated. Approximate wire by
1-d system.
An ice cube in 0◦ C bath of water in a styrofoam container.
Based on the state of s system is described by the value of its properties.
We don’t need to specify all of the properties of a system to fix the state of a system.
Because some of the properties are dependent, we only need to specify a certain number
of properties to fix the state of a system. The number of properties needed to fix the
state of a system is given by the state postulate. This is based on experimental evidence.
But first we need a definition.
Definition: A system is said to be a simple compressible system in the absence of
gravitational, surface tension, electrical, and magnetic effects.
Working Definition: Two properties are said to be independent if one property can
be varied while the other is held fixed. If the properties are dependent, then such a
scheme would be impossible.
For example, for the equation y = x3 , we cannot vary x without changing the value of y.
This is because if x is an independent variable, then y is necessarily dependent (and vise
versa).
For a physical example, temperature and density are always independent variables for
simple compressible systems. However, temperature and pressure are independent for
the case of single-phase systems, but not for multi-phase systems. The temperature that
water boils at depends on pressure (Tboil = f (Pboil )).
The State Postulate: The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified
by two independent , intensive properties.
If gravitational effects are included we need also need to specify a third condition, eleva-
tion.
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.27

Process and cycles

Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a
process, and the series of states through which a system passes during a process is called
a path.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the
process, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
When a process proceeds slow enough that it stays arbitrarily close to equil. at all times,
then it is known as a quasi-equilibrium process. Basically a quasi-eq process occurs slow
enough that we can ignore any spacial changes in the system. We assume the changes
occur slow enough that the system can adjust at all points throughout the entire system
“instantaneously”.
When changes occur on fast time scales a shock wave forms and the system is far from
equilibrium.
Give ex.s a piston-cylinder sys. under slow and fast movement. Molecular pile up.
quasi-eq is a useful idealization. Has two advantages: 1. easy to analyze 2. work-
producing devices deliver maximum work when they operate on quasi-eq processes.
Thus quasi-eq processes form an unachievable bench mark to which real-life process can
be compared.
Process diagrams plotted by employing thermodynamic properties as coordinates are
very useful in visualizing thermodynamic processes. The most common properties used
as coordinates are:

• Temperature

• Pressure

• Volume (or specific volume)

Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.28

For a simple compressible system, we can plot the quasi-equilibrium process of the system
as it evolves in time using three two-dimensional diagrams involving specific volume v,
pressure P , and temperature T : {(v, P ), (v, T ), (T, P )}, or one three-dimensional diagram
(v, T, P ). For example, we can parameterize the system’s pressure P and specific volume v
as a function of time. We can then plot the parameterized curve of P vs. v: (v(t), P (t)) for
ti ≤ t ≤ tf , where the subscript i and f denote the initial and final times, respectively. An
example diagram is shown in figure ????. It is important to notice that the independent
variable is t, not v.
A process path chart,such as the one shown above, is only valid if at each moment in time
the system’s properties are uniform. That is, at each point in time the system is in quasi-
equilibrium. If the changes in the system occur over time scales that are to fast to allow
the system to adjust in a quasi-uniform way, then the state can not be characterized by
a single value, since the properties will be location dependent. In this case our diagram
breaks down and we can no longer represent the entire process by a single two-dimension
surface in three space. We would actually need a diagram that would account for the
three spacial dimensions. One could simplify the situation by taking the spatial average
of each property at each moment in time. However, this simplification would come at
the high price since so much information would be lost.
The prefix iso- is used to designate a process for which a particular property remains
constant.

• isothermal ⇒ Constant Temperature

• isobaric ⇒ Constant Pressure

• isometric ⇒ Constant Volume (or specific volume)

A system goes through a cycle if it returns to its initial state after it goes through a
process (i.e., for a cycle the initial and final states are identical).
Verbiage: The difference between steady and uniform.

• steady ⇒ no change with time (steady state)

• uniform ⇒ no change in location (homogeneous)

Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.29

3.1 Forms of energy:

internal energy = kinetic + potential

internal kinetic = sensible energy:
internal potential = binding forces (electrical in nature) = latent heat + chemical +
nuclear
two forms of energy interactions:
1.) heat transfer
2.) work
When a net translational motion is involved, the definition of the system must include a
frame of reference. Ideally this should be an inertial frame from which all relative motion
is measured.
All conserved quantities (e.g., mass, energy) are necessarily “trapped” within an isolated
system.
Ideal gas has no internal potential energy.
Total energy = kinetic energy + potential + internal
Etotal = K.E. + P.E. + U
Organized energy is more useful than disordered energy coming from random molecular
motion.
On job of the engineer is to figure out how to convert unorganized molecular motion
from internal energy into organized molecular motion that can be converted into useful
macroscopic energy.
At the heart of the definition of extensive properties is a conservation principle:
the sum of the mass of the components of a system equals the mass of the entire system
(conservation of mass)
the sum of the energy of the components of a system equals the energy of the entire
system (conservation of energy)
Extensive property ⇒ the sum of the parts equals the whole
heat 6= internal energy
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.30

4 Exercises

4.0.1 Concepts and definitions

Exercise 12 (systems). Which statement best describes the concept of a system?

(a) the subject of the analysis
(b) an object with fixed set of molecules
(c) a fluid together with some sort of solid
(d) an object that radiates heat into its environment

Solution: Only (a) encompasses the most general definition of a system.

