The role of forests and forestry in the prevention and

rehabilitation of landslides in Asia

Between 1950 and 2009 landslides claimed the lives of Low-income status and associated poverty appear to
almost 18 000 people in Asia and affected approximately increase people’s vulnerability to disaster. In general,
5.5 million people (EM-DAT 2010). If statistics were poor countries have significantly higher levels of landslide
available for landslide impacts caused by earthquakes, mortality than wealthier countries due to inadequate
these numbers would be many times greater. Landslides planning and implementation of precautionary measures
cause social, economic and environmental damage. in the face of risk, poor infrastructure development and
Forest and agricultural resources are lost; infrastructure lower human development levels (ISDR 2009).
and heritage sites are damaged or destroyed. Landslide Trees and forests play important roles in reducing landslide
material can block rivers and increase downstream risk through various mechanisms. Tree roots reinforce soil
sedimentation, increasing the risk of floods. With predicted layers, anchor the soil to bedrock and form buttresses
changes in rainfall and climate in the coming decades and against soil movement. Trees also reduce landslide risk by
intensified development in sloping areas, landslides will lowering soil moisture levels – interception, evaporation
pose increasing risks to life and property in Asia. and transpiration are the primary mechanisms. These
The number of landslides in Asia is high relative to other mechanisms, and others, also make trees valuable in land
regions of the world. Asia has expansive sloping and reclamation following landslides. Furthermore, trees
mountainous terrain, predominance of highly erodible help to reduce soil erosion and can form an effective
soils, rapid weathering of bedrock and volcanic material barrier against rock, debris and soil slips, as well as
and high seasonal rainfall. In some parts of the region, limiting landslide run-out distances
frequent earthquakes exacerbate the problem. Trees and forests can also increase landslide risk by
Statistics show that landslides causing death or otherwise imposing load on unstable slopes and via wind-related
impacting people in Asia have increased more than five- effects; they are unlikely to prevent or minimise deep
fold since the 1970s, with 88 recorded landslides of this landslides or slides on very steep slopes. However, they
type resulting in 5 367 mortalities between 2000 and 2009 can make a positive contribution in various situations as
(see figure on page 3). this policy brief explains.

LANDSLIDE IMPACTS SET TO INCREASE

With population and infrastructure expansion, greater intensity
of forestry and agricultural activity in sloping areas and projected
increases in the frequency of extreme rainfall events, the incidence
of landslides is set to increase in Asia. In temperate and tropical Asia,
climate change is also likely to increase forest die-back and fire events,
negatively affecting the ability of trees to stabilize soil layers.

