Module 2

ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY
Morphemes
Lexical and grammatical morphemes
Free and bound morphemes
Practice Makes Perfect 6
Practice Makes Perfect 7
Inflectional morphemes
Activity 4
Activity 5
Activity 6
Derivational morphemes
Activity 7
Activity 8
Activity 9
Word formation processes
Activity 10

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Based on the morphological analysis above, morphology is the study of word form and
structure. A morpheme is defined by Parker & Riley (2010) as a minimal unit having more
or less constant meaning associated with more or less constant form.

For example, the word BUYERS has three morphemes.

BUYERS
{buy} is a verb which means to pay for something
{er} denotes one who performs an action
{s} means more than one person who pay for something

Each can occur with other morphemes without any change in meaning.
BUY – buys, buy, buying
ER – farmer, driver, teacher
S – boys, girls, dogs

The more combinations a morpheme can occur in, the more productive it is said to be;
the more productive a morpheme is, the stronger the evidence that it is a separate
morpheme.

• Braces { } indicate a
morpheme .
• Square brackets [ ]
indicate a semantic
characterization.
• Italics indicate a
lexical item.

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FIVE POINTS TO NOTE ABOUT MORPHEMES

Parker & Riley (2010) present the following five points to note about morphemes.

1. They are distinct from syllables.

The word ALLIGATOR has one morpheme {alligator), but four syllables al-li-ga-tor. The
word CATS has two morphemes {cat} + {PLU}, but only one syllable cats.

2. Morphemes are distinct from semantic features, in that morphemes have a

more or less constant form, which is usually reflected by their spelling.

The words man, boy, stallion, colt share the same semantic feature – all males – yet,
constitute different morphemes. In the same way, the words conceal and hide have
identical semantic features, but different morphemes.

3. Identical spellings do not necessarily indicate identical morphemes.

The words buyer and shorter both end in -er. For the word buyer, -er means the one
who, while for the word shorter, -er means to a greater degree than. These words have
the same form or spelling, but different meanings, thus different morphemes.

4. The definition of a morpheme as a minimal unit with more or less constant

meaning associated with more or less constant form should be taken as a general
rule of thumb rather than a hard and fast criterion.

BOYS = {boy} + {PLU}

GIRLS = {girl} + {PLU}

The plural morpheme {s} for the words boys and girls is different from the possessive
morpheme {s}.

MEN = {man} + {PLU}

This is the same when forming the plural morpheme for the word men. The relationship
between man and men is identical to that of boy and boys, girl and girls, even though
the form/spelling is not the same.

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The same is true for the following relationships:
WALKED = {walk} + {PAST}
WENT = {go} + {PAST}

5. The goal of morphological analysis is to determine the rules that speakers

actually follow for forming words in a particular language. However, it is often
difficult for the linguist to distinguish between the etymology (i.e., history or
origin) of a word and its structure in the minds of present-day speakers.

For example, the word hamburger was historically derived from Hamburg which a city in
Germany and {er} as Southerner or Englander. Nowadays, ham+burger means a patty
served on a round bun. Burger can be combined with others than can be eaten like
cheeseburger, veggie burger, etc.

Based on the five points about morphemes discussed above, a MORPHEME is a

linguistic unit that is defined by (more or less) constant core meaning associated
with a (more or less) constant form.

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 VARIOUS TYPES OF MORPHEMES

The following is a diagram showing the division of morphemes into various types.

FREE
LEXICAL content words -
have a sense nouns, verbs,
([Link]) in and of adjectives
themselves
BOUND

MORPHEMES GRAMMATICAL FREE

don't really have a sense function words -
in and of themselves, preporsitions,
instead they express articles,
some sort of relationship conjunctions
between lexical INFLECTIONAL
morphemes.
BOUND
DERIVATIONAL

Free morphemes can stand alone as words, while bound morphemes cannot stand
alone as words.
Inflectional and derivational morphemes can apply only to the class of bound,
grammatical morphemes. The more familiar term is AFFIX which may be subdivided
into prefixes, infixes, and suffixes.

Consider the following English sentence:

The students promised the schoolmaster to review diligently for their
exams on Monday.

There are 11 words in the sentence. The word students has two parts, student and -s;
promised is composed of promise and -ed; and diligently may be divided into diligent
and -ly. The word schoolmaster includes two words -

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Let us review the principal parts of the verbs before we proceed to the inflectional
affixes. In English language learning, the four principal parts of the verbs are the most
basic forms of verbs that a language learner should learn (and memorize) because
these are the bases for all other forms of the verbs.

The four principal parts of the verbs are the present, the present participle, the past, the
past participle.

PRESENT PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

be/is/am being was/were been
come coming came come
fly flying flew flown
love loving loved loved
study studying studied studied

As mentioned above, these four principal parts are the bases for all other forms of
verbs. It may be impossible to memorize all verbs and their principal parts, but as
students of linguistics, you are required to be familiar with many verbs. These are
important in the study of inflectional affixes.

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 Complete the table below by filling in the missing
6 principal parts for the verbs.

PRESENT PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

selling
sung
buy
spoke
put
writing
beginning
drink
stole
bring
taught
thought
having
do
wear
going
given
fell
live
learn

Underline the main verb in each sentence and

7 identify what form it is – present, present

participle, past, past participle.

