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Engineering Hydrology

By

Vikas Yadav

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Engineering Hydrology (CE : Sem-5)

1st Edition : 2015-16
2nd Edition : 2016-17
3rd Edition : 2017-18
4th Edition : 2018-19
5th Edition : 2019-20 (Thoroughly Revised Edition)
6th Edition : 2020-21

Price: Rs. 90/- only

Printed Version : e-Book.

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CONTENTS
KCE–055 : ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

UNIT-1 : INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY (1–1 C to 1–45 C)

Introduction: hydrologic cycle, water budget equations, world water
balance, Precipitation: Forms of precipitation, measurement.
Introduction to characteristics of storm. Abstraction from
Precipitation: Evaporation – process, measurement and estimation;
Evapotranspiration-measurement and estimation; Initial Losses-
Interception & Depression storage; Infiltration- process, capacities
indices, measurement & estimation.

UNIT-2 : RUNOFF AND HYDROGRAPHS (2–1 C to 2–33 C)

Runoff characteristics of stream, mass curve. Hydrograph, Factors
affecting flood hydrographs, unit hydrograph and its analysis, s
curve hydrograph, synthetic and instantaneous unit hydrographs.

UNIT-3 : FLOOD ANALYSIS (3–1 C to 3–27 C)

Rational method, empirical formulae, flood frequency studies,
statistical analysis, regional flood frequency analysis, design storm
& design flood, risk/reliability and safety factor; Flood Routing:
Basic equation, hydrologic storage routing & attenuation, hydrologic
channel routing, flood forecasting & control, hydraulic method of
flood routing.

UNIT-4 : GROUNDWATER (4–1 C to 4–38 C)

Introduction, forms of subsurface water, aquifers & its properties,
Occurrence of ground water, hydro-geology & aquifers, Ground
water movement. Steady and unsteady flow through confined and
unconfined aquifers. Well Hydraulics: Single & Multiple well system,
partially penetrating wells, Image wells, Mutual interference of
wells, well losses, specific capacity.

UNIT-5 : GROUNDWATER QUALITY & MODALS (5–1 C to 5–34 C)

Introduction to Well construction, completion and Development.
Pumping equipment for water wells, maintenance of wells. Ground
Water quality, Contamination of groundwater and its Control,
Ground Water Modelling Techniques and exploration, Artificial
discharge and Recharge of Ground Water, Roof-top rainwater
harvesting and recharge.

SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ–1 C to SQ–23 C)

SOLVED PAPERS (2014-15 TO 2018-19) (SP–1 C to SP–21 C)

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KCE055 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY (L-T-P 3-0-0) Credit – 3

Course Outcomes:

After completion of the course student will be able to:

CO-1 Understand the basic concept of hydrological cycle and its various phases.
CO-2 Understand the concept of runoff and apply the knowledge to construct the
hydrograph.
CO-3 Apply the various methods to assess the flood.
CO-4 Assess the quality of various forms of water and their aquifer properties.
CO-5 Understand the well hydraulics and apply ground water modelling techniques.

Unit 1
Introduction: hydrologic cycle, water budget equations, world water balance, Precipitation:
Forms of precipitation, measurement. Introduction to characteristics of storm. Abstraction from
Precipitation: Evaporation – process, measurement and estimation; Evapotranspiration-
measurement and estimation; Initial Losses- Interception & Depression storage; Infiltration-
process, capacities indices, measurement & estimation. [8]

Unit 2
Runoff and Hydrographs: Runoff characteristics of stream, mass curve. Hydrograph, Factors
affecting flood hydrographs, unit hydrograph and its analysis, s-curve hydrograph, synthetic and
instantaneous unit hydrographs. [8]

Unit 3
Flood: Rational method, empirical formulae, flood frequency studies, statistical analysis,
regional flood frequency analysis, design storm & design flood, risk/reliability and safety factor;
Flood Routing: Basic equation, hydrologic storage routing & attenuation, hydrologic channel
routing, flood forecasting & control, hydraulic method of flood routing. [8]

Unit 4
Groundwater: Introduction, forms of subsurface water, aquifers & its properties, Occurrence of
ground water, hydro-geology& aquifers, Ground water movement.
Steady and unsteady flow through confined and unconfined aquifers. Well Hydraulics: Single&
Multiple well system, partially penetrating wells, Image wells, Mutual interference of wells,
well losses, specific capacity. [8]

Unit 5
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Water Wells: Introduction to Well construction, completion and Development. Pumping

equipment for water wells, maintenance of wells.
Ground Water quality, Contamination of groundwater and its Control, Ground Water Modelling
Techniques and exploration, artificial discharge and Recharge of Ground Water, Roof-top
rainwater harvesting and recharge. [8]

Text Books:
• ‘Groundwater Hydrology’ by Todd D. K., Wiley
• ‘Groundwater Resource Evaluation’ by Walton W. C., McGraw Hill
• ‘Groundwater’ by Raghunath H. M., New Age Publisher
• ‘Engineering Hydrology’ by K. Subramanya, Mc Graw Hill Education
• ‘Hydrology: Principles. Analysis. Design’ by Raghunath H. M., New Age Publisher
• ‘Handbook of Applied Hydrology’ by Chow V. T., Mc Graw Hill Education

Reference:
• ‘Irrigation: Theory & Practice’ by Michael A. M., Vikas Publication House
• ‘Groundwater’ by S.Ramakrishnan, Scitech Publications
• ‘Irrigation: Theory & Practice’ by Michael A. M., Vikas Publication House
• ‘Engineering Hydrology’ by Ojha, Oxford University Press.
• ‘Introduction to Hydrology’ by Viessman& Lewis by Pearson Publication.
• ‘Applied Hydrology’ by Fetter, by Pearson Publication
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 1–1 C (CE-Sem-4)
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1 Introduction to
Hydrology

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Hydrologic Cycle, Water Budget ............. 1–2C to 1–6C
Equations, World Water Balance
Part-2 : Precipitation, Forms of ........................... 1–6C to 1–21C
Precipitation, Measurement

Part-3 : Introduction to Characteristics ........... 1–21C to 1–25C

of Storm

Part-4 : Abstraction from Precipitation, ........... 1–25C to 1–32C

Evaporation Process, Measurement
and Estimation

Part-5 : Evapotranspiration Measurement ..... 1–32C to 1–37C

and Estimation

Part-6 : Initial Losses Interception and ............ 1–37C to 1–44C

Depression Storage
Introduction to Hydrology 1–2 C (CE-Sem-8)
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PART-1
Hydrologic Cycle, Water Budget Equations, World Water Balance.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. Explain the hydrologic cycle with the help of diagram.
OR
What is meant by hydrological cycle ? How can the parameters of
the cycle be written in an equation form ? Draw a neat diagram to
illustrate your answer. AKTU 2016-17, 2017-18; Marks 10

Answer
Hydrologic Cycle :

Clouds

Condensation

Precipitation

Snow Infiltration Evaporation

Spring Transpiration
Percolation
Evaporation
Ground water flow Evaporation
Lake River
Ocean
Fig. 1.1.1. The hydrologic cycle.