THE POOR ARE MORE AFFECTED

With recognition of the disproportionate number of landslide deaths
seen in poorer countries and among vulnerable populations, comes
evidence that much can be done to avoid losses associated with
landslides. Landslide risk has been mitigated successfully within and
outside Asia; associated measures may well be adapted to further
reduce hardship and suffering among the most vulnerable populations.
Forests and landslide prevention
How can forests help to prevent landslides?
By strengthening shallow soil layers and improving attention to engineering standards and often without
drainage, deep-rooted trees and shrubs can reduce the adequate drainage. Mid-slope roads constitute the
occurrence of shallow rapidly-moving landslides (Sidle et highest landslide risk due to subsurface water inter­
al. 2006). Forests can also play a role in attenuating and ception and overloading and undercutting of slopes.
blocking debris flows and rock falls by forming a physical Removal of forests on sloping land reduces rooting
barrier against sliding and falling material (Guthrie et al. strength for up to two decades even with subsequent
2010). In shallow soils, roots may penetrate the entire soil regeneration (Sidle et al. 2006). In temperate
mantle, providing anchors into more stable substrates; climates, landslide risk begins to increase when roots
dense lateral root systems also stabilize soil surface layers decay at around three years after timber harvesting
against landslides. Transpiration from extensive tree and susceptibility remains high until around 15 years
canopies can also decrease soil water content and reduce when regenerating roots mature. In tropical climates
landslide risk (Sidle et al. 2006; Dolidon et al. 2009). the rates of decay and regeneration are accelerated
Although woody vegetation may help prevent shallow although shifting cultivation may slow regeneration
landslides, forest cover has a lesser effect on deep- due to soil nutrient depletion.
seated landslides, limited to soil drying through Conversion from trees to crops permanently reduces
evapotranspiration. Forests on or overlying rapidly rooting depth and strength, while deep soils are also
weathering bedrock, perched water tables, points of dried to a lesser depth and degree thus increasing
geographic convergence or very steep slopes and those landslide risk. Subsequent agricultural practices may
opened up and exposed to gullying usually have higher also increase landslide risk in comparison with forests –
levels of landslide hazard. In cases of continuous heavy tillage, terracing, low soil cover, reduced rooting depth
rainfall or earthquakes the increased stability that trees and strength, and reduced transpiration. Agroforestry
provide is more frequently negated. Activity within land uses, especially those that have a high tree
these high-risk zones should be avoided or minimized, component, can mitigate some of this risk.
particularly if it involves forest clearing.
Land uses that increase slope instability include logging,
road and trail construction and forest conversion. Roads
Landslide types
contribute the largest landslide erosion losses compared Landslides encompass a wide range of phenomena
to other land uses – one to two orders of magnitude higher including slumps, rock falls, debris slides and
than in undisturbed forests on steep land. Across much earth and mudflows. They may be shallow or
of rural Asia, upland roads are built without adequate deep-seated and are caused by changes in slope
stability resulting from undercutting, such as from
road construction, changes in water saturation,
loss of forest cover or earthquakes.

Recent climatic trends

Changes observed in extreme events and climate anomalies in Asia over recent decades have included increased
occurrence of extreme rainfall causing severe floods, landslides and debris and mud flows around the region. In
China and Mongolia, rapid thawing of permafrost, largely due to rising temperatures, has caused more frequent
landslides, affecting some high altitude forest ecosystems.
 THE IMPLICATIONS OF
CLIMATE CHANGE

Future trends
The close association between
landslides, rainfall and other climatic
variables make future changes in
climate particularly important in
estimating the future significance of
landslides. Precipitation is expected
to increase over most of Asia,
particularly during the northern
hemisphere winter. Studies project
changes in the seasonal distribution
of rainfall, with drier and/or