EXAMPLE: The past participle uses a form of the helping verb have. present

1. Randy’s class studies world history. ____________________

2. The students are reading about the Renaissance. ____________________
3. The teacher has taught them about the art of that time. _________________
4. They have learned much about Renaissance painting. ____________________
5. Yesterday they visited an art museum. ____________________
6. They had always gone to a different museum before. ____________________
7. They had seen a display of Egyptian art at the Egyptian Museum. _________
8. The English teachers had read two new novels. ____________________
9. The band director is planning the fall musical. ____________________
10. The cafeteria monitor talks to the children. ____________________

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 INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES

INFLECTIONAL AFFIX ROOT EXAMPLE

{PLU} = plural noun girls

{POSS} = possessive noun girl’s

{COMP} = comparative adjective older

{SUP} = superlative adjective oldest

{PRES} = present verb walks

{PAST} = past verb walked

{PAST PART} = past
verb driven
participle
{PRES PART} = present
verb driving
participle

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Parker & Riley (2010) discussed the following regarding inflectional affixes:

1. All plural nouns in English can be represented morphologically as a root +

{PLU}, regardless of how the plural morpheme is spelled or pronounced.

boys = {boy} + {PLU}, men = {man} + {PLU}, sheep = {sheep} + {PLU}

2. All possessive nouns in English can be represented morphologically as a root

+ {POSS}.

boy’s = {boy} + {POSS}, man’s = {man} + {POSS}

3. All comparative adjectives in English can be represented morphologically as a

root + {COMP}.

happier = {happy} + {COMP}, better = {good} + {COMP}

4. All superlative adjectives in English can be represented morphologically as a

root + {SUP}.

happiest = {happy} + {SUP}, best = {good} + {SUP}

*For cases as the superlative most beautiful, it can be represented morphologically as

{beautiful} + {SUP}, even though MOST is clearly not an affix, but a free grammatical
morpheme.

5. All present tense verbs in English can be represented morphologically as a

root + {PRES}.

Robert loves Maria. loves = {love} + {PRES}

Robert and Maria love each other. love = {love} + {PRES}

The only time this affix is spelled out is when there is a 3rd person singular subject (he,
she, it, NP, singular noun). With all other subjects, the present tense has no surface
affix (I, you, we, they, etc.).

6. All past tense verbs in English can be represented morphologically as a root +

{PAST}.

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Robert walked on the wet pavement. walked = {walk} + {PAST}
Mario went to the shopping mall. went = {go} + {PAST}

In the English language, the first and only the first verb form in simple sentence is
inflicted for tense {PRES} or {PAST}. No verb following the first is ever inflected for
tense.

I think think = {think} + {PRES}

I have thought have = {have} + PRES}

have thought is the verb phrase. have is the first verb which is in the present form

I was thinking was = {be} + PAST

was thinking is the verb phrase. was is the first verb which is in the past form

7. All past participles in English can be represented morphologically as root +

{PAST PART}. A past participle always follows a form of the auxiliary verb HAVE.

Robert has driven his mother crazy. driven = {drive} + {PAST PART}
They have gone home. gone = {go} + {PAST PART}

8. All present participle in English can be represented morphologically as root +

{PRES PART}. Present participles always appear in a constant form (with -ing
suffix). In a simple active sentence, this can be identified as the verb form
following a form of the auxiliary verb TO BE.

Robert and Maria are drinking kegs of beer. drinking = {drink} + {PRES PART}

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 Analyze the following morphologically.
4

EXAMPLE: babies {baby} + {PLU}

1. women
2. sheep
3. thinking
4. danced
5. flown
6. prettier
7. knives
8. foot
9. wisest
10. teaches

Provide the word which is given

5 morphologically.

EXAMPLE: {baby} + {PLU} babies

1. {life} + {PLU}
2. {become} + {PAST}
3. {bite} + {PAST PART}
4. {nice} + {SUP}
5. {tooth} + {PLU}
6. {dark} + {COMP}
7. {build} + {PRES PART}
8. {cost} + {PAST PART}
9. {heavy} + {COMP}
10. {forget} + {PAST}

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 INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES

In simple, active sentences, there are five different types of verbs that can occur:
1. main verb
2. modal verbs
3. forms of HAVE
4. forms of BE
5. forms of DO

Parker & Riley (2010) discussed the following guiding principles in analyzing sentences.
If a sentence violates any one of these principles, the sentence becomes
ungrammatical. If no principle is violated, then the sentence is grammatical.

1. Main verb – always the right-most verb in a simple sentence.

Robert should have gone to the park.

Maria might have a cold.

2. Modal verbs – can/could, shall/should, will/would, may/might, must

- characterized by the absence of the third person singular -s
that occurs on all other types of verbs in the present tense
- when a modal occurs in a sentence, it is always the first verb
form
- it is always followed by an uninflected verb form

Robert may see Maria.

Robert will go to see Maria.
Robert will be going to see Maria.
X Robert will going to Maria’s house.
X Robert is will go to Maria’s house.

3. Forms of HAVE - auxiliary HAVE is always followed by a PAST PARTICIPLE

- if both a modal and the auxiliary HAVE occur in the same
sentence, HAVE follows the modal.

Robert has eaten his lunch.

Robert and Maria have been together since last year.
We should have gone to the party last night.

4. Forms of BE - if the auxiliary BE occurs in a simple sentence, it is always

followed by a PRESENT PARTICIPLE

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 - if both the auxiliary HAVE and the auxiliary BE occur in the
same sentence, the form BE always follows the form HAVE

Robert is eating hamburger and fries.

Maria will be eating her lunch soon.
Robert and Maria have been eating hamburger and fries since they were kids.
X We are have eating.

5. Forms of DO - the auxiliary DO never occurs with any of the other auxiliary
verbs in a simple active sentence
- when two items never occur in the same environment, the
items are said to be in complementary distribution
- the main verb that appears with DO is always uninflected

I do eat hamburger and fries.

We do may eat corn.
He does have eaten mangoes.
I do eat hamburger and fries.
We did see the movie last weekend.
X We did ate some mangoes.
X He does went to school.

Based on the discussion above, it may be concluded that ALL VERBS IN ENGLISH
ARE PERFECTLY SYSTEMATIC.