Hydrologic cycle is the process of transfer of moisture from the

atmosphere to the earth in the form of precipitation, conveyance of
the precipitated water by streams and rivers to ocean and lakes etc.,
and evaporation of water back to the atmosphere as shown in
Fig. 1.1.1.
This cycle consists of the following processes :
1. Evaporation and Transpiration (E) : The water from the surfaces
of ocean, rivers, lakes and also from the moist soil evaporates. The
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vapours are carried over the land by air in the form of clouds.
Transpiration is the process of water being lost from the leaves of
the plants from their pores. Thus, the total evaporation (E), inclusive
of the transpiration consists of :
i. Surface evaporation.
ii. Water surface evaporation.
a. From river surface.
b. From oceans.
iii. Evaporation from plants and leaves (transpiration).
iv. Atmospheric evaporation.
2. Precipitation (P) : Precipitation may be defined as the fall of moisture
from the atmosphere to the earth surface in any form. Precipitation
may be of two forms :
i. Liquid precipitation : i.e., rainfall.
ii. Frozen precipitation : This consists of :
a. Snow. b. Hail.
c. Sleet. d. Freezing rain.
3. Runoff (R) : Runoff is that portion of precipitation that is not
evaporated. When moisture falls to the earth’s surface as precipitation,
a part of it is evaporated from the water surface, soil and vegetation
and through transpiration by plants, and the remainder precipitation
is available as runoff which ultimately runs to the ocean through surface
or sub-surface streams. Thus runoff may be classified as follows :
i. Surface Runoff : Water flows over the land and is first to reach the
streams and rivers, which ultimately discharge the water to the sea.
ii. Inter-flow or Sub-Surface Runoff : A portion of precipitation
infiltrates into surface soil and depending upon the geology of the
basins, runs as sub-surface runoff and reaches the streams and rivers.
iii. Groundwater Flow or Base Flow : It is that portion of precipitation,
which after infiltration, percolates down and joins the groundwater
reservoir which is ultimately connected to the ocean.
Thus, the hydrologic cycle may be expressed by the following simplified
equation :
Precipitation (P) = Evaporation (E) + Runoff (R)

Que 1.2. Define the hydrology and discus s critically the

statement “Knowledge of hydrology is must for any water resource
planning”. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
Hydrology :
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1. It is the science that deals with the occurrence, circulation and
distribution and movement of water on the earth, including that in the
atmosphere and below the surface of the earth.
2. As a branch of earth science, it is concerned with the water in streams
and lakes, rainfall and snowfall, snow and ice on the land and water
occurring below the earth’s surface in the pores of the soil and rocks.
Knowledge of Hydrology :
The basic knowledge of this science is a must for every civil engineer,
particularly the one who is engaged in the design, planning or
construction of irrigation structures, bridges, and highway culverts, or
flood control works, etc.
1. Maximum flows, after different years, are expected at a spillway or a
highway culvert in a city drainage system.
2. Minimum reservoir capacity will be sufficient to assure adequate water
for irrigation or municipal water supply, during droughts.

Que 1.3. What is the purpose of water budget equation in

hydrology ? Also give the expression for the water budget of
catchment for a time interval t and write in brief about all the
associated terms in this equation.

Answer
Purpose of Water Budget Equation :
1. Large cities and urban sprawl particularly affect local climate and
hydrology.
2. Urbanization is accompanied by accelerated drainage of water through
road drains and city sewer systems, which even increases the magnitude
of urban flood events.
3. This alters the rates of infiltration, evaporation, and transpiration that
would otherwise occur in a natural setting.
4. The replenishing of ground water aquifers does not occur or occurs at a
slower rate.
5. Together, these various effects determine the amount of water in the
system and can result in extremely negative consequences for river
watersheds, lake levels, aquifers, and the environment as a whole.
6. Therefore, it is vital to learn about the water budget equation which
consists of inflows, outflows, and storage.
Expression :
1. Expression for the water budget of a catchment for a time interval t
is written as.
P – R – G – E – T = S ...(1.3.1)
where, P = Precipitation.
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R = Surface runoff.
G = Net groundwater flow out of the catchment.
E = Evaporation.
T = Transpiration.
S = Change in storage.
2. The storage, S consists of three components as
S = Ss + Ssm+ Sg
where, Sm = Surface water storage.
Ssm = Water in storage as soil moisture.
Sg = Water in storage as groundwater.
Change in storage, S = Ss + Ssm + Sg
3. All terms in eq. (1.3.1) have the dimensions of volume. Note that all
these terms can be expressed as depth over the catchment area (e.g.,
in centimeters), and in fact this is a very common unit.
4. In terms of rainfall-runoff relationship, equation (1.3.1) can be
represented as
R= P– L ...(1.3.2)
where, L = Losses = Water not available to runoff due to infiltration
(causing addition to soil moisture and groundwater storage),
evaporation, transpiration and surface storage.

Que 1.4. Write short note on global water budget.

Answer
Global Water Budget :
1. Water is the most important natural resource which is vital for all
forms of life on the earth.
2. Water is a crucial element in development planning.
3. The total quantity of water in the world is roughly 1360 million cubic
kilometers out of which about 97.2 % is held up in seas and oceans
while about 2.1 % is frozen in ice caps, and about 0.31 % is available as
deep ground water. Thus 99.6 % of total water is of no use to man.

