Theory and Practical Application of Vacuum Consolidation at the site of

Camau Power Plant in Vietnam

Serge Varaksin
Menard Soltraitement, 2 Rue Gutenberg BP28, 91620 Nozay, France
svaraksin@[Link]
Herve ABT
Menard Soltraitement, ,Green Star Building Unit # 9 A, 70, Pham Ngoc Thach, Quan 3, Ho Chi Minh city, SR
of Vietnam
habt@[Link]
Vacuum Consolidation has been applied in the past in several countries with various successes. China has had the earliest trials due to
unavailability of surcharge fill, but the real industrial application by understanding the mechanism, keeping a permanent gas phase al-
lowing to maintain the Vacuum was developed by Professor J.M. Cognon. Theory and application are described in this presentation.
The Vacuum works at Ca Mau Power-Fertilizer are located at the southern tip of Vietnam, near Ca Mau city, and do comprise two
Combined cycle power Plant, each with a capacity of 720 MW.
The natural ground is recent alluvial soil consisting of a 17 m thick soft clay of very poor characteristics, overlaying layers of firm and
stiff clay, over-consolidated.
The challenge consisted in providing a stable platform at an average elevation of +2.0 m (Hon Dau), above the 100 years flood level,
within a very short period (fast track project), in an area poor in backfill materials. The solution of PVD + surcharge was used when
compatible with the time allocated and Menard Vacuum was used for the higher load bearing capacity areas (up to 10 t/m²) or when
time available was too short.
The Soil Improvement works were completed on time. The monitoring system allowed to validate the end of the consolidation through
back analysis, using principally the ASAOKA method and the Pore pressure decrease method.

1. INTRODUCTION

This document presents the first successful application in Viet-

nam of the Vacuum Consolidation method.
The site is located in the southern tip of Vietnam, in the Ca Mau
province over a former green field area. An area of 90 Ha is dedi-
cated to the creation of a fertilizer-power-gaz complex and the
first phase consisted in the construction of a 720 MW combined
cycle power plant. A second phase was meant to the construction
of a second power plant of same capacity and the final phase is
for the construction of an 800,000 tonne/year Urea and Ammonia
fertilizer plant.

2. PROJECT PRESENTATION

2.1. Foreword.

The challenge of the project was to raise and to stabilise a plat-

form with an average thickness of 2 m on a 17 m soft clay and to
improve it further to various load bearing capacity while remain-
ing within residual settlement compatible with raft and pad foot-
ing foundation system.
The project was also on a fast track basis.

2.2. Project description.

The Power plant consisted in various technical and non technical

buildings around the core of the Power plant, i.e. the Power Figure 1 – General Site layout
Block (Two gaz turbines and one steam turbine).

1
 eo

The design criteria retained for the consolidation were: 0.000

0.0
0.500 1.000 1.500 2 .000 2.5 00

- a residual settlement not to exceed 10 cm/10 years in

all the built up area, for each and every load bearing 5.0

capacity considered 10.0

- a minimum load bearing capacity of 2t/m² for all the

built up area, except

Depth
15.0

- for the power block, where a bearing capacity of 5t/m²

was required,
20.0

- and below the cooling towers where a load bearing ca- 25.0

pacity of 8 t/m² was also required,

- and below some tanks where a load bearing capacity of 30.0

10t/m² was needed. Figure 4 – eo : Void Ratio

The most critical part of the plant was the delivery of the Power
block, to be completed within 8 months from the starting of in-
stallation of the first vertical drain. Cα
0.000E + 2.000E - 4.000E - 6.000E - 8.000E - 1.000E -
00 03 03 03 03 02

2.3. Subsoil conditions. 0.0

An extensive Soil Investigation campaign was carried out cover- 5.0

ing the whole of the complex area. The thickness of the soft clay 10.0
layer was consistent, varying from 16 to 17 m; overlaying a firm
to stiff clay layer.