EXAMPLE:
Angie may have been studying at the library.
- STUDYING is the main verb because it is the right-most verb; it is a present
participle because it immediately follows a form of BE
- BEEN is an auxiliary verb because it is not the right-most verb; it is a past
participle because it immediately follows a form of HAVE
- HAVE is an auxiliary verb because it is not the right-most verb; it is uninflected
because it immediately follows a modal
- MAY is a modal because it lacks the 3rd person singular -s; it is inflected for
present tense (MIGHT would be past) since the first and only the first verb in a
simple sentence in English is inflected for tense

Remember that these are for simple, active sentences. There are other rules for
passive sentences.

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Let us analyze the following sentences based on what was discussed above.
a. Maria did study at Harvard University for a short time.

- The complete subject of the sentence is MARIA which is a singular subject which
requires a singular verb. The nearest verb DID is in the past singular/plural form
- The verb phrase is DID STUDY
- STUDY is the main verb because it is the right-most verb; it is the present form of
the verb STUDY
- DID is an auxiliary verb because it is not the right-most verb; it is the past form of
the verb DO.
o The main verb that appears with DO is always uninflected. In this
sentence, the auxiliary DID is followed by the uninflected STUDY.
- This sentence is grammatical because follows the rules and does not violate any
rule.

b. Maria must have studying very hard during her stay at Harvard University.
- The complete subject of the sentence is MARIA which is a singular subject which
requires a singular verb. The nearest verb MUST is a modal which may be
singular or plural.
- The verb phrase is MUST HAVE STUDYING
- STUDYING is the main verb because it is the right-most verb; it is the present
participle form of the verb STUDY
- BEEN is an auxiliary verb because it is not the right-most verb; it is the past
participle of the verb BE.
- HAVE is an auxiliary verb because it is not the right-most verb; it is the present
plural form of the verb HAVE.
o The auxiliary HAVE is always followed by a PAST PARTICIPLE. In this
sentence, the auxiliary HAVE is followed by the present participle
STUDYING.
o The correct form should have been HAVE STUDIED or HAVE BEEN
STUDYING.
- MUST is an auxiliary verb because it is not the right-most verb; it is a modal.
o When a modal occurs in a sentence, it is always the first verb form; it is
always followed by an uninflected verb form. In this sentence, the auxiliary
MUST is the first verb form; it is followed by the uninflected verb HAVE.
- This sentence is ungrammatical because it violates a rule.
- The following may be considered to make the sentence grammatical:
o Maria must have been studying very hard during her stay at Harvard
University.
o Maria must have studied very hard during her stay at Harvard University.

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 Analyze the following sentences and determine
if they are grammatically correct based on the
6 discussions on inflectional affixes. An
example is given for your guidance.

EXAMPLE: The documents were already been submitted to the

Faculty Room.

- The complete subject of the sentence is THE DOCUMENTS

which is a plural subject which requires a plural verb. The
nearest verb WERE is in the past plural form
- The verb phrase is WERE BEEN SUBMITTED with the adverb
already splitting the main verb and helping verb/s
- SUBMITTED is the main verb because it is the right-most verb;
it is the past participle of the verb SUBMIT
- BEEN is an auxiliary verb because it is not the right-most verb;
it is the past participle of the verb BE.
o If the auxiliary BE occurs in a simple sentence, it is always
followed by a present participle. In this sentence, the
auxiliary BEEN is followed by the past participle
SUBMITTED, not in the present participle form.
o The correct form should have been BEEN SUBMITTING.
- WERE is an auxiliary verb because it is not the right-most verb;
it is the plural past form of the verb BE.
o If the auxiliary BE occurs in a simple sentence, it is always
followed by a present participle. In this sentence, the
auxiliary WERE is followed by the past participle BEEN,
not in the present participle form.
o The correct form should have been WERE BEING.
- This sentence is ungrammatical because it violates two rules.
- The following may be considered to make the sentence
grammatical:

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 o The documents were already submitted to the Faculty
Room.
o The documents were already being submitted to the
Faculty Room.
o The documents have already been submitted to the Faculty
Room.

1. Alice has ate my chocolate.

2. He is make a lot of money in his new job.
3. My friend has been attending seminars on financial management.
4. Roger and Edna will going to Marquee Mall despite the travel ban.

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DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES

The set of derivational affixes is open ended, i.e. there are a potentially infinite
number of them.

EXAMPLES


SUFFIXES

{ize} rubberize, criticize, pasteurize Nà V

normalize, realize, finalize Adj à V

{ful} beautiful, thoughtful, careful Nà Adj

{ly} quickly, swiftly, carefully Adj à Adv

friendly, manly, neighborly N à Adj

{er} doer do + {AG}

shorter short + {COMP}

PREFIXES

variation on the meaning NOT

{un} unhappy
{dis} dislike
{a} amoral
{anti} anti-graft

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 LATIN ROOTS

LATIN MEANING SAMPLE WORD

ROOT
cred to believe credibility – the quality or power of inspiring belief
dic to tell, say dicast – an ancient Athenian performing the functions of
both judge and juror at a trial
dict to tell, say dictate – to speak or act domineeringly
duc to lead Duke – a sovereign male ruler of a continental European
duchy; a nobleman of the highest hereditary rank
duce to lead seduce – to lead astray usually by persuasion or false
promises
duct to lead abduct – to seize and take away by force
erra to wander aberrant – deviating from the usual or natural
fac to make, do factory – a building or set of buildings with facilities for
manufacturing; the seat of some kind of production
fer to bear confer – to bestow from or as if from a position of
superiority
flec to bend reflection – to bend or fold back
flex to bend flexible – characterized by a ready capability to adapt to
new, different, or changing requirements
form to shape conform – to give the same shape, outline, or contour to;
bring into harmony or accord
found to pour diffuse – to pour out and permit or cause to spread freely
fundere to pour confound – to throw into confusion or perplexity
grad to step gradual – proceeding by steps or degrees
gress to step regress – an act or the privilege of going or coming back