Que 1.5. A lake had water surface elevation of 103.200 m above

datum at the beginning of certain month. In that month, the lake
reserved an average inflow of 6.0 cumecs from surface runoff
sources. If the same period outflow from the lake have an average
value of 6.5 cumecs. Further in that month, the lake received a
rainfall of 145 mm and evaporation from lake surface was estimated
at 6.10 cm. Write the water budget equation for lake and calculate
the water surface elevation of the lake at end of month. The average
lake surface area may be taken as 5000 hectares. Assume that there
is no contribution to or from groundwater storage.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
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Answer

Given : Elevation, H = 103.2 m, Average inflow = 6 cumecs, Average

o utflo w = 6.5 cume cs, Re ce ive d rainfall, P = 145 mm,
Evaporation, E = 6.1 cm, Time interval, t = 1 month. Average
surface area, A = 5000 hectares.
To Find : Water surface elevation of the lake at end of month.
1. In a time interval t the water budget for the lake can be written as
Input volume – Output volume = Change in storage of the lake
( I t  PA)  (Qt  EA) = S
2. t = 1 month = 30 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 2.592 × 10 6 s = 2.592 Ms
In flow volume = I t  6.0  2.592  15.552 M
Mmm3

Outflow volume = Qt  6.5  2.592  16.848 M

Mmm3
3. Input due to precipitation
145  5000  100  100
PA = Mm3 = 7.25 Mm3
1000  106
4. Outflow due to evaporation,
6.10 5000  100  100
EA =  Mm3 = 3.05 Mm3
100 106
5. Hence, S = (15.552 + 7.25) – (16.848 + 3.05) = 2.904 Mm 3
Change in elevations,
S 2.904  106
z =   0.058 m
A 5000  100  100
6. New water surface elevation at the end of the month
= 103.200 + 0.058
= 103.258 m above the datum.

PART-2
Precipitation, Forms of Precipitation, Measurement.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.6. What do you understand by precipitation ? Explain

various types of precipitation.
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Answer
Precipitation : To the hydrologist, precipitation is the general term
for all forms of moisture emanating from the clouds and falling to
the ground.
Types of Precipitation :
1. Cyclonic Precipitation : Cyclonic precipitation results from lifting
of air masses converging into low pressure area of cyclone. The
cyclonic precipitation may be divided into (a) Frontal precipitation,
and (b) Non-frontal precipitation.
2. Convective Precipitation :
i. Convective precipitation is caused by natural rising of warmer lighter
air in colder, denser surroundings.
ii. The difference in temperature may result from unequal heating at
the surface, unequal cooling at the top of the air layer, or mechanical
lifting when air is forced to pass over denser colder air masses.
iii. Convective precipitation is spotty and its intensity may vary from
light showers to cloud bursts.
3. Orographic Precipitation :
i. Orographic precipitation is due to the lifting of warm moisture laden
air masses due to topographic barriers (such as mountains).
ii. As it reaches higher elevation, it comes in contact with cold air and
precipitation occurs.
iii. The zone to the other side of the mountain will be the zone of rain
shadow area where the rainfall may not occur, as shown in Fig. 1.6.1.
iv. All the precipitation we have in Himalayan region is because of the
orographic ascent of air masses, rich in moisture content because of
their long travel over oceans.
Clouds
Clouds
Clouds Rain
shadow
P
Wind

Hill
Evaporation

Fig. 1.6.1. Orographic precipitation.

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4. Precipitation Due to Turbulent Ascent :
i. Air mass is forced to rise up due to greater friction of earth surface
after its travel over ocean.
ii. The air mass rises up because of increased turbulence and friction,
when it ultimately condenses and precipitation occurs.

Que 1.7. Explain both type of rain gauge :

A : Automatic rain-gauge.
B : Non-automatic rain-gauge. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
OR
Discuss the current practice and status of the rainfall recording
in India. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Rain-gauge : The amount of precipitation is expressed as the depth
in centimetres (or inches) which falls on a level surface, and is measured
by rain-gauge.
Types of Rain-gauge : Following are the types of rain-gauges used
for measurement of rainfall :
A. Non-automatic Rain-gauge : This is also known as non-recording
rain-gauge. Symon’s rain-gauge is the instrument prescribed by use
at all Government rain-gauge stations throughout India.
Symon’s Rain-gauge :
i. Symon’s rain-gauge is most common type of non-automatic rain-
gauge, and is used by Meteorological Department of Government of
India.
ii. As shown in Fig. 1.7.1, it consists of cylindrical vessel 127 mm in
diameter with a base enlarged to 210 mm diameter.
iii. The top section is a funnel provided with circular brass rim exactly
127 mm internal diameter.
iv. The funnel shank is inserted in the neck of a receiving bottle which
is 75 to 100 mm diameter.
v. A receiving bottle of rain-gauge has a capacity of about 75 to 100 mm
of rainfall and as during a heavy rainfall this quantity is frequently
exceeded, the rain should be measured 3 or 4 times in a day on day of
heavy rainfall left the receiver fill should overflow.
vi. A cylindrical graduated measuring glass is furnished with each
instrument, which reads to 0.2 mm.
vii. The rainfall should be estimated to the nearest of 0.1 mm.
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127 mm

25.4
25.4

305 mm 203

50.8 GL
25.4
60 cm 25.4
210 mm

60 cm
Fig. 1.7.1. Symon’s rain-gauge.
viii. The rain-gauge is set up in a concrete block 60 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm,
as shown in Fig. 1.7.1. The rim should be 305 mm (12) above the
surface of the ground.
B. Automatic Rain-gauge : These are integrating type recording rain-
gauges and are of following types :
1. Weighing Bucket Type Rain-gauge :
i. Self recording gauges are used to determine rates of rainfall over
short periods of time. The most common type of self-recording gauge
is the weighing bucket type as shown in Fig. 1.7.2.

Receiver

Funnel
Metal
casing
Bucket

Weighing mechanism
by spring mechanism
Graph
paper

Clock mounted
rotating drum

Fig. 1.7.2. Weighing bucket type rain-gauge.

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ii. The weighing bucket rain-gauge essentially consists of a receiver
bucket supported by a spring or lever balance or any other weighing
mechanism.
iii. The movement of the bucket due to its increasing weight is transmitted
to a pen which traces the record on a clock-drive chart.
2. Tipping Bucket Type Rain-gauge :
i. A Steven’s tipping bucket type rain-gauge consists of 300 mm diameter
sharp edge receiver.
ii. At the end of the receiver a funnel is provided. A pair of buckets are
pivoted under the funnel in such a way that when one bucket receives
0.25 mm of precipitation, it tips, discharging its contents into a container
bringing the other bucket under the funnel.
iii. Tipping of the bucket completes an electric circuit causing the
movement of pen to mark on clock driven revolving drum which
carries a record sheet.
iv. The electric pulses generated due to the tipping of the buckets are
recorded at the control room far away from the rain gauge station.
Rain
water
Circular collector

Funnel

Two compartment
tipping bucket connected to
1 2 recording device

Recording device

Measuring Tripod stand

jar

Fig. 1.7.3. Tipping bucket type rain-gauge.