Depth
15.0

20.0

Cc
0 .0 0 0 0 .2 0 0 0 .4 0 0 0 .6 0 0 0 .8 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .2 0 0 25.0
0 .0

30.0

5 .0
Figure 5 – Cα : Creep settlement
1 0 .0

In order to consider the dispersion of the consolidations char-

Depth

1 5 .0

acteristics of the soft layer, three cases were consider:

2 0 .0 - Base case, corresponding to the arithmetic mean for
each one of the characteristics
2 5 .0
- Worst Case, considering the worst set of characteristics
- Optimistic Case, considering the best set of characteris-
3 0 .0
tics
Figure 2 – Cc : Consolidation Coefficient
C v 5 0 (c m 2 / s)
0 . 0 0 0 E + 0 0 2 . 0 0 0 E -0 4 4 . 0 0 0 E -0 4 6 . 0 0 0 E -0 4 8 . 0 0 0 E -0 4
0 .0

5 .0

1 0 .0
Depth

1 5 .0

2 0 .0

2 5 .0

3 0 .0

Figure 3 – Cv : Vert. Consolidation Coefficient

2
 Soil Characteristics Symbol Unit Opt. case Base Case Worst Case

Compression Index Cc - 0.6 0.89 1

Vertical Consolidation Coefficient Cv m2/s 4.00E-08 2.00E-08 1.80E-08
Ratio radial to vertical consolidation Cr/Cv - 3 3 3
Radial Consolidation Coefficient Cr m2/s 1.20E-07 6.00E-08 5.40E-08
Void Ratio eo - 1.8 2.148 2.32
Creep Settlement Cα - 0.0086 0.0095 0.0099
Creep Settlement (Cα (1+eo)) Cαe - 0.0240 0.0300 0.0330
Clay Bulk Density γ kN/m3 14.6 14.6 14.6
Table 1 – Subsoil characteristics

. 4. CONCEPT:
3. ANALYSIS OF THE BASIC SOLUTION
4.1. Principle:
3.1. Need for consolidation:
As for the PVD + surcharge method, we pre-aged the clay (Bu-
Under the load of the platform, the natural settlement over a pe- ismann method). The various stages of the design are as follows:
riod of 25 years, life time of the Power Plant, the expected natu-
ral settlement of the platform would have been in excess of 1.0 a) Calculation of the consolidation phenomenon that would
m, which was not compatible with the need to keep the platform occur without any treatment during the considered period,
above the 100 year flood level, but, more important, would have b) Considering the available preload deduction of the neces-
induced major maintenance work as well as oversizing of the sary consolidation ratio to be reached in order to catch up
piled foundation of the various structure (negative skin friction). the primary consolidation settlement and the secondary con-
solidation settlement if required,
It was therefore decided by the client that the soil consolidation c) Calculation of the needed vertical drain mesh characteristics
of the platform would be carried out prior to the start of the civil considering the available pre-consolidation period.
works. The method is illustrated below:
3.2. Choice of solution e σ’v0 σ’v0 + Δσ’final σ’v0 + Δσ’preloading xU%

Several solutions were considered at the tender stage, namely:

- PVD + surcharge, eo

- Menard Vacuum,
- Cement Deep Mixing, Δe1 Δe2 infinite xU%
- Stone columns

The former one has the advantage of being well known and
widely utilized in Vietnam. The only drawbacks was the limited efinal incl. 10
years creep
raising speed of the surcharge (steps of 0.5 m every 3 weeks),
einfinite preload incl.
due to the low initial shear strength of the soft clay, and the high Preloading
duration creep
cost of the surcharge, the sand being brought by barge from Can
Tho region, some 200 km away.
Figure 6 – Buismann method
The latter two solutions had the advantage of speed, but a higher
4.2. Difference between surcharge and vacuum consolidation:
cost. For the stone columns, the source of aggregates was even
farther away than for sand, in Chau Doc, some 350 km away. In the classical application of a surcharge, the effective stress in
The main drawback of both solutions was the need to determine the soil mass is increased by increasing the total stress of the pre-
at an early stage the pile layout of the heavy structures (Turbine load weight. Vacuum consolidation preloads the entire soil mass
pedestals, turbine hall …) to prevent any interference between by reducing the pore pressure while maintaining an unchanged
the columns and the future piles. It was not compatible with the total stress.
engineering production; it was further confirmed during the exe- The particularity of the Vacuum process as developed by JM.
cution of the Civil Works, when some preliminary piles layouts COGNON (Cognon, 1991 – Cognon and Al.) is the dewatering
were revised a few weeks before the execution. below the membrane, permanently keeping a gas phase between
the membrane and the lowered ground water.
The solution retained was finally PVD + surcharge for the zone The P’, Q’ diagram (Fig. 7) allows to understand the major dif-
at 2t/m² where the delivery of the platform was compatible with ference between surcharge and Vacuum.
the fast track program and the use of Vacuum consolidation for The Vacuum process evolves from point A to point E, or below
the most critical zone and/or where the load bearing capacity was the K0 line. The surcharge process evolves from point A to point
in excess of 2t/m². This paper will focus on the Vacuum consoli- B, or towards the KF line.
dation works.

3
This demonstrates that Vacuum consolidation prevents all lateral
movement and even creates the opposite phenomenon of inward
movement to the treated area.

Vacuum
Surcharge σ’1= 80kPa
p’ = σ’1 ; Ko = 1
p’ = 2/3 σ’1 Isotropic
Ko = 0.5 σ’1= 80kPa σ’2 = 80kPa
σ’3 = 80kPa

σ’2 = 40kPa Kf (failure line)

Deviatoric Stress (q)

σ’3 = 40kPa
Active Zone
εh < 0
Surcharge Ko (εh = 0)
B
Passive Zone
A E εh > 0
Figure 8 - Vacuum Consolidation installation
Vacuum Consolidation

5. DESIGN FOR CA MAU PROJECT:

Mean Stress (p’)
Figure 7 – Stress path for Vacuum Process 5.1. Hypothesis:

4.3. Vacuum Consolidation installation: The soil conditions are described in table 1 above, considering
the three cases.
Following the installation of vertical drain and the sand blanket, 4 load bearing cases were considered; 2, 5, 8 and 10 t/m².
tubular horizontal drain are laid, followed by an HDPE mem-
brane. The membrane is tucked on the periphery into the soft A pre-consolidation of the clay layer to 100 % of the primary set-
clay to ensure imperviousness. tlement under the load bearing case and an anticipation of the 10
The horizontal drains are connected through the membrane to years creep settlement is considered.
vacuum and dewatering pumps. This allows to create and to
maintain a vacuum below the membrane and in all the soil block
where vertical drains are installed.

Structure and Working Load σSW

Final Platform Level :

Natural Ground Level FPL = +2.20 m

(NGL) = 0.0 m
Natural Water Level
(NWL) = 0.0 m Backfilling
ΔHtotal Density: γ = 18 kN/m3
Compressible clay
Thickness: 17 m Compression index: Cc = 0.60 (Opt) / 0.89 (Base) / 1.00 (Worst)
Density: γ = 15.0 kN/m3 Secondary compression index:
Cαe = Cα (1+eo) = 0.024 (Opt) / 0.030 (Base) / 0.040 (Worst)
Void ratio: eo = 1.80 to 2.32 Coefficient of consolidation:
Cv = 4.00E-8 (Opt) / 2.00E-8 (Base) / 1.78E-8 m2/s (Worst)
Cr = 3 Cv
Smeared effect (Hansbo): s = 2 kc/k'c = 2.5
Figure 9 – Typical Cross section

5.2. Target settlement: There is therefore an iterative calculation, the final settlement
depending upon the total quantity of compensation fill.
The total settlement will depend not only on the design load
bearing capacity but also the load from the embankment and
The secondary settlement being independent from the load, we
also the amount of fill necessary to maintain the platform at its
determine first the amount of settlement corresponding to a 10
design level.
years creep settlement.

4
Then the amount of primary settlement, which is dependent In the initial situation, the stress at the middle of the clay layer
upon the total load is determined. is:
17
a) Creep Settlement: σ 'o = (14.6 − 10) = 39.1 kPa
The creep settlement is only time dependent: 2
and the initial void ratio is e0 = 2.148.
⎛T ⎞
Δes −10 years = Cαe log ⎜⎜ final ⎟⎟ (1) Working (3), (4) and (2), we finally have:
⎝ Tinitial ⎠
and Primary Consolidation (10 years)
Δes −10 years Load case Optim. case Base Case Worst Case
ΔH s −10years = H * (2) 2 t/m² 1.75 m 2.42 m 2.61 m
1 + eo 5 t/m² 2.15 m 2.93 m 3.15 m
There are several approaches to the time of appearance of the 8 t/m² 2.45 m 3.33 m 3.57 m
creep settlement phenomenon: 10 t/m² 2.62 m 3.53 m 3.79 m
ƒ The first approach considers that this phenomenon is Table 3: Primary Settlement
starting immediately when the soft clay is loaded more
than to its normally consolidated stress, And finally the final expected settlement is as follow:
ƒ The second approach considers that this phenomenon is
Target Settlement (10 years)
starting after the primary consolidation settlement of the
Load case Optim. case Base Case Worst Case
soft clay is finished (which, theoretically, is for an infi-
nite time) or nearly finished, 2 t/m² 2.27 m 3.00 m 3.21 m
5 t/m² 2.66 m 3.51 m 3.75 m
ƒ The third approach consists in considering that the pri- 8 t/m² 2.97 m 3.91 m 4.17 m
mary and secondary consolidation phenomenon are 10 t/m² 3.14 m 4.11 m 4.39 m
closely linked to each other and occur at the same time. Table 4: Total target settlement

Indeed, the primary consolidation being dependant of the ad- It is to be noted that the target settlement is not to be consid-
ditional pore pressure decrease inside the clay layer, this effect ered as an absolute value in the determination of the end of the
depends on the depth at which the clay is considered: near a consolidation. It gives a good indication on the total level of
drainage layer, i.e. at the top and at the bottom of the clay fill compensation to consider but the end of the consolidation
layer when the clay is drained on both sides or near a vertical is determined by back analysis and actual consolidation proc-
drain, the primary consolidation speed is very high and thus ess (See chapter 6 Monitoring thereafter).
the secondary (creep) settlement begins very quickly whereas Those values are used mostly in the determination of a tar-
at the middle of the clay layer and far from the vertical drains, geted consolidation ratio, under a higher temporary load, the
the primary consolidation speed is lower and the secondary soil parameters being the same, as follows in the next step of
(creep) settlement begins later. the calculation.
The stress corresponding to the above targeted settlement is as
We prefer to remain on the safe side and thus consider that the given in following table:
creep settlement starts at day 1. Working (1) and (2) for the
various design load bearing case, we have: Stress at mid layer
Load Case 2 t/m² 5 t/m² 8 t/m² 10 t/m²
Secondary Consolidation (10 years)
Initial stress 39 kPa 39 kPa 39 kPa 39 kPa
Optimistic case Base Case Worst Case (σ’o)
0.52 m 0.58 m 0.60 m Additional 86 kPa 120 kPa 154 kPa 175 kPa
Table 2: Creep settlement over 10 years Stress (∆σ’)
Total Stress 125 kPA 159 kPa 193 kPa 214 kPa
∆e1 0.448 0.542 0.616 0.658
b) Primary Consolidation:
Table 5: Final Stress at mid-layer / Target void ratio reduction
The primary consolidation is dependent upon the increase of
stress at any location:
5.3. Target consolidation ratio:

⎛ σ 'o + Δσ final ' ⎞

Δe primary = Cc * log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (3)
At the end of the pre-consolidation period, the stress depends

⎝ σ 'o ⎠
on the applied loading made of Vacuum void pressure and addi-
tional backfilling if any.
With:

Δσ ' final = ΔH tot (γ fill − γ water ) + (FPL − NGL ) * γ fill + σ SW

In our cases, the foreseen Vacuum pressure is 70 kPa and the
following preloading thickness is foreseen:
(4)
ƒ Nothing for the 2t/m² case, resulting in a total stress at the
middle of the clay layer of 39 + (86-20) + 70 = 175 kPa,
σsw: Design load bearing
ƒ 2 m for the 5t/m² case, resulting in a total stress at the
middle of the clay layer of 39 + (120-50) + 70 + 2*18 = 215
kPa,

5
ƒ 5 m for the 8t/m² case, resulting in a total stress at the For the worst case, the consolidation is 87 %, sufficient to ful-
middle of the clay layer of 39 + (154-80) + 70 + 5*18 = 273 fill the target consolidation ratio.
kPa,
ƒ 7 m for the 10t/m² case, resulting in a total stress at the 5.5. Residual settlement:
middle of the clay layer of 39 + (175-100) + 70 + 7*18 =
310 kPa At the end of the pre-consolidation and removal of the sur-
charge, creep settlement will continue, but on the basis of a
minimum “10 years old” pre-aged clay (see above) and the
Working formula (3) for the various cases for the stress after theoretical value of such remaining creep settlement will be
construction and under the preconsolidation load, we deter- 10 years after the end of the treatment:
mine the corresponding variation in void ratio ∆ e2inf.
Cα ⎛T +10years ⎞
On the other hand, one shall consider the effect of the creep Δe = * log⎜⎜ initial ⎟⎟
settlement on the void ratio ∆ es (8 months=> 10 years), taken be- 1+ e 0 ⎝ Tinitial ⎠
tween the end of the preconsolidation (taken as 8 months) and Where Tinitial > 10 years
10 years.
Thus Δe < Cα * log(2 ) = 9 E − 3, and finally ΔH < 48
The aim of the pre consolidation is to have: 1 + e0
mm, well below the required 100 mm.
U% * Δe2 inf ≥ Δe1 + Δes (8 months => 10 years)

ie U% ≥
(Δe + Δe 1 s ( 8 months =>10 years ) ) 6. MONITORING:

Δe2 inf As mentioned, the reaching or not of the target settlement is

not a good indicator of the state of consolidation achieved in
and finally:
the clay during the Pre-consolidation, as the target settlement
is highly dependent upon the representativity of the soil sam-
Target Consolidation ratio at end of pre-consolidation ples and the quality of the laboratory tests.
Load case Optim. case Base Case Worst Case The evolution of the consolidation is however more explicit
2 t/m² 83 % 84 % 84 % and the follow up of this evolution of the consolidation proc-
5 t/m² 87 % 87 % 87 % ess is more adequate and closely monitor.
8 t/m² 87 % 87 % 87 % Such evolution was then evaluated using two methods:
10 t/m² 87 % 87 % 87 % - Asaoka Method and
Table 5: Target consolidation ratio during preloading - Pore pressure decrease method

5.4. Theoretical consolidation ratio: 6.1. Instrumentation:

Using Carillo’s formulas modified by Hansbo in order to take The monitoring system consisted in:
into account the smeared zone, the consolidation ratio is calcu-
lated as follows: ƒ Settlement Plates, which aim was to monitor the settle-
1
⎛ ⎞ 6 ment at the surface of the site,
⎜ ⎟ CV t
1 with TV = ƒ Multidepth settlement gages, which aim was to monitor
Uv ≅ ⎜ ⎟
H2
⎜ 1 ⎟ the settlement of the soil at different depths,
⎜1+ 3 ⎟
⎝ 2T V ⎠ ƒ Pore Pressure sensors, which aim was to monitor the pore
pressure decrease during consolidation,
⎛ − 8C t ⎞
U r = 1 − exp⎜⎜ 2 r ⎟⎟ with
ƒ Vacuum gages, which aim was to monitor the Vacuum
⎝ D μ ⎠ pressure below the membrane in the soil,
⎛n⎞ 3 kh
μ = ln⎜ ⎟ − + ln(s ) ƒ Inclinometers, which aim was to check the stability of the
⎝s⎠ 4 k 'h embankment.
n=D/d
D = 1.13 L (square network where L is the distance
Type Aim Density (1 Frequency Analysis
between 2 drains) unit for) of Readings
s = 2 (ratio between diameter of smeared zone and Type Frequency

equivalent diameter of drain) Settlement Monitoring of 25 * 25 m2 1 per week Asaoka 1 per month
plates Settlement
kh / k’h = 2.5 (ratio between horizontal permeability Vacuum Gauges Monitoring of the 80 * 80 m2 1 per week Check 1 per week
in the smeared zone and in a normal zone) applied depression vacuum

Pore Pressure Monitoring of pore 150 * 150 m2 1 per week Pore 1 per month
Finally, Carillo gives: sensor pressure decreased pressure
speed decrease
speed
(1-U) = (1-Ur)(1-Uv) Multidepth Monitoring of 80 * 80 m2 1 per week Asaoka 1 per month
Settlement settlement at various
depth of the clay layer
With vertical drains of 100 mm * 3 mm, having an equivalent
Inclinometers Checking of slope 150 m of 1 per week Check 1 per week
diameter of 6.5 cm, arranged on a regular square grid of 0.9 * stability high slope stability
0.9 m2 and with a consolidation period of 5.5 months, we fi-
nally get a consolidation ratio of 90%, higher than the neces- Table 6: Instrumentation
sary consolidation ratio for any and all load cases.

6
6.2. Asaoka analysis:
b) Results on Zone 1:
a) Principle of the method:
Figure 11 below is an example of the Asaoka analysis on the
The Asaoka analysis uses the observed values of settlement in
basis of the settlement readings from a plate of zone 1
order to estimate the consolidation parameters and thus re-
(5T/m²).
check the design with actual observed data.
It consists in plotting the curve (settlement at time tn+1 versus
settlement at time tn), the difference tn+1 – tn being constant
3.00

(defined as Δt). 2.75

4 2.50

Sn+1
3.5 2.25

3
2.00

2.5
1.75
sn+1

2
1.50
1.5 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00
Sn
1 Bissectrice Values Trend

0.5
Figure 11- Example of obtained ASAOKA curve
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
The non-linear part of the graph corresponds to the time the
sn
surcharge is increased (embankment built-up), while the linear
part starts once the full embankment height has been reached.
Figure 10- ASAOKA analysis
On the example above, the theoretical infinite primary settle-
ment is 2.89m, while the actual settlement before unloading
According to the Consolidation theory, for a constant loading,
was 2.64m, resulting in a consolidation ratio of U = 91%, well
this curve is a straight line which characteristics allows one to
over the required criterion of U% = 87%.
estimate the various actual consolidation parameters, includ-
The same analysis is done on every settlement plates and mul-
ing the total primary consolidation settlement (which is at the
tidepth settlement sensors, in order to check that the obtained
cross of this line with the bisecting line).
consolidation ratio before unloading is higher that the required
value at all locations.
Indeed, the theoretical settlement law is the following:
⎛ 8 ⎞
s (t ) = s∞ ⎜1 − 2 exp(− C * t )⎟ 6.3. Pore pressure decrease analysis:
⎝ π ⎠ a) Principle of the method:
The pore pressure decrease methodology uses the observed
8Cr π 2Cv values of the pore pressure decrease speed in order to estimate
Where: C= + and the consolidation parameters and thus re-check the design
D 2 F ( n) 4 H 2 with actual observed datas.
Cr is the radial consolidation ratio The theoretical Pore pressure law is the following:
Cv is the vertical consolidation ratio
t is the time u (r , Cr , t ) = A(r ) exp(− B (Cr )t )
D is the diameter of influence of the vertical drains Where:
(D = 1.13 L for a square mesh, L being the mesh r is the distance of the concerned point to the closest verti-
value) cal drain
d is the equivalent diameter of the vertical drains Cr is the radial consolidation ratio
n=D/d t is the time
n2 3n 2 − 1 D is the diameter of influence of the vertical drains (D =
F ( n) = 2 ln (n ) − 1.13 L for a square mesh, L being the mesh value)
n −1 4n 2 d is the equivalent diameter of the vertical drains
For a fixed Δt, we thus have: n=D/d
⎛ 8 ⎞
s(t + Δt ) = s∞ ⎜1 − 2 exp(− C * (t + Δt ))⎟ = s∞ (1 − exp(− C * Δt )) + exp(− C * Δt ) * s(t )
⎝ π ⎠
A( r ) = 2
⎡
4uo ⎢⎛ D ⎞ ⎛⎜ r ⎞⎟
2

+
d
2
2
− r2 ⎤
⎥
( )
⎜ ⎟ ln
i.e. s (t + Δt ) = β1s (t ) + β 0 D F (n) ⎢⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜⎜ d ⎟⎟ 2 ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎦⎥
8Cr
The above described curve is thus a straight line which slope, B(Cr ) =
β1, is related to C coefficient. The estimation of the slope of D 2 F ( n)
this curve thus allows to estimate this consolidation parameter.
n2 3n 2 − 1
Moreover, the settlement for t infinite can also be estimated F ( n) = ln(n ) −
by simply reading the settlement obtained at the crossing of n −1
2
4n 2
the curve with the bisecting line.

7
Deriving this pore pressure law against time, for a constant r Settlement vs time

(i.e. a constant location of pore pressure sensor, which is the

15/09/05 05/10/05 25/10/05 14/11/05 04/12/05 24/12/05 13/01/06 02/02/06 22/02/06
0.00 100

case) and for a constant Cr, we obtain: 0.50

90

∂u
= − B(Cr ) A(r ) exp(− B(Cr )t )
80

Value of the 1.00 70

∂t 60

Settlements (m)
1.50 Primary settlement
Secondary settlement

pore pressure decrease speed 2.00

Total settlement
Consolidation Ratio
50

40

For 2 different time values, T1 and T2, and for a constant r and 2.50 30

Cr, we finally get: 20

∂u
3.00
10

∂t T 1
3.50 0

= exp(− B(Cr )(T 1 − T 2))

∂u Figure 13- Settlement and Consolidation Ratio Curve
∂t T 2
7. CONCLUSION
The coefficient B(Cr) being fixed against time and being only
dependant of the actual geometry of the drain project and of Cr After Thailand, Korea and Malaysia, Vietnam can now be
soil value, it is thus possible to re-estimate very simply the Cr added to the list of countries in Asia where Vacuum Consoli-
value out of pore pressure decrease observation (of course for dation has been applied with success.
the same sensor as it depends on the location of the sensor
against the location of the drain) by calculating the ratio of pore
This solution is an ideal alternative to the Vertical Drain and
pressure decrease speeds at 2 different time values. surcharge method for tight schedule project, in particular for
very soft soil where stability of the embankment can reduce
b) Results on Zone 1: drastically the speed of embankment raising.
With vast areas of soft soil deposit close to urban centres in
Figure 12 below is an example of the pore pressure decrease need of space for their development, dwindling resource of
speed analysis done on the readings from a pore pressure sen- material, forcing higher the cost of surcharge, the Vacuum
sor in zone 1 (5T/m²): consolidation particularly suitable for Vietnam.

130.0 8. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES

125.0

120.0 Cognon J.M. (1961) Vacuum consolidation. Rev. French Geo-

115.0 technique # 57 (Oct.), 37-47
Cognon J.M. (1961) Juran, I. & S. Thevanayagam (1994)
Pore Pressure (kPa)

110.0

105.0
Vacuum consolidation technology – principles and field
100.0
experience. Proceedings of Settlement '94 – Sponsored by
95.0
ASCE – Held June 16-18, 1994, College Station, Texas
90.0
Faisal A., Yee K. and Varaksin S. (1997) Treatment of Highly
Compressible Soils. Proceedings of the International Con-
85.0
ference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering,
Kuching, Sarawak, March 1997.
80.0
20/01/06 30/01/06 09/02/06 19/02/06 01/03/06 11/03/06

Pressure (kPa) Trend 1 Trend 2 Magnan J.P. (1989) Analysis of Vertical Drains in Soft Clays:
the Case of Muar Flats Test Embankments. International
Symposium on Trial Embankments on Malaysian Clays,
Figure 12- Example of obtained Pore Pressure curve
Nov.
Massé F., Spaulding C., Pr Ihm Chol Wong, Varaksin S.,
The pore water pressure increases rapidly, together with the
(2001) Vacuum consolidation : a review of 12 years of
raising of the embankment and reach its highest level at the
successful development. Geo-Odyssey-ASCE/VIRGINIA
end of the full embankment height, then decreases rapidly.
TECH-Blacksburg, VA USA – June 9-13, 2001
Two relevant trend lines are chosen, the ratio between the
Soares M., Leroueil S., Varaksin S. and Al. (19) Vacuum Pre-
slopes of these two lines leading to the recalculated value of
loading of a Sensitive Champlain Sea Clay Deposit
Cr, governing factor of the consolidation speed. On the above
Varaksin S., (2003) Aménagement à Hambourg de la nouvelle
example, the obtained Cr value is 1.2E-7 m²/s.
usine AIRBUS 380 gagnée sur des vases hautement com-
pressibles. Salon et Congrès des Travaux Publics et du
The values obtained by this method being much more relevant
Génie Civil, Paris
than correlation from soil investigations analysis, one can re-
Yea K. and T.W, Tan (2001) Vacuum Consolidation for Soft
run multi-step settlement and soil effective stress analysis and
Clays. Conspectus Journal, Housing Development Board,
then consolidation ratio calculation.
Singapore, July 2001

8
 SETTLEMENT vs TIME - ZONE 1 (5T/m²)

0.00 7.0

0.50 6.0

1.00 5.0

1.50 MIN Settlement 4.0

MAX Settlement
AVG Settlement
2.00 Thickness Installed 3.0

2.50 2.0

3.00 1.0

3.50 0.0
août-05 sept.-05 oct.-05 nov.-05 déc.-05 janv.-06 févr.-06 mars-06

Figure 14 – Settlement and fill record