jec to throw eject – to throw out especially by physical force, authority,

or influence
juct to join conjunction – an uninflected linguistics form that joins
june to join together sentences, clauses, phrases, or words
luc to shine elucidate – to give a clarifying explanation
lucere to shine
lum to shine illuminate – to supply or brighten the light
mis to send missend – to send incorrectly
mit to send submit – to put forward as an opinion or contention
mort to die mortality – the number of deaths in a given time or place
pel to drive, push repellant – serving or tending to drive away or ward off
plor to cry out implore – to make an earnest request
port to carry seaport – a port, harbor, or town accessible to seagoing
ships
puls to drive, push compulsion – an irresistible persistent impulse to perform
an act
rupt to break disruption – a break or interruption in the normal course
or continuation of some activity, process, etc.

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scib to write transcribe – to make a written copy of
script to write manuscript – written by hand or typed
simil to resemble simultaneous – existing or occurring at the same time
spec to see, watch spectacle – something exhibited to view as unusual,
notable, or entertaining; eye-catching
spirare to breathe respiration – the movement of air or dissolved gases into
and out of the lungs; a single complete act of breathing
stru to build structure – something that is constructed or built
tract to pull retract – to draw back or in
ver to turn controversy – a discussion marked especially by the
verse to turn expression of opposing views
vert to turn introversion – the state of or tendency toward being
wholly or predominantly concerned with and interested in
one’s own mental live

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 GREEK COMBINING FORMS

GREEK MEANING SAMPLE WORD

ROOT
a without, not amoral – having or showing no concern
whether behavior is morally right or wrong
aero air, atmosphere, aviation aerometer – an instrument for ascertaining the
weight or density of air and other gases
an without, not anarchy – absence of government
anti against anti-bullying – against abuse and
mistreatment of someone vulnerable by
someone stronger, more powerful, etc.
arch Ruler matriarch – a woman who rules or dominates
a family, group, or state
archaeo primitive, ancient archaeology – the scientific study of material
remains of past human life and activities
astro star-shaped, referring to astronaut – a person who travels beyond the
outer space earth’s atmosphere or outer space
aud* referring to hearing audio – of or relating to acoustic, mechanical,
or electrical frequencies corresponding to
normally audible sound waves
audi* referring to hearing audible – heard or capable of being heard
auto self autograph – something written or made with
one’s own hand
bi* two bifocal – having two focal lengths; having one
part that corrects for near vision and one for
distant vision
bio life biography – a usually written history of a
person’s life
chrom color, stained chromogen- a precursor of a biochemical
pigment; a pigment-producing microorganism
chron time chronicle – a historical account of events
arranged in order of time usually without
analysis or interpretation
cide* substance that kills fungicide – an agent that destroys fungi or
inhibits their growth
cine movement cinematography – the art or science of
motion-picture photography
cracy rule democracy – a government by the people;
rule of the majority
crat a person who rules aristocrat – a member of the government by
the best individuals or by a small privileged
class
cycle recurring round of events; bicycle – a vehicle with two wheels in tandem
circle
cyclo recurring round of events; cyclometer – a device made for recording the
circle revolutions of a wheel

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cyte referring to a cell lymphocyte – any of the colorless weakly
motile cells originating from stem cells
cyto referring to a cell cytotoxic – toxic to cells
dem people democracy – a government by the people;
rule of the majority
derma skin dermatologist – a branch of medicine dealing
with the skin, its structure, functions, and
diseases
di two dichotomy – a division into two especially
mutually exclusive or contradictory groups or
entities
dys difficulty dysfunction – impaired or abnormal
functioning
ectomy removal of a part by appendectomy – surgical removal of the
surgery vermiform appendix
endo within, inside, inner endoderm – the innermost of the three primary
germ layers of an embryo
epi on, upon, or above epicenter – the part of the earth’s surface
directly above the focus of an earthquake
gen origin, birth, race generation – a body of living things
geno origin, birth, race genocide – the deliberate and systematic
destruction of a racial, political, or cultural
group
geny origin, birth, race progeny – offspring of animals or plants
geo earth geography – a science that deals with the
description, distribution, and interaction of the
diverse physical, biological, and cultural
features of the earth’s surface
gon angle nonagon – a polygon of nine angles and nine
sides
gram written, drawn cardiogram – the curve or tracing made by the
instrument that graphically registers
movements of the heart
graph written, drawn pictograph – a diagram representing statistical
data by pictorial forms
hema referring to blood hematoma – a mass of usually clotted blood
that forms in a tissue, organ, or body space as
a result of a broken blood vessel
hemi half hemisphere – a half of the celestial sphere as
divided into two halves by the horizon
hemo referring to blood hemophilia – a hereditary, sex-linked blood
defect occurring almost exclusively in males
that is marked by delayed clothing of the blood
hydro water, combined with hydroelectric – of or relating to production of
hydrogen electricity by waterpower
hype over, too much hypersensitive – excessively or abnormally
sensitive