Que 1.8. What is rain-gauge density or network density ? What

is the norm for minimum network density and the optimum
number of rain-gauge stations as per ISI ?

Answer
Rain-gauge Density (Network Density) : It is defined as the ratio
of total area of catchment to the total number of gauges in the catchment.
Minimum Network Density : The World Meteorological Organisation
(WMO) has laid down the following norms for minimum network
density :
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Table 1.8.1.
Region Description Network Density
Minimum Tolerable
I. Flat region of 1 gauge for 1 gauge for
temperate, mediterr- 600 to 900 km2 900 to 3000 km 2
anean zones & tropical
II. Mountaineous areas 1 gauge for 1 gauge for
of temperate, 100 to 250 km2 250 to 1000 km2
mediterranean and
tropical zones
III. Arid and polar zones 1 gauge for —
1500 to 10000 km 2
Ten percent of these gauges should be of recording type to enable
the determination of rainfall intensities.
IS Code Recommendations : IS : 4987-1968 has recommended the
following densities :
1. One gauge per 520 km 2 in plain areas, with denser network for the
areas lying in the path of low pressure systems.
2. One gauge per 260 to 390 km 2 in regions with average elevation of
1000 m above mean sea level.
3. One gauge per 130 km 2 in predominantly hilly regions with heavy
rainfall, higher density being preferred wherever possible.

Que 1.9. A catchment has five rain-gauge stations. In a year,

the annual rainfalls recorded by the gauges are 78.8 cm, 90.2 cm,
98.6 cm, 102.4 cm and 70.4 cm. For a 6 % error in the estimation of
the mean rainfall, determine the additional number of gauges
needed. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
Given : Annual rainfalls recorded, 78.8 cm, 90.2 cm, 98.6 cm, 102.4,
70.4 cm, Error = 6 %
To Find : Required additional number of gauges.
1
1. Average rainfall, x =  xi
n
78.8  90.2  98.6  102.4  70.4
= = 88.08 cm.
5
2. The standard deviation of the rainfall,
 ( xi  x )2
 2x =
n 1
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= [(78.8 – 88.08) 2 + (90.2 – 88.08) 2 + (98.6 – 88.08) 2
+ (102.4 – 88.08) 2 + (70.4–88.08) 2 ]  (5–1)
 2x = 179.732
 x = 13.41 cm
3. Coefficient of variation,
 13.41
Cv = x  100   100  15.22
x 88.08
4. Required number of gauge,
2 2
C   15.22 
N =  v    6.43  7
 p  6 
5. Additional number of gauge = 7 – 5 = 2

Que 1.10. A catchment has six rain gauge stations. In a year, the
annual rainfall recorded by the gauges is as follows :

Station A B C D E F
Rainfall (cm) 82.6 102.9 180.3 110.3 98.8 136.7
For a 10 % error in the estimation of the mean rainfall, calculate the
optimum number of stations in the catchment.

Answer

Given : Rainfall = 82.6, 102.9, 180.3, 110.3, 98.8, and 136.7 cm,
Error = 10 %.
To Find : Optimum number of stations in the catchment.
1. Mean annual rainfall,
82.6  102.9  180.3  110.3  98.8  136.7
x = = 118.60 cm
6

( xi – x )2
2. Standard deviation,  2x =
n–1

(82.6 – 118.6)2  (102.9 – 118.6)2  (180.3 – 118.6)2 

(110.3 – 118.6)2  (98.8 – 118.6) 2  (136.7 – 118.6) 2
= = 1227.584
(6 – 1)
x = 35.03 cm
100   x 100  35.03
3. Coefficient of variation, Cv = = = 29.53
x 118.60
4. Standard error in the estimation of the mean,
Cv 29.53
ex =  = 12.06 %
m 6
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5. When the error is limited to 10 %, ε = 10 and the optimum number of
rain-gauges in the catchment is given by,
2 2
C   29.53 
N =  v   = 8.72  9
   10 

Que 1.11. Explain a procedure for supplementing the missing

rainfall data.

Answer
Sometimes, it may not be possible to measure the rainfall at a particular
measuring station due to absence of the observer or instrument
failure or any other reason.
Following are the methods of calculate the missing rainfall data :
1. Arithmetic Mean Method : According to this method, the missing
rainfall Px of the station X is computed by simple arithmetic average
of the rainfall at the nearby stations (known as index stations) in the
following form,
N
1
Px =  P / N  N (P  P
i1
i 1 2  ......... Pn )

where, N = Number of index stations.

The above method is used only under the following conditions :
i. The normal annual rainfall of the missing station is within 10 % of
the normal annual rainfall of the index stations.
ii. Data of at least three index stations should be available.
iii. The index stations should be evenly spaced around the missing station
and should be as close as possible.
2. Normal Ratio Method :
i. In this method, the rainfall (Pi) of the surrounding index stations is
weighed by the ratio of normal annual rainfalls by using the following
equation :
1  Nx N N  N P P P 
Px =  P1  P2 x  ......Pn x   x  1  2  ..... n 
n  N1 N2 Nn  n  N1 N2 Nn 
where, N1, N2 ..... Nn = Normal annual rainfall of index stations.
Nx = Normal annual rainfall of missing station.
n = Number of index stations.
ii. The above method is used when the normal annual precipitation of
the index stations differ more than 10 % of the missing station.
iii. Here also, the data of at least three index stations should be available,
and all these index stations should be evenly spaced.
3. Inverse Distance Method (US Weather Service Method) :
i. In this method a set of rectangular co-ordinate axes are passed through
the missing rain gauge station so that its co-ordinates are (0, 0).
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ii. The co-ordinates (xi, yi) of each index station, surrounding the missing
station are found.
iii. The weightage (Wi) of each index station is represented by the inverse
of the square of its distance from the missing station, and is given by
1 1
Wi = 
Di2 xi2  yi2
iv. The missing rainfall data of the station X is then computed from the
following equation :
n

 PW
i 1
i i
Px = n

W
i 1
i

v. The above method gives good results and is therefore the most acceptable
method for scientific analysis.
vi. However, the limitation of the method is that it estimates missing
rainfall between the highest and the lowest values of the index stations.