REHABILITATION FOLLOWING LANDSLIDES

longer dry seasons and shorter,
more intense wet seasons. In South
Asia, increased rainfall during the
Timely stabilization of affected sites can help rebuild livelihoods and arrest northern summer is expected;
further release of sediment to streams and rivers, averting continued while in Southeast Asia little overall
economic and environmental impacts. Appropriate techniques to establish
change is foreseen until 2040. An
vegetation – the primary cost-effective means of rehabilitation – depend on
the degree of disturbance and the status of the substrate. Slopes must also increase in occurrence of extreme
be sufficiently stable for tree seedlings to establish. Microbial biomass and weather events, including heat
nutrients take time to redevelop and different species may be more suited waves and precipitation events, is
to new conditions than the previous vegetation. The use of exotic species predicted in South Asia, East Asia
may be necessary, if quick stabilization is required. and Southeast Asia. Increases in
tropical cyclone intensities by 10-20
In addition to ecological issues, the choice of tree species will affect socio- percent are also expected in Asia,
economic benefits derived from the rehabilitated forest. In this context, while temperature is projected
consideration of the provision of goods and services to local communities to increase by 0.7-1.8oC in South,
and decisions over rights and exclusions make rehabilitation a challenging
Southeast and East Asia and by 1.5-
task. In particular, land tenure and regulatory environments prevailing in the
target area are of key importance in determining the suitability of different 2.9oC in the Tibetan Plateau and
slope stabilization options and the extent to which they will be supported, North Asia.
and therefore sustainable.
Impacts
Increases in extreme rainfall events
are likely to directly increase the
frequency of landslides in sloping
areas, while cyclones/typhoons
may induce landslides by toppling
trees, exposing bare soil and
increasing water infiltration and
slope failure. Elsewhere, drier
and hotter weather, together with
increased road development and
human activity in forest areas, is
likely to raise the incidence of fire.
Drought will increase the chances
of devastating wild fire and forest
die-back, which by removing or
damaging forest cover will induce
root decay, resulting in loss of slope
stability.
Source: International Disaster Database: http://www.emdat.be
 Recommendations
The sustainable management of upland forests and • Tree and shrub planting should be concentrated on
agricultural land in Asia is hindered by steep slopes, high-risk slopes. Afforestation of an entire catchment,
high-intensity rainfall, dry seasons and highly erodible which would be expensive and may cause conflict
soils (Sidle et al. 2006). A range of other often more with other land uses, is unlikely to be necessary.
important impediments also exists including issues Shrubs have the benefits of trees without negative
associated with governance and poverty. Maintaining effects of weight and wind loading.
permanent land cover in the face of demand for land • Planting on steep slopes where slope materials
and resources is becoming increasingly challenging remain unstable is inappropriate if complementary
in many countries as populations expand. As lowland engineering works, such as contour trenching, are not
forests are logged and population densities increase, used. Older seedlings preinoculated with appropriate
more marginal – and often sloping – areas are also symbiotic mycorrhizae have a better chance of
coming under increasing pressure in many countries. becoming rapidly established and providing benefits
Road development and commercial agriculture are to dependent economies and local livelihoods.
also expanding in sloping areas around the region.
• Higher levels of plant diversity generally associated
In reducing landslide risk several key factors need to with natural regeneration, may increase slope
be taken into account: stability above that offered by monospecific and
• Landslides are highly localized and their negative single-age plantings.
impacts can often be avoided by zoning of high- Objectives such as enhancing biodiversity conservation,
risk areas and locating settlements and activity sequestering carbon and supporting local economic
away from debris fans and steep slopes through development may be entirely compatible with slope
rational land-use planning. stabilization with trees and forests. As protection
• Implementation of improved standards for road forests cannot be harvested for timber, other products
construction needs to be undertaken immediately and services available from standing forests should be
to reduce landslide risk. sought.
• Maintenance of forest cover is particularly Because sustainable management of forests is dependent
important in areas prone to landslides. Typically on the commitment of a range of stakeholders, it is
these areas include slopes that are steep, concave important that land tenure and regulatory environments
or have perched water tables; and/or have soils in the target area are conducive to achieving land
with low cohesion or are shallow and cover stabilization goals. As such, framework conditions may
bedrock. Retaining trees at the toe-of-slope along need to be modified to ensure that appropriate measures
road and rail right-of-ways will reduce risk to and associated processes are implemented successfully.
these infrastructures.
Find out more
• Forest health and vitality will be key factors in
maintaining strong rooting systems in relation to This policy brief is based on a comprehensive technical
stresses related to changing climate. Protection report that can be found at:
against surface erosion and gully formation is also http://www.fao.org/asiapacific/forestry-publications
important in reducing landslide incidence.

References
Dolidon, N., Hofer, T., Jansky, L. & Sidle, R. 2009. Watershed and International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). 2009. Global
forest management for landslide risk reduction. In Landslides – disaster assessment report on disaster risk reduction. Geneva, Switzerland,
risk reduction, pp. 633-649. Berlin, Springer-Verlag. United Nations.
EM-DAT. 2010. International disasters database: http://www.emdat.be Sidle, R.C., Ziegler, A.D., Negishi, J.N., Nik, A.R., Siew, R. &
Guthrie, R.H., Hockin, A., Colquhoun, L., Nagy, T., Evans, S.G. & Ayles, Turkelboom, F. 2006. Erosion processes in steep terrain—truths,
C. 2010. An examination of controls on debris flow mobility: Evidence myths, and uncertainties related to forest management in Southeast
from coastal British Columbia. Geomorphology, 114(4): 601-613. Asia. Forest Ecology and Management, 224(1-2): 199-225.

Photo credits - Front: P. Durst, S. Kuriakose, J. Broadhead; Inside left: S. Braatz; Inside right: F. McDougall; Back: P. Durst.