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hyper over, too much hyperacidity – the condition of containing
more than the normal amount of acid
hypo under, below, beneath hypoglycemia – abnormal decrease of sugar
in the blood
in without, not incomplete – lacking a usually necessary part,
element, or step
ite native, inhabitant suburbanite – an inhabitant of the suburb (an
outlying part of a city or town)
itis inflammation of hepatitis – inflammation of the liver
kine movement kinescope – a motion picture tube made from
an image on a picture tube
lex word lexis – complete set of all possible words in a
language
lexi word lexicon – a book containing an alphabetical
arrangement of the words in a language and
their definitions
lith stone or rock neolithic – of or relating to the latest period of
the Stone Age characterized by polished stone
implements
litho Stone or rock lithosphere – the outer part of the solid earth
composed of rock essentially like that exposed
at the surface
macro large or long macroeconomics – a study of economics in
terms of whole systems especially with
reference to general levels of output and
income and to the interrelations among sectors
of the economy
mania madness or unreasonable bibliomania – extreme preoccupation with
desire for collecting books
mech machine mechanism – a piece of machinery; a process,
technique, or system for achieving a result
meg large, powerful megapixel – one million pixels
mega large, powerful megabyte – 1024 kilobytes or 1,048, 576
bytes or 1 million bytes
met beyond or higher, changed metabolize – to subject to metabolism (the
or transformed sum of the processes in the buildup and
destruction of protoplasm)
meta beyond or higher, changed metamorphosis – change of physical form,
or transformed structure, or substance especially by
supernatural means
meter unit of measure, centimeter – a unit of length equal to 1/100
measuring device meter
metro Mother city metropolitan – of, relating to, or constituting a
mother country as distinguished from a colony
micro very small microscope – an optical instrument consisting
of a lens or combination of lenses for making
enlarged images of minute objects

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mono one monolingual – having or using only one
language
morph shape, body, form morphology – a branch of linguistics that
deals with the study and description of word
formation in language
neo new or recent neonatal – of, relating to, or affecting the
newborn and especially the human infant
during the first month after birth
ologist a person who studies linguist – a person accomplished in
languages; a person who specializes in
linguistics
ology study of biology – a branch of knowledge that deals
with living organisms and vital processes
opt eye optometer – an instrument for testing the
refractive power of the eye
ortho straight, right; to correct orthography – the art of writing words with the
proper letters according to standard usage
pan all pandemic – an outbreak of a disease that
occurs over a wide geographic area and
affecting an exceptionally high proportion of the
population
path feeling; suffer empathy – the action of understanding, being
aware of, being sensitive to, and vicariously
experiencing the feelings, thoughts, and
experience of another
ped foot pedestrian – going or performed on foot; of,
relating to, or designed for walking
penta five pentagon – a polygon of five angles and five
sides
phil love philosopher – a person who seeks wisdom or
enlightenment
phobia an illogical, persistent fear claustrophobia – abnormal dread of being in
of something closed narrow spaces
phon sound phonetics – the system of speech sounds of a
language or group of languages
phono sound phonograph – an instrument for reproducing
sounds by means of the vibration of a stylus or
needle following a spinal groove on a revolving
disc or cylinder
photo light photosynthesis – synthesis of chemical
compounds with the aid of radiant energy and
especially light
phyll leaf chlorophyll – the green photosynthetic
pigment found chiefly in the chloroplasts of
plants
phys nature physiology – a branch of biology that deals
with the functions and activities of life and living

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 matter and of the physical and chemical
phenomena involved
phyte referring to plants acrophyte – any plant that grows at a high
altitude
phyto referring to plants phytochemical – a chemical compound
occurring naturally in plants
pod foot tripod – a three-legged stand; a stool, table, or
altar with three legs
polis city acropolis – the upper fortified part of an
ancient Greek city
poly many, more than one polyglot – a mixture or confusion of languages
or nomenclature
proto first or earliest protocol – an original draft, minute, or record
of a document or transaction
psych mind psychology – the science of mind and
behavior
saur lizard Stegosaurus – any of a genus of stegosaurs
known from the Upper Jurassic rocks
especially of Colorado and Wyoming
scope an instrument for viewing periscope – a tubular optical instrument
containing lenses and mirrors by which an
observer obtains an otherwise obstructed field
of view
semi half semicircle – a half of a circle
soph wise sophist – philosopher; any of a class of
ancient Greek teachers of rhetoric, philosophy,
and the art of successful living
sphere round hemisphere –half of a spherical or roughly
spherical body
sub* under, below subordinate – placed in or occupying a lower
class, rank, or position
tech skill, art technocrat – a technical expert
techni skill, art pyrotechnic – firework; a combustible
substance used in a firework
tele distant telephone – an instrument for reproducing
sounds at a distance
tetra four tetrahedron – a polyhedron that has four faces
theo god theocentric – having God as the central
interest and ultimate concern
thermos heat thermometer – an instrument for determining
temperature
tox* poison toxicology – a science that deals with poisons
and their effect
tri three trigonometry – the study of the properties of
triangles and trigonometric functions and of
their applications
vore* to devour, eat herbivore – animal that feeds on plants

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 zo referring to animals zoophobia – an irrational fear or even simply
dislike of any non-human animals
zoo referring to animals zoology – a branch of biology concerned with
the classification and the properties and vital
phenomena of animals

* These particular Latin roots occur frequently in science vocabulary. Therefore, they
have been included in this section of Greek roots (Greek morphemes occur mainly un
science vocabulary).

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 PREFIXES

PREFIX MEANING SAMPLE WORD PREFIX and

BASE
a- on, in afoot – on foot a
foot
a- not, without asexual – lacking sex or functional sex a
organs sexual
ab- from, away, off abnormal – deviating from the normal
or average
an- not, without anaerobic – living, active, occurring, or an
existing in the absence of free oxygen aerobic
ante- prior, earlier antedate – a date assigned to an event
or document earlier than the actual
date of the event or document
anti- against anti-bullying – against abuse and anti
mistreatment of someone vulnerable by bullying
someone stronger, more powerful, etc.
auto- self autobiography – the biography of a auto
aut- self person narrated by himself or herself biography
bi- two bifocal – having two focal lengths; bi
having one part that corrects for near focal
vision and one for distant vision
contra- against contraindication – something that contra
makes a particular treatment or indication
procedure inadvisable
counter- contrary, counteract – to make ineffective or counter
opposite restrain or neutralize the usually ill act
effects of by means of an opposite
force, action or influence
de- do the opposite deactivate – to make inactive or de
of ineffective activate
dis- do the opposite disabuse – to free from error, dis
of misconception, or fallacy abuse
en- put into or onto enable – to provide with the means or en
opportunity able
fore- earlier, forefather – a person of an earlier fore
beforehand period and common heritage father
hyper- above, beyond hyperacidity – the condition of hyper
containing more than the normal acidity
amount of acid
im- not impolite – not polite; rude im
polite
in- not inability – lack of sufficient power, in
resources, capacity ability