Que 1.12. During a month, rain gauge went out of order while the
other four gauges in the base in reported rainfalls of 110, 90, 120 and
115 mm. If the normal annual rainfalls for these gauges are 115, 95,
125 and 120 mm respectively and the rainfall for the broken gauge is
98 mm, estimate the monthly rainfall at the broken gauge.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
Given : Rainfall at stations : P1= 110 mm, P2 = 90 mm, P3 = 120 mm,
P4 = 115 mm, Normal annual rainfall at stations : N1 = 115 mm,
N2 = 95 mm, N3 = 125 mm, N4 = 120 mm, At broken station, Nx = 98
mm
To Find : Monthly rainfall at broken gauge.
1. Rainfall at broken station,
N x  P1 P2 P P 
Px =   3  4
n  N1 N 2 N 3 N 4 
98  110 90 120 115 
Px =    = 93.64 mm.
4  115 95 125 120 
Que 1.13. Explain the different methods of determining the
average rainfall over a catchment due to storm.

Answer
Methods of Average Rainfall Over a Catchment :
Following are the methods of determining the average rainfall over
a catchment :
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 1–15 C (CE-Sem-4)
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1. Arithmetic Average Method :
i. If the rainfall is uniformly distributed on its areal pattern, the simplest
method of estimating average rainfall is to compute arithmetic average
of the recorded rainfall values at various stations.
ii. Thus, if P1, P2, P3,........, Pn etc., are the precipitation or rainfall values
measured at n gauge stations, we have
P1  P2 ......  Pn 1 n
Pav =   Pi
n n i 1
2. Thiessen Polygon Method :
i. The arithmetic average method is most approximate method since
rainfall varies in intensity and duration from place to place.
ii. Hence, rainfall recorded by each rain-gauge station should be weighed
according to the area it is assumed to represent.
iii. This method is a more common method of weighing the rain-gauge
observations according to the area.
iv. This method is also called weighted mean method and is more accurate
than the arithmetic average method.

A
B

D C

Fig. 1.13.1. Thiessen polygon method.

Procedure :
i. Join the adjacent rain-gauge stations, A, B, C, D, etc., by straight
lines.
ii. Construct the perpendicular bisectors of each of these lines.
iii. A Thiessen network is thus constructed. The polygon formed by the
perpendicular bisectors around a station encloses an area which is
everywhere closer to that station than to any other station. Find the
area of each of these polygons shown hatched in Fig. 1.13.1.
iv. Multiply the area of each Thiessen polygon by the rain-gauge value
of enclosed station.
v. Find the total area (A) of the basin.
vi. Compute the average precipitation or rainfall from the equation :
n

A P  A2 P2  .....  An Pn
(A  P )
i 1
i i
Pav = 1 1 =
A1  A2 ....  An Ai
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or Pav = P1 W1 + P2 W2 .... Pn Wn
where, W1, W2 ...... Wn = Thiessen weights computed as W1 = A 1/A,
W2 = A 2 /A ........ Wn = An /A, such that W1
+ W2 + ...... Wn = 1.0
3. Isohyetal Method :
i. The basic assumption in the Thiessen polygon method is that a rain-
gauge station best represents the area which is close to it.
ii. However, this may not always be valid, especially when the rainfall
is controlled by topography or results from intense convection.
iii. The Isohyetal method is the most elaborate and accurate in such
conditions.
iv. An Isohyet is a line, on a rainfall map of the basin, joining places of
equal rainfall readings.
v. An isohyetal map showing contours of equal rainfall presents a more
accurate picture of the rainfall distribution over the basin.
12
10 11
13
9.5
14

14.5

10
11 14
12 13
Fig. 1.13.2. Isohyetal method.
Procedure :
i. From the rainfall values recorded at various rain-gauge stations,
prepare the isohyetal map for storm causing the rainfall over the
area.
ii. Measure the area enclosed between successive isohyets with the
help of planimeter.
iii. Multiply each of these areas by the average rainfall between the
isohyets.
iv. The average rainfall is then computed from the expression :
 P  P2 
A   1 
Pav =  2 
A
v. Isohyetal method gives better results than the previous two methods.
4. Grid Point Method :
i. In this method, all the grid stations are marked on the map of the
basin, along with the depth of precipitation.
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ii. On this map, drawn to a suitable scale, a uniform rectangular grid at
some suitable spacing is superimposed.
iii. At the corners of the grid points, precipitation is estimated suitably
by considering the weather and storm characteristics of the basin.
iv. The average precipitation of the four grid corners is then multiplied
by the area of the grid, to give the average precipitation volume of
the grid.
v. The sum of all such products divided by the total area of the basin
will give the average precipitation for the basin.

Que 1.14. The isohyets for annual rainfall over a catchment basin
were drawn. The areas of strips between isohyets are indicated below.
Find the average depth of annual precipitation over the basin.
Isohyets (cm) Areas (sq. km) Isohyets (cm) Areas (sq. km)
75-85 580 105-115 1000
85-95 2960 115-135 610
95-105 2850 135-155 160

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer

Given : Area of strips between isohyets are given in above table

To Find : Average depth of annual precipitation.

Isohyets Average Precipitation Areas A × (P1 + P2)/2

(cm) 1/2 (P1 + P2) (A)
75 – 85 80 580 46400
85 – 95 90 2960 266400
95 – 105 100 2850 285000
105 – 115 110 1000 110000
115 – 135 125 610 76250
135 – 155 145 160 23200
 8160 807250

A( P1  P2 ) / 2 807250
Average precipitation, Pav = = = 98.92 cm
A 8160
Que 1.15. Find the mean precipitation for the area sketched below
by Thiessen’s polygon method. The area composed of a square and
an equilateral triangle each side of 4 km. Rainfall readings at the
various stations are given in Fig. 1.15.1.
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4.8 cm 13 cm
1 2
6
5
3.2 cm 9.4 cm
4 3
5.4 cm 8.0 cm
Fig. 1.15.1.

