Strength of Material

Lecture 1

Tension, Compression and Shear

Dr. Sry Vannei

Institute of Technology of Cambodia

 Learning objectives
➢ Introduce to mechanics of materials involving stress (𝜎), strain
(𝜖), displacements by axial loads

➢ Learn about normal stress, normal strain in materials used for

structural applications to identify:

- Modulus of elasticity (𝐸)

- Yield stress (𝜎𝑌 ), ultimate stress (𝜎𝑢 )

➢ To plot shear stress (𝜏) versus shear strain (𝛾) and identify the
shear modulus of elasticity (𝐺)

➢ Hooke’s law for normal stress (𝜎 = 𝐸. 𝜖) and for shear stress

and strain (𝜏 = 𝐺. 𝛾)

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 Mechanics of Materials
➢ Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that
deals with behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of
loading (axial loads, shaft in torsion, beam in bending, columns
in compression)
➢ The principal objective of mechanics of materials is to
determine stress, strains, and displacements in structures and
their components due to loads acting on them

➢ Theoretical analyses and experimental results have equally

important roles in mechanics of materials

➢ Theories used to derive formulas and equations for predicting

mechanical behavior only when physical properties of materials
are known

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Mechanics of Materials
During World War II, United States constructed all-
welded cargo vessels (“Liberty Ship”). 2708 ships were
constructed, however, 1031 ships damaged due to brittle
fracture. More than 200 ships were sink or damaged
beyond all hope of repair.

“Schenectady”

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 Normal Stress and Strain
➢ Fundamental concepts in mechanics of materials are stress and
strain
• Stress denoted by 𝜎 has units of force per unit area
𝑃
Normal stress: 𝜎 =
𝐴
Where,
• P: external force (𝑁)
• A: Cross-sectional area (𝑚2 )
• 𝜎 : Normal stress (Pa)

• Strain denoted by 𝜖 is the ratio of

elongation (𝛿) and initial length (𝐿)
𝛿 • L: Initial length
𝜖= • δ: Elongation
𝐿
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Normal Stress and Strain
Ex: A short post constructed from a hollow circular tube of aluminum
supports a compressive load of 26 kips. The inner and outer diameters
of the tube are 𝑑1 = 4 𝑖𝑛 , 𝑑2 = 4.5 𝑖𝑛 and its length is 16 𝑖𝑛. The
shortening of the post due to the load is measured as
0.012 𝑖𝑛. Determine the compressive stress and strain in the post.
(Disregards the weight of the post itself and assume that the post does
not buckle under the load)

1 Kips = 4448.22 Newtons

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Normal Stress and Strain
Ex: A circular steel rod of length 𝐿 and diameter 𝑑 hangs in a mine
shaft and holds an ore bucket of weight W at its lower end.
(a) Obtain a formula for maximum stress 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 in the road, taking into
account the weight of the rod itself
(b) Calculate the maximum stress if 𝐿 = 40 𝑚, 𝑑 = 8 𝑚𝑚, and 𝑊 =
1.5 𝑘𝑁

steel density = 77 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3

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Mechanical Properties of Materials
➢ Only way to determine how materials behave when subjected to
loads is to perform EXPERIMENT in laboratory

Typical tensile testing machine (J. M. Gere, Mechanics of Materials , 7 ed,)

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Mechanical Properties of Materials
➢ Dimensions of test specimens and methods of applying loads must
be standardized, for example , ASTM (American Society for
Testing and Materials)

➢ In static test, the load is applied slowly and the precise rate of
loading is not of interest because it does not affect behavior of
specimen

➢ In dynamic test, the load is applied rapidly (cyclical manner) as the

nature of dynamic load affects the properties of materials, the rate
of loading must also be measured

➢ In compression test of metals are customarily made of small

specimen in shape of cubes or circular cylinders.

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Mechanical Properties of Materials

Rock sample being tested in

compression to obtain compressive
strength, elastic modulus and
Poission’s ratio

(J. M. Gere, Mechanics of Materials , 7 ed,)

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Stress-strain Diagram

Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension

(J. M. Gere, Mechanics of Materials , 7 ed,)

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Stress-strain Diagram

• O – A: Linear region, stress is proportional with strain => slope is

modulus of elasticity, 𝑬 = 𝝈/𝝐

• Stress at A called proportional limit. For low-carbon steels

(𝜎𝐴 : 210 − 350 𝑀𝑃𝑎), high-strength steel (higher carbon content
plus other alloys), 𝜎𝐴 > 550 𝑀𝑃𝑎

• With increase in stress beyond proportional limit, strain begins to

increase more rapidly => stress-strain curve has smaller and smaller
slope, until point B (horizontal) => yielding stress

• B – C, material becomes perfectly plastic (deform without an

increase in applied load)

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Stress-strain Diagram
• C – D, steel begin to strain harden, material undergoes changes in
its crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistance of material
to further deformation

• Load reaches its maximum values corresponding stress at point D,

Ultimate stress, 𝜎𝑢

• Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by reduction

in load, and fracture finally occurs at point E

• Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by reduction

in load, and fracture finally occurs at point E

• If the actual cross-sectional area at the neck us used to calculate the

stress, then true stress-strain curve (dash line CE’) is obtained.