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ir- not irresponsible – lacking a sense of ir
responsibility; sense or done with no responsible
sense of responsibility
il- not illiterate – having little or no education; il
showing or marked by a lack of literate
acquaintance with the fundamentals of
a particular field of knowledge
inter- between, among international – of, relating to, or inter
affecting two or more nations national
intra- inside, inward, intravenous – situated, performed, or intra
within, between occurring within or entering by way of a venous
vein
macro- large, on a large macroeconomics – a study of macro
scale economics in terms of whole systems economics
especially with reference to general
levels of output and oncome and to the
interrelations among sectors of the
economy
mal- bad, badly, malformation – irregular, anomalous, mal
abnormal abnormal, or faulty information or formation
structure
maxi- very large or maxi
long
mega- great, large megadose – a large dose (as of a mega
vitamin) dose
micro- small microscope – an optical instrument micro
consisting of a lens or combination of scope
lenses for making enlarged images of
minute objects
mid- middle midair – a point or region in the air not mid
immediately adjacent to the ground air
mini- small minibar – a small refrigerator in a hotel mini
room that is stocked with especially bar
alcoholic beverages and snacks for
guests
mis- wrongly, badly, misfortune – an event or conjunction of mis
not events that causes an unfortunate or fortune
distressing result
mono- one, alone monocrystal – a single crystal mono
crystal
multi- much, many multidisciplinary – combining or multi
involving more than one discipline or disciplinary
field of study
non- not, reverse of, nonabsorbent – lacking the capacity to non
absence of absorb absorbent
over- beyond, too overpower – to overcome by superior over
much force power

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post- after, later, posttest – a test given to students after post
behind completion of an instructional program test
or segment and often used in
conjunction with a pretest to measure
their achievement and the
effectiveness of the program
pre- before premeditate – to think about and pre
revolve in the mind beforehand meditate
pseudo- false pseudoclassic – pretending to be or
erroneously regarded as classic
quasi- seemingly, quasicrystal – a body of solid material quasi
apparently but that resembles a crystal in being crystal
not really, being composed of repeating structural units
partly or almost but that incorporates two or more unit
cells into a quasiperiodic structure
semi- precisely half of semiannual – occurring every six semi
months or twice a year annual
sub- under, beneath, submarine – underwater; something sub
below that functions or operates underwater marine
super- superior, above, superman – a person of extraordinary super
additional, or superhuman power or achievements man
beyond
trans- across, through, transgender – of, relating to, or being a trans
over person whose gender identity differs gender
from the sex the person had or was
identified as having at birth
ultra- beyond in ultrabright – extremely or ultra
space, beyond extraordinarily bright bright
in the range or
limits of
un- not, opposite of, undo – to make of no effect or as if not
reverse, remove done; make null
from
under- less, lower, not underscore – to draw a line under, to under
enough make evident score

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 SUFFIXES

SUFFIX MEANING SAMPLE WORD TRANSFORMATION

-able capable of, tending believable – capable of Và Adj
to being believed believe à believable
-ible capable of, tending sensible – having, NàAdj
to containing, or indicative of senseàsensible
good sense or reason
-age action or result of an wastage – loss, decrease, NàN
action, state or destruction of waste à wastage
something; wasteful or
avoidable loss of
something valuable
-al relating to; action, experimental – of, relating NàAdj
process to, or based on experience experiment à experimental
or experiment
-an of or belonging to; electrician – one who AdjàN
one who specializes installs, maintains, electricàelectrician
in operates, or repairs
electrical equipment
-ian of or belonging to; comedian – a writer of NàN
one who specializes comedies or an actor who comedy-àcomedian
in plays a comic role
-ean of or belonging to; european – of, relating to, NàN
one who specializes or characteristic of europe Europe à European
in or its people
-ance state or quality of, performance – the VàN
action or process execution of an action; perform à performance
action of representing a
character in a play; the
ability to perform
-ancy state or quality of, pregnancy – the state or Adj à N
action or process quality of being pregnant pregnant - pregnancy
-ant one that performs an contestant – one that NàN
action or process; participates in a contest contestàcontestant
thing that is acted
upon
-ate cause, to be, state, differentiate – to mark or AdjàV
condition show a difference in differentàdifferentiate
-ed indicates past tense loved – strong affection VàV
for another loveàloved
-en made of, cause to be strengthen – to make NàV
or have, become stronger strengthàstrengthen
-ence state or quality of, dependence – the quality VàAdj
action or state of being dependàdependence

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 influenced or determined
by or subject to another
-ency state or quality of, frequency – the condition V, AdjàN
action of occurring frequently frequentàfrequency
-ent inclined to, in a state absorbent – able to VàAdj
of, someone who absorb or take in a natural absorbàabsorbent
or gradual way
-er more taller – more than tall in AdjàAdj
stature or height tallàtaller
-er someone who, reader – someone who VàN
something that reads readàreader
-or someone who, celebrator – someone VàN
something that who celebrates celebrateàcelebrator
-ery place for, relating to, machinery – the working NàN
producing; art of parts of a machine machineryàmachinery
practice of; state or
condition of;
collection
-ary place for, relating to, imaginary – existing only VàAdj
producing; art of in imagination imagineàimaginary
practice of; state or
condition of;
collection
-ory place for, relating to, oratory – the art of NàN
producing; art of speaking in public orationàoratory
practice of; state or eloquently or effectively
condition of;
collection
-ry place for, relating to, rivalry – the state of being NàN
producing; art of rival rivalàrivalry
practice of; state or
condition of;
collection
-est most funniest – most funny or AdjàAdj
affording light mirth and funnyàfunniest
laughter
-ful full of, characterized painful – feeling or giving NàAdj
by pain painàpainful
-hood state, quality, or manhood – the condition NàN
condition of of being a human being; manàmanhood
qualities associated with
men
-ial relating to, controversial – of, NàAdj
characterized by relating to, arousing controversyàcontroversial
controversy
-ic relating to, symbolic
characterized by