Answer

Given : Rainfall readings at the various stations are given in Fig. 1.15.1,
Side of each square and equilateral triangle = 4 km.
To Find : Mean precipitation for the area
1. Let the stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 be named as station A, B, C, D, E and
F respectively, for convenience.
2. Let the length of the sides of square ABCD be a (= 4 km).
3. Then the length of each side of the equilateral triangular plot will be also a.
4. Now for the triangular plot, draw perpendicular bisectors Aa, Dd and Ee
so that they meet at point g.
5. Similarly, draw the perpendicular bisectors eb, bc, cf and fe of the lines
FA, FB, FC and FD respectively, shown in Fig. 1.15.2.
A (1) b B (2)
d
F
E c
g e
(5) (6)
a
D (4) f C (3)
Fig. 1.15.2.
6. Evidently, station F (or station 6) will be fed by the rectangular area,
bcfe, where length of its side, say bc will be equal to (1/2) AC = (1/2) 2
a=a/ 2
a a2 (4)2
a
7. Hence area bcfe = A6 =   = 8 km2 ...(1.15.1)
2 2 2 2
8. Then each of the corner stations, say station A, will be fed by triangular
area Abe and sectorial area Adge.
1 a  2 a  a2
9. Triangular area Abe =  
2 2 4  8
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1 1 1 3 a2
10. Sectorial area Adge = × Area of triangle ADE =  a  a
3 3 2 2 4 3
11. Hence station A will be fed by area = Area Abe + Area Adge
a2 a2 (4) 2 (4)2
=    = 4.3094 km2
8 4 3 8 4 3
Hence, A1 = A4 = 4.3094 km2 ...(1.15.2)
a2
12. Also station E will be fed by sectorial area Edga = Area Adge =
4 3
a2 (4)2
Hence A5 =  = 2.3094 km2 ...(1.15.3)
4 3 4 3
a2 (4)2
13. Station B will be fed by area bcB = Area Abe =  = 2 km2
8 8
 A2 = A3 = 2 km2 ...(1.15.4)
14. Lastly, station F will be fed by area ebcf = (a / 2 )2
 A6 = (4)2/2 = 8 km2
P1 A1  P2 A2  ...... P6 A6
15. Hence Pav =
A1  A2  ...... A6
4.8  4.3094  13.0  2  8.0  2  5.4  4.3094  3.2  2.3094  9.4  8
=
4.3094  2  2  4.3094  2.3094  8
= 7.35 cm

Que 1.16. Find the mean precipitation for the area sketched below
by Thiessen’s polygon method. The area composed of a square plus
an equilateral triangle plot of side 5 km. Rainfall readings in cm at
the various stations are given in Fig. 1.16.1.

8.0 cm 5.4 cm
1 2
6
3
2.2 cm 8.3 cm
4 5
13.0 cm 4.8 cm
Fig. 1.16.1.

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Rainfall readings of various stations given in Fig. 1.16.2. Side

of square and equilateral triangle = 5 cm.
To Find : Mean precipitation for the area.
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1. Let the stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in Fig. 1.16.2, be named as station A, B,
C, D, E and F, respectively.
2. Let the length of the side of ABCD be a (= 5 km).
3. Then the length of each side of the equilateral triangular plot will be also a.
4. Now for the triangular plot, draw perpendicular bisectors Aa, Dd and
Ee, so that they meet in point g.
5. Similarly, draw the perpendicular bisector eb, bc, cf and fe of the line FA,
FB, FC and FD respectively.
A (1) b B (2)

E P
(5) F c
g e
(6)
a

C
D (4) f (3)
Fig. 1.16.2.
6. Evidently, station F(6) will be fed by the rectangular area, bcfe, where
1 1 a
length of its side, say bc will be equal to AC = 2 a=
2 2 2
a a2 52 25
a
7. Hence area bcfe = Ac =    km2
2 2 2 2 2
8. Then each of the corner stations, say station A will be fed by triangular
area Abe and sectorial area Adge.
1 a  2 a  a2
9. Triangular Area Abe =   
2 2  4  8
1
10. Sectorial Area Adge = × Area of triangle ADE
3
1 1 3 a2
=  a a
3 2 2 4 3
11. Hence A will be fed by area = Area Abe + Area Adge
a2 a2 52 52
 =  = 6.733 km2
8 4 3 8 4 3
Hence, A1 = A4 = 6.733 km2
a2
12. Also station E will be fed by section area Edga = Area Adge =
4 3
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a2 52
Hence, A5 = = 3.61 km2
4 3 4 3
13. Station B will be fed by area bcB = Area Abe
a 2 52
=  = 3.125 km2
8 8
 A2 = A3 = 3.125 km2
2
14. Station F will be fed by area ebcf =  a 
 2
25
A6 = = 12.5 km2
2
P A P A  ..............  P6 A6
15. Hence, Pav = 1 1 2 2
A1  .............  A6
8  6.733  5.4  3.125  4.8  3.125  13.0  6.733  2.2  3.61  8.3  12.5
=
6.733  3.125  3.125  6.733  3.61  12.5
Pav = 7.954 cm

PART-3
Introduction to Characteristics of Storm.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.17. Explain briefly the following relationship relating to

the precipitation over a basin :
1. Intensity duration analysis.
2. Intensity duration frequency relationship.
3. Depth area relationship.
4. Depth area duration curves.

Answer
1. Intensity Duration Analysis :
i. It has generally been observed that greater the intensity of rainfall,
shorter is the length of time it continues.
ii. As the duration of storm increases, the maximum intensity of storm
decreases.
iii. Sherman gave the following relation between intensity and duration :
a
i= …(1.17.1)
(t  b) n
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where, i = Intensity of rainfall (cm/hr).
t = Time in min. (time duration).
a, b, n = Constants to be determined for the area.

Rainfall intensity (cm/hr)

Time
Fig. 1.17.1. Intensity duration curve.
iv. The curve represented by equation (1.17.1) will be hyperbolic.
v. Paulhus suggests that if rainfall is plotted against duration in a log-
log scale, the World’s greatest recorded rainfalls lie on or just under
a straight line whose equation is
R = 16.6 D0.475
where, R = Rainfall (inches), D = Duration (hours).
2. Intensity Duration Frequency Relationship :
i. It is observed that a storm of any given duration will have larger
intensity if its return period is large.
ii. This means that for storm of given duration, storms of higher intensity
in that duration is rarer than storms of smaller intensity.
iii. The relationship between intensity, duration and return period can
be expressed by the following :
Average intensity (cm/h)

10

32
T=
20
24 ye a
T= rs
10
y ea
16 T= r s
5 ye
a rs
8

0 3 4 5 1 6 2
Duration (t)
Fig. 1.17.2. Intensity duration frequency curves.