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Stress-strain Diagram
• Yield stress -> yield strength
• Ultimate stress -> ultimate strength
• Strength is general term that refers to capacity of structure to resist
loads

Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension

(J. M. Gere, Mechanics of Materials , 7 ed,)

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Stress-strain Diagram

Stress-strain curves for two kinds of rubber in

Stress-strain diagram for aluminum alloy
tension

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Stress-strain Diagram

Stress-strain diagram for brittle material showing proportional limit (point A) and fracture stress (point B)

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 Compression
• Stress-strain curves for materials in compression differ from those
in tension
• Ductile metal, steel, aluminum, copper have proportional limits in
compression very close to those in tension and initial regions of
their compressive and tensile stress-strain diagrams are about the
same

• After yielding, behavior is quite different

• In tension, specimen is stretched, necking may occur and fracture

takes place.

• When material is compressed, it bugles outward on the sides and

becomes barrel shaped

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 Compression
• Stress-strain curves for compression and tension often have similar
shapes, but ultimate stresses in compression are higher than those
in tension
• Unlike ductile materials, which flatten out when compressed, brittle
materials actually break at the maximum load

Stress-strain diagram for copper in compression

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Elasticity, Plasticity, and Creep

Stress-strain diagram (a) elastic behavior, and (b) partially elastic behavior

Reloading of a material and

raising of the elastic and
proportional limits

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Creep

• When loaded for long periods of time, some materials develop

additional strains called creep

• Creep is usually more important at high temperatures, therefore,

should always considered in design of engines, furnaces, other
structures operated at elevated temperatures

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Poisson’s Ratio
• Poisson’s ratio is defined as
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖′
𝜈=− =−
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖

𝜖 ′ = 𝜈𝜖
𝜐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 0

• Poisson’s ratio remains constant only in linearly elastic range

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 Ex: A steel pipe of length 𝐿 = 4 𝑓𝑡, outside diameter 𝑑2 =
6 𝑖𝑛, inside diameter of 𝑑1 = 4.5𝑖𝑛 is compressed by an
axial force 𝑃 = 140𝑘. The material has modulus elasticity
𝐸 = 30 000𝑘𝑠𝑖 and Poisson's ratio 𝑣 = 0.30. determine (a)
the shortening 𝛿 , (b) the lateral strain 𝜖′, (c) the increase in
outer diameter Δ𝑑2 and inner diameter Δ𝑑1 , (d) increase in
thickness
𝜋 2 𝜋 2
𝐴= 𝑑2 − 𝑑12 = 6 − 4.52 = 12.37 𝑖𝑛2
4 4
𝑃 140𝑘
𝜎=− = = −11.32 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝐴 12.37
𝜎 11.32𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝜖= =− = −377.3 × 10−6
𝐸 30000𝑘𝑠𝑖
⇒ 𝛿 = 𝜖𝐿 = −377.3 × 10−6 4 𝑓𝑡 ∗ 12 𝑖𝑛/𝑓𝑡 = −0.018 𝑖𝑛
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• Lateral strain

𝜖 ′ = −𝜈 𝜖 = − 0.3 −377.3 × 10−6 = 113.2 × 10−6

• Increase in outside diameter

Δ𝑑2 = 𝜖 ′ 𝑑2 = 113.2 × 10−6 6 = 6.79 × 10−4 𝑖𝑛

• Increase in inside diameter

Δ𝑑1 = 𝜖 ′ 𝑑1 = 113.2 × 10−6 4.5 = 5.09 × 10−4 𝑖𝑛

• Increase in thickness

113.2 × 10 −6 6 − 4.5
Δ𝑡 = 𝜖 ′ 𝑡 = = 8.5 × 10−5 𝑖𝑛
2

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Shear stress and strain
• Shear stress acts as tangential to the surface of the material

• The bar (A) and clevis (C)

tend to shear the bolt (B)
under the tension load (P)

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Shear stress and strain

Failure of bolt in single shear

• The average shear stress on the cross section of a bolt

𝑉 𝑉: shear force
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 =
𝐴 𝐴: cross sectional area

• In case the bolt is double shear then, 𝑉 = 𝑃/2

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Shear stress and strain
• Shear stress acting on an element produce
shear strain