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-ice state or quality of service – the occupation VàN
or function of serving; the serveàservice
work performed by one
that serves
-ine of, pertaining to; examine – to inspect NàV
chemical substance closely; to make or give an examàexamine
examination
-ing happening now walking – the action of VàV
one that walks walkàwalking
-ism act, condition, parallelism – the quality AdjàN
doctrine, or practice or state of being in the parallelàparallelism
of same direction
-ish of, relating to, or selfish – concerned NàAdj
being; somewhat exclusively with oneself selfàselfish
-ist someone who psychologist – someone NàN
who specializes in the Psychologyàpsychologist
study of mind and
behavior
-ite follower or resident Israelite – resident of NàN
of; mineral Israel IsraelàIsraelite
-ive performing or expressive – of or relating VàAdj
tending toward an to expression; serving to expressàexpressive
action express, utter, or
represent
-ize cause to be, commercialize – to Adj, NàV
become, or resemble manage on a business commercialàcommercialize
basis for profit
-less without, lacking hopeless – having no NàAdj
expectation of good or hopeàhopeless
success; lacking hope
-ly in the manner of; at smelly – having a smell NàAdj
specified time smellàsmelly
intervals
-ment state, act, or process punishment – the act of VàN
of punishing; suffering, pain, punishàpunishment
or loss that serves as
retribution
-ness state, quality, kindness – the quality or AdjàN
condition, or degree state of being kind kindàkindness
of
-ous full of, characterized joyous – full of joy NàAdj
by joyàjoyous
-ious full of, characterized studious – of, relating to, VàAdj
by or concerned with study studyàstudious
-s more than one; usual plates – more than one NàN
or repeated action plate plateàplates

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-es more than one; usual kisses – more than one NàN
or repeated action kiss kissàkisses
-‘s indicates possession lily’s – indicates
possession of lily
-s’ possessive form of girls’ – possessive form of
plural girl
-ship state, quality, or friendship – the state of NàN
condition of; skill being friends friendàfriendship
-sion condition of depression – the state of NàN
feeling sad; a mood depressàdepression
disorder
-some having, like; body awesome – inspiring awe; NàAdj
terrific aweàawesome
-tion act, result, state of confirmation – an act or VàN
process or confirming such confirmàconfirmation
as a Christian rite or a
ceremony
-ty state or quality of safety – the condition of AdjàN
being safe from safeàsafety
undergoing or causing
hurt, injury or loss
-ity state or quality of anonymity – the quality or AdjàN
state of being anonymous, anonymousàanonymity
or of not being named or
identified
-ure act, process, function departure – the act or VàN
of body instance of going away or departàdeparture
leaving
-ward in the direction of backward – toward the NàAdv
back backàbackward
-y characterized by; brainy – having or NàAdj
quality or condition of showing a well-developed brainàbrainy
intellect

All definitions of sample words are from the Merriam-Webster Dictionary app on
IOS.

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 Identify the morphemes of the following
7 words and the meaning of each morpheme.
Based on the morphemes’ meanings, derive
the meaning of the WORD.
EXAMPLE:
monochromatic
• MONO-CHROMA-TIC

• mono – one
chroma – color
ic – relating to, characterized by

• Characteristic of having one color or hue

1. Psychology
2. Subvert
3. Phonocardiogram
4. Theocracy
5. Physiology
6. International
7. Transfusion
8. Mortuary
9. Injection
10. democracy

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 For each of the word below, attach the
appropriate suffix to transform it into a
8 noun, adjective, and adverb.

EXAMPLE:
Person N – personality
ADV – personally
ADJ – personal
1. happy
2. hope
3. defense
4. secret
5. possible

With the following roots, form new

words with both a prefix and a suffix. You
9 can only use a prefix or suffix once.

EXAMPLE:
Love unlovable

1. hope
2. serve
3. polite
4. form
5. educate

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TYPES OF AFFIXES

Parker & Riley (2010) differentiated the differences between types of affixes in terms of
the following:

1. Historical Development
- all inflectional affixes are native to English
- many (but not all) derivational affixes are borrowings from other
languages, particularly Latin and Greek

{ize} borrowed from Greek

{dis}, {de}, {re} borrowed from Latin
{a}, {anti} borrowed from Greek through Latin
If an affix is borrowed, it is derivational.
ALL borrowed affixes are DERIVATIONAL.

2. Distribution
- all inflectional affixes are suffixes
- derivational affixes may be either suffixes or prefixes
- {PLU}, {POSS}, {COMP}, {SUP} and the four verbal inflectional affixes
all appear as suffixes, at least in unexceptional cases (exceptional cases
SANG = {sing} + {PAST} vs WALKED = {walk} + {PAST})

EXAMPLE: unfriendly
Free lexical morpheme {friend} + derivational prefix {un} and the derivational suffix {ly}

- If an affix is a prefix, then it is derivational.

ALL PREFIXES are DERIVATIONAL.