KT x
i= …(1.17.2)
(t  b)n
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where, x, b and n = Constants for the catchment.
T = Return period (years).
Depth Duration Frequency Curves :
i. When intensity of rainfall, given by equation (1.17.2), is converted
into the depth of rainfall (i.e., depth = i × t), and results are plotted,
we get depth duration frequency curves of the form shown in
Fig. 1.17.3.

s
50 ar
Depth of rainfall (cm)

ye
20 ar
s
40 T
=
0 ye
=1
T a rs
30 5 ye
T=
20

10

1 3 2 4 5 6
Duration (t)
Fig. 1.17.3. Depth-duration-frequency curves.
3. Depth Area Relationship :
i. The areal distribution characteristics of a storm of given duration is
reflected in the depth area relationships and depth area curves.
ii. Precipitation rarely occurs uniformly over the whole area.
iii. For a rainfall of a given duration, the average depth of rainfall decreases
from the maximum (or highest) value as the considered area increases.
iv. The relationship is expressed by the following equation :
n
P = Pn– kA …(1.17.3)
where, Pn = Highest amount of rainfall observed in the storm centre.
A = Area (km2).
P = Average depth in cm, over the area.
k, n = Constants.
4. Depth Area Duration Curves :
i. Rainfall rarely occurs uniformly over the whole of the catchment.
ii. Variations in total depth of rainfall and intensity occur from the
centres to the peripheries of storms.
iii. The knowledge of maximum depth of rainfall occurring on areas of
various sizes for storms of different durations is of great importance
in many hydrological design problems.
iv. The development of relationship between maximum depth, area and
duration for a region is known as DAD analysis.
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v. DAD analysis is performed to determine the maximum amounts of
precipitation of various durations over areas of various sizes.

50
Average depth (cm)
40
3 -D
30 ay s
t or
2 -D m
ay
st o
20 rm
1 -D
ay s
10 torm

0 20 40 60 80
Fig. 1.17.4. DAD curves.

Que 1.18. What is meant by probable maximum precipitation

(PMP) over a basin ? Explain how PMP is estimated.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05 AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Probable Maximum Precipitation :
1. The probable maximum precipitation, commonly known as PMP, for
a region is the precipitation resulting from the most critical
meteorological combinations that are considered probable of occurrence.
2. It can be defined as that rainfall over a basin which would produce
the flood flow with virtually no risk of being exceeded.
3. From the statistical studies, PMP can also be estimated from the
following equation :
PMP = P  K 
where, P = Mean of annual maximum rainfall series.
 = Standard deviation of the series.
K = Frequency factor, which is usually in the
neighbourhood of 15.
B. Maximum and Minimum Rainfall : The magnitudes of maximum
rainfall and minimum rainfall within specified time period can be
determined by the use of frequency formula given by Hazen :
2N N
 T=
2m  1 m  0.5
where, T = Recurrence interval within which the event is either
equal to or greater than the specified amount.
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Procedure for Determination of Maximum Rainfall :
1. Arrange the rainfall data in descending order and assign rank number
(m) to each rainfall event, the total number of event being equal to N.
2. Compute recurrence interval (T) for each event.
3. Plot a graph between recurrence interval (T) as abscissa and
corresponding rainfall as ordinate.
4. Determine the expected maximum rainfall magnitude for any desired
value of T from this graph.
Procedure for Determination of Minimum Rainfall :
1. Arrange the rainfall data in ascending order and assign rank number
(m) to each rainfall event, the total number of events being equal to
N.
2. Compute recurrence interval (T) for each event.
3. Plot a graph between recurrence interval (T) as abscissa and
corresponding rainfall as ordinate.
4. Determine the expected minimum rainfall magnitude for any desired
value of T from this graph.

PART-4
Abstraction From Precipitation, Evaporation Process, Measurement
and Estimation.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.19. Discuss briefly the various abstractions that take place

precipitation. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Abstractions from Precipitation : When precipitation takes place
on land surface whole of it is not available as runoff because of losses
that take place during or after the precipitation. Important losses consist
of,
i. Interception. ii. Evaporation.
iii. Transpiration. iv. Infiltration.
v. Depression storage. vi. Watershed leakage.
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Out of this evaporation transpiration and infiltration are the major
losses.
1. Interception :
i. It may be defined as that amount of precipitation water which is
intercepted by vegetative foliage, buildings and other objects lying over
the land surface.
ii. Interception does not reach the land surface but is returned back to the
atmosphere by evaporation.
iii. The intercepted precipitation may follow one of the three possible
routes :
a. It may be retained by the vegetation as surface storage and
returned to the atmosphere by evaporation; this is known as
interception loss.
b. It can drip off the plant leaves to join the ground surface or the
surface flow; this is known as throughfall.
c. The rainwater may run along the leaves and branches and down
the stem to reach the ground surface. This part is called stemflow.
2. Depression Storage :
i. A catchment area generally has many depressions of shallow depth and
of varying size and shape.
ii. When precipitation take place, water runs towards these depressions
and fill them before actual overland flow or runoff towards a stream
takes place.
iii. Depression storage depends on a vast number of factors. The major
factors are :
a. The type of soil.
b. The condition of the surface reflecting the amount and nature
of depression.
c. The slope of the catchment.
d. The antecedent precipitation as a measure of the soil moisture.
iv. The following relationship may be used for computing the depression
storage,
P
  e 
Vds = K 1  e k 
where, Vds = Volume of water stored in surface depression.
Pe = Rainfall excess.
k = Depression storage capacity of the basin.
3. Watershed Leakage :
i. Adjacent basins are separated by ridge lines, so that rainfall falling over
a basin flows towards the drainage lines (i.e., streams) of the basin.
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Basin-2
Fault
Basin-1
line

Fault
line

Ridge Ridge
line line

Fig. 1.19.1. Watershed leakage.

ii. Watershed leakage may be defined as flow of water from one basin to
another basin, or from one basin to the sea through major faults, fissures
or other geographical features.
iii. Due to these faults, fissures, underground hydraulic conduits so formed
convey the discharge falling over a part of the catchment.