Exercise 13 (surroundings). Consider a refrigerator in a kitchen. Take the refrigerator

and everything in it to be our system. Which best describes the system’s surroundings?
(a) All of the air in the kitchen.
(b) Any one standing in the kitchen.
(c) The air inside the refrigerator.
(d) Everything in the universe external to the system.

Solution: Only (d) encompasses everything not in the system.

Exercise 14 (boundary). Consider a refrigerator in a kitchen. Take the refrigerator

and everything in it to be our system. Which best describes the system’s boundary?
(a) All of the air in the kitchen.
(b) The thin region just outside of the refrigerator separating the system from the sur-
roundings.
(c) The air inside the refrigerator.
(d) The walls of the refrigerator.

Solution: (a) is false. All of the air in kitchen is part of the surroundings, not the
boundary.
(b) is correct.
(c) is false. The inside of the frig is part of the system.
(d) is false. Be careful, the walls of the frig are part of the system. The boundary is just
outside the system.

Exercise 15 (closed systems). Circle all of the true statements:

(a) A closed system is necessarily an isolated system
(b) An isolated system is necessarily a closed system
(c) A system cannot be both closed and isolated.
(d) The concepts of closed and isolated in regards to a system are independent concepts.
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.31

Solution: (a) is false. A closed system need not be isolated.

(b) is true. If a system is isolated, then since mass carries energy we cannot allow mass
transfer across the boundary.
(c) is false. An isolated system is closed.
(d) is false. the concept of isolated could not be defined without the implicit assumption
of the system being closed.

Exercise 16 (control volume). Circle all of the true statements:

(a) closed system = control mass
(b) closed system = control volume
(c) open system = control mass
(d) open system = control volume

Solution: (a) is true, (b) is false, (c) is false, (d) is true.

Exercise 17 (control volume). For each of the following situations determine whether
it would be better to use a control mass or a control volume when preforming analysis
on the given system.
(a) compression of air in a cylinder
(b) supersonic gas flowing across a jet turbine engine
(c) the air in a balloon
(d) filling a bike tire with air from a compressor

Solution: (a) control mass, because the volume is changing.

(b) control volume, because the mass is flowing across the boundary and it would be too
difficult to keep track of the gas.
(c) control mass, assuming no mass can leak out of the balloon
(d) This situation is ideal for a control volume provided that we assume the tire is not
deformed when it’s deflated.

Exercise 18 (boundary). Identify the control volume from a picture (come to class)

4.0.2 Extensive and intensive properties

Example 21. Consider a system composed of two blocks: A and B. The mass of block
A is mA = 2 kg and the temperature of block A is TA = 30◦ C. The mass of block B
is mB = 3 kg and the temperature of block B is TB = 10◦ C. If the blocks are brought
into contact, the total mass is additive (5 kg), but the temperature is not. The mass of
the system is the sum of the masses of block A and B (extensive property). The final
temperature will not be 40◦ C (intensive property).
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.32

Example 22. Which of the following is not an extensive property?

(a) Kinetic Energy (b) Momentum
(c) Mass (d) Density
(e) None of these

Solution: The answer is (d). If we mix two fluids of different densities, say ρ1 < ρ2 ,
we don’t get a fluid with a density that is the sum of the two densities ρ1 + ρ2 . The
resulting fluid will have a density ρmix that is somewhere in between the two densities
(ρ1 < ρmix < ρ2 ).

Example 23. Which of the following is not an intensive property?

(a) Velocity (b) Volume
(c) Pressure (d) Temperature
(e) None of these

Solution: The answer is (b). Volume is an extensive property (the sum of the parts
equals the total).

4.0.3 Equilibrium and quasi-equilibrium states

Example 24. Two metal blocks, one at 50◦ , and the other at 0◦ are set next to each
other in a perfectly insulted box at time t = 0. At this instant are the blocks in thermal
equilibrium? Now suppose you wait a long time. Are they in equilibrium now?

Example 25. In a quasi-equilibrium process, the pressure in a system

(a) is held constant throughout the entire process
(b) is spatially independent (uniform throughout the system) at each moment in time
(c) increases if volume increases
(d) always varies with temperature

Example 26. Which of the following process is a quasi-equilibrium process?

(a) the stirring and mixing of cold creamer in hot coffee
(b) a balloon bursting
(c) combustion
(d) the slow compression of air in a cylinder
Thermodynamics 232 Lecture notes Copyright ©Wayne Hacker 2009. All rights reserved.33

4.0.4 Types of energy

Example 27. If heat is added to a system and the temperature of a system increases,
without knowing anything else, which form of energy will be definitely increase?
(a) The kinetic energy of the system
(b) The potential energy of the system
(c) The work done by the system
(d) The internal energy (i.e., the molecular energy) of the system

Solution: The answer is (d). Without knowing more details, the only thing that we
can say for sure is that if the temperature increases, then the internal kinetic energy of
the molecules must have increased.

4.0.5 Springs

Example 28. A rubber band has an unstretched length of 8 cm and a spring constant
of 4 N/cm. What is the force required to stretch it to a length of 12 cm?
(a) 3 N (b) 16 N
(c) 32 N (d) 48 N
(e) None of these