3. Range of Application
- inflectional affixes have a relatively wide range of application, while
derivational affixes have a wide to narrow range of application. Wide
application means that an affix joins with almost all members of a particular
category.
EX: {PLU} adjoins to almost all members of the category noun
- derivational affixes have a varying range of application; many of them have a
fairly narrow range of application

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EX:
{a} asexual, atypical, asymmetrical, amoral
{un} unhappy, unpopular, unbearable, unimportant
{AG} doer, achiever, thinker, builder
{hood} motherhood, fatherhood, sisterhood

- If an affix has a narrow range of application, it is derivational.

4. Order of Appearance
- inflectional affixes follow derivational affixes

EX: friendliest = {friend} + {ly} + {SUP}

R D I
root derivational inflectional

If we reverse the suffixes, the resulting word is unacceptable: friendestly

lovers = {love} + {AG} + {PLU}

R D I

Again, in this case, if we reverse the suffixes, the resulting word is

unacceptable: loveser

However, there are some problematic cases like the forms spoonsful or spoonfuls.
Which is correct?
In the past, spoon and ful (from full) were two lexical morphemes so that people would
write it as a spoon full of white sugar. If there are more than one, it would be written as
two spoons full of white sugar, with the noun spoon taking the {PLU} affix.
Over time though, spoon and full as two lexical morphemes were reanalyzed so that
when we hear them, we wouldn’t be able to tell if they are two separate words or one. If
full is reanalyzed as a derivational suffix attached to the noun spoon, order of
appearance principle would result to the plural morpheme attached to the derivational
affix ful: spoonfuls = {spoon} + {ful} + {PLU)
R D I

Following the order of appearance principle of derivational affix before the inflectional
affix, the form spoonsful would violate this principle.
spoonsful= {spoon} + {PLU} + {ful}
R I D

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5. Effect on Syntactic Category
- inflectional affixes do not change syntactic category (i.e. part of speech) of
the root they are attached to; derivational affixes, however, may.

Here are some examples of inflectional affixes:

girl àN
girls = {girl} + {PLU} à N

tall à Adj
taller = {tall} + {COMP} à Adj

speak àV
spoken = {speak} + {PAST PART} à V

For derivational affixes:

Critic à N
Criticize = {critic} + {ize} àV

Slow à Adj
Slowly = {slow} + {ly} à Adv

Admire à V
Admirable = {admire} + {able} à Adj

- some derivational suffixes do not change syntactic category (i.e. part of

speech) of the root they are attached to

- If an affix changes the syntactic category of the lexical morpheme to which it is

attached, it is derivational.

6. Number of Allowable Affixes

- only one and no more than one inflectional morpheme can be affixed to a particular
syntactic category at any one time; however, there is no limit to the number of
derivational morphemes that can be affixed to one category

EXAMPLES: happier = {happy} + {COMP}

happiest = {happy} + {SUP}

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 NOT
x happierest = {happy} + {COMP} + {SUP}

drives = {drive} + {PRES}

drove = {drive} + {PAST}
driven = {drive} + {PAST PART}
NOT
x droven = {drive} + {PAST} + {PAST PART}

What about a form like MEN’S? If you look at it, it looks like it can be constructed
from a noun MAN which is in the plural form. Thus, men’s = {man} + {PLU} + {POSS}
which violates the rule of only one inflectional morpheme attached to a particular
syntactic category at any one time. Actually, this does not violate any rule. The affix
{PLU} is attached to the noun MAN, and {POS} affixes to the noun phrase.
The men on the moon =
men = {man} + {PLU}
the man on the moon, the men on the moon or the man on the moons

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 WORD FORMATION PROCESSES

The following are common word-formation processes as discussed by Parker & Riley
(2010):

1. Derivation. The addition of a derivational affix causes a change in the syntactic

category of the item

2. Category Extension. The extension of a morpheme’s syntactic category

es’cort (N) à escort’ (V)

3. Compounding. Creation of a new word from the combination of two free morphemes
Arm + chair à armchair

4. Root creation. Creating brand new word based on no pre-existing morphemes.

google

5. Clipped form. Shortened form of pre-existing morpheme

Brassiere à bra

6. Blend. Combination of parts of two pre-existing forms

Smoke+fog = smog

7. Acronym. Word formed from the first letter(s) of each word in a phrase
Pampanga State Agricultural University à PSAU

8. Abbreviation. Word formed from the names of the first letters of the prominent
syllables of a word or of words in a phrase.
Television à TV
National Police Commission à NAPOLCOM

9. Proper name. word formed form a proper name

Hamburg à hamburger

10. Folk etymology. Word formed by substituting a common native form for an exotic
(often foreign) form
Spanish cucuracha ‘wood louse’à cockroach

11. Back formation. Word formed by removing what is mistaken for an affix; creative
reduction due to incorrect morphological analysis; always involves reduction (changing
the form of the word)
Burglarà burgle

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 Identify the word formation process
10 employed and show how it came to be.

EXAMPLE: brunch blending – breakfast, lunch

1. motel
2. fax
3. edit
4. auto
5. atm
6. pro
7. wifi
8. ad
9. babysit
[Link]

MODULE 2 (of 2) IN ELS 104 40

 REFERENCES

Brinton, L. J. (2000). The structure of modern English: A linguistic introduction.

Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Greene, J.F. (1999). Language! Morphemes for meaning cards. US: Cambium
Learning.

Harley, T. A. (2006). The psychology of language: From data to theory. Hove, East
Sussex: Psychology Press.

Mata, L.S. & Soriano, I.S. (1998). English pronunciation for the Filipino college student.
Quezon City: Ken Incorporated.

Molapo, M. (2012). Voice production. Retrieved May 14, 2012 from

[Link]

Parker, F., & Riley, K. L. (2010). Linguistics for non-linguists: A primer with exercises.
Boston: Allyn and Bcon.

Rogers, R. (2019). Discover ideas about voice therapy. Retrieved June 23, 2019 from
[Link]

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