Que 1.20. Define evaporation. Discuss the factors that affect the

evaporation from a water body. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
A. Evaporation : It is the process in which a liquid changes to the
gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling point through the
transfer of heat energy.
B. Factors : Following are the factors that affect the evaporation from
the water body :
1. Vapour Pressure : The rate of evaporation is proportional to the
difference between the saturation vapour pressure at the water
temperature, e w and the actual pressure in the air, ea. Thus,
EL = C(e w – e a) ...(1.20.1)
where, EL = Rate of evaporation (mm/day).
C = Constant.
ew and e a are in mm of mercury.
2. Temperature : Other factors remaining the same, the rate of
evaporation increases with an increase in the water temperature.
3. Wind : Wind aids in removing the evaporated water vapour from the
zone of evaporation and consequently creates greater scope for
evaporation.
4. Atmospheric Pressure : Other factors remaining same, a decrease
in the barometric pressure, as in high altitudes, increases evaporation.
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5. Soluble Salts :
i. When a solute is dissolved in water, the vapour pressure of the
solution is less than that of pure water and hence causes reduction
in the rate of evaporation.
ii. The percent reduction in evaporation approximately corresponds to
the percentage increase in the specific gravity.
6. Heat Storage in Water Bodies :
i. Deep water bodies have more heat storage than shallow ones.
ii. A deep lake may store radiation energy received in summer and
release it in winter causing less evaporation in summer and more
evaporation in winter compared to a shallow lake exposed to a similar
situation.
iii. However, the effect of heat storage is essentially to change the seasonal
evaporation rates and the annual evaporation rate is seldom affected.

Que 1.21. What are evaporimeters and discuss important

different types of evaporimeters ?
OR
Write about the ISI evaporated pan with the help of its neat sketch.

Answer
A. Evaporimeters : Evaporimeters are water-containing pans which
are exposed to the atmosphere and the loss of water by evaporation
is measured in them at regular intervals.
B. Types : Following are the type of evaporimeter :
1. Class-A Evaporation Pan :
i. It is a standard pan of 1210 mm diameter and 255 mm depth used by
the US weather bureau and is known as class-A land pan.
ii. The depth of water is maintained between 18 cm and 20 cm as shown
in Fig. 1.21.1.
Water level in pan

50

255

GL 150

1210 mm diameter
Wooden support
Fig. 1.21.1. US class-A evaporation plan.
iii. The pan is normally made of unpainted galvanized iron sheet. Monel
metal is used where corrosion is a problem.
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iv. The pan is placed on a wooden platform of 15 cm height above the
ground to allow free circulation of air below the pan.
v. Evaporation measurements are made by measuring the depth of
water with a hook gauge in a stilling well.
2. ISI Standard Pan :
i. This pan evaporimeter specified by IS: 5973-1970, also known as
modified class A pan, consists of a pan 1220 mm in diameter with
255 mm of depth.
ii. The pan is made of copper sheet of 0.9 mm thickness, tinned inside
and painted white outside as shown in Fig. 2.21.2.
iii. A fixed point gauge indicates the level of water. A calibrated cylindrical
measure is used to add or remove water maintaining the water level
in the pan to a fixed mark.
iv. The top of the pan is covered fully with a hexagonal wire netting of
galvanized iron to protect the water in the pan from birds.
v. Further, the presence of a wire mesh makes the water temperature
more uniform during day and night.
vi. The evaporation from this pan is found to be less by about 14 %
compared to that from unscreened pan.
vii. The pan is placed over a square wooden platform of 1225 mm width
and 100 mm height to enable circulation of air underneath the pan.
1220 
Thermometer clamp

Wire-mesh Thermometer
Stilling well
cover
102 
Fixed point gauge

Copper sheet 10  235 255 Pan

25 thickness 0.9 190
15
100

200 
75 Wooden
platform
1225

Fig. 1.21.2. ISI evaporation pan.

Que 1.22. Discus s s ome important empirical evaporation

equations in detail.
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Answer
Empirical Evaporation Equations : Following are the empirical
evaporation equations :
1. Dalton Equation : It can be expressed as
EL = K f (u)(ew – e a) ...(1.22.1)
where, EL = Lake evaporation in mm/day.
ew = Saturated vapour pressure at the water surface
temperature in mm of mercury.
ea = Actual vapour pressure of overlying air at a specified
height in mm of mercury.
f(u) = Wind speed correction function.
K = A co-efficient.
2. Meyer’s Formula : It can be given by,
 u 
EL = Km (ew – ea)  1  9  ...(1.22.2)
 16 
where, u9 = Monthly mean wind velocity in km/h at about 9 m
above ground.
Km = Co-efficient accounting for various other factors with
a value of 0.36 for large deep waters and 0.50 for small,
shallow waters.
3. Rohwer’s Formula : Rohwer’s formula considers a correction for
the effect of pressure in addition to the wind speed effect and is
given by,
EL = 0.771(1.465 – 0.000732 pa)(0.44 + 0.0733 u0)(e w – ea) ...(1.22.3)
where, pa = Mean barometric reading in mm of mercury.
u0 = Mean wind velocity in km/h at ground level, which can
be taken to be the velocity at 0.6 m height above ground.

Que 1.23. Explain the different analytical methods for the

determination of lake evaporation.

Answer
Analytical Methods : Following are the three analytical methods
for determination of lake evaporation :
1. Water-Budget Method :
i. It is the simplest method and is also the least reliable.
ii. It involves writing the hydrological continuity equation for the lake
and determining the evaporation from a knowledge or estimation of
other variable.
iii. Thus, considering the daily average values for a lake, the continuity
equation is written as :
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 1–31 C (CE-Sem-4)
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P + Vis + V ig = V os + Vog +EL + S + T L ...(1.23.1)
where, P = Daily precipitation.
Vis = Daily surface inflow into the lake.
Vig = Daily groundwater inflow.
Vos = Daily surface outflow from the lake.
Vog = Daily seepage outflow.
EL = Daily lake evaporation.
S = Increase in lake storage in a day.
TL = Daily transpiration loss.
All quantities are in units of volume (m 3) or depth (mm) over a
reference area.
iv. Eq. (1.23.1) can be written as,
EL = P + (V is – V os) + (V ig – V og) – TL – S ...(1.23.2)
v. In this, the terms P, V is, V os and S can be measured. However, it is
not possible to measure Vig, Vog and TL and therefore these quantities
can only be estimated.
2