• Shear stress produce a change in the shape

of the element

• Because of this deformation, angles between

the side faces change

• The angle 𝛾 is a measure of distortion called

shear strain

𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾
𝐺 : Shear Modulus
𝛾: Shear strain (distortion of shape)

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Shear stress and strain

• The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear are related by

𝐺: shear modulus
𝐸
𝐺= 𝐸: modulus elasticity
2 1+𝜈
𝜈: poisson’s ratio

• For ordinary materials, poisson’s ratio, 𝜈 ∶ 0 − 0.5 ⇒ 𝐺 =

𝐸/3 - 𝐸/2

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Ex: A punch for making holes in steel plate is shown in Figure below.
Assume that a punch having diameter d = 20 mm is used to punch a hole
in an 8 –mm plate. If a force P= 110 kN is required to create the hole, what
is the average shear stress in the plate and average compressive stress in
the punch?
• Shear stress
𝑃
𝜏=
𝐴𝑠

• 𝐴𝑠 shear area of the plate

110 𝑘𝑁
𝜏= = 219 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑑 = 20 𝑡(= 8)

110 𝑘𝑁
𝜎𝑐 = = 350 𝑀𝑃𝑎
• Compressive stress 𝜋𝑑 2
4
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Ex: A bearing pad of the kind used to support machines and bridge girders
consists of a linearly elastic material (an elastomer such as rubber) capped
by steel plate. Assume that the thickness of the elastomer is ℎ, the
dimension of the plate are 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏, and the pad is subjected to a horizontal
shear force 𝑉. Obtain formulas for average shear stress in the direction
elastomer and horizontal displacement 𝑑 of the plate

• Shear stress
𝑉
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 =
𝑎𝑏
• Shear strain (Hooke’s law)
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑉
𝛾= = 𝐺𝑒 shear modulus of elastomer
𝐺𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝐺𝑒
𝑉
• Displacement 𝑑 = ℎ tan 𝛾 ≈ ℎ 𝛾 = h
𝑎𝑏𝐺𝑒
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 Allowable Stress and Load
Factors of Safety
• The actual strength of a structure must exceed the required
strength
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
• 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑛 = , (n: 1 → 10)
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Allowable Stress

• Allowable stress (working stress) must not be exceed yielding

stress of structure
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦

• For tension and shear allowable stress

𝜎𝑌 𝜏𝑌
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝑛1 𝑛2
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• If factor of safety is applied to ultimate stress then,
𝜎𝑈 𝜏𝑈
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝑛3 𝑛4

• Allowable load (permissible load or safe load)

𝑃𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴 𝑃𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴

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 • Determine the value of tensile
load P based on

a) Allowable tensile stress in main

part of hanger is 16 000 psi

b) Allowable tensile stress in the

hanger at its cross section through
the bolt hole is 11 000 psi

c) Allowable tensile stress between

the hanger and the hole is 26 000
psi

d) Allowable shear stress in the

bolt is 65 000 psi

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a) Allowable load P1
𝑃1 = 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴 = 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑏1 𝑡 = 16 000 1.5 × 0.5 = 12 000 𝑙𝑏

b) Allowable load P2
A: Area at the hanger
𝑃2 = 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴 = 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑏2 −𝑑)𝑡 =
through the bolt hole, area
11 000 (3 − 1)(0.5) = 11 000 𝑙𝑏 after the hole is drilled

c) Allowable load P3 between hanger and hole

𝑃3 = 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴 = 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑑 𝑡 = 26 000 (1)(0.5) = 13 000 𝑙𝑏

d) Allowable load P4 in the bolt

𝑃4 = 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴 = 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝜋𝑑 2 /4 = 26 000 𝜋 12 /4 = 102 000 𝑙𝑏

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Crystal structure of solid
Steel
structure

10-5 m 10-10m
Crystal grain

atom
www.nucpal.gr.jp/.../toshokan/ka/ke/gensi.html

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Crystal structure of solid
atom

body-centered face-centered Hexagonal

cubic lattice cubic lattice (FCC) Closed-Packed
(BCC) Ag，Al，Au， Lattice (HCP)
Cr，α-Fe，δ-Fe β-Co，Cu， Be，Cd，α-Co，
Mo，β-Ti，W γ-Fe，Ir，Ni，Pd， Mg，α-Ti，Zn，
β-Zr etc Pt etc α-Zr etc
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Crystal Defects

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Crystal Defects

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Crystal Defects (Dislocation)

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Failure of solid

Tensile splitting shear splitting（deformation）

When tensile splitting tends to occur → Brittle mat.

When shear splitting tends to occur → Ductile mat.

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References

[1] J. M. Gere, B. J. Goodno, Mechanics of Materials, 7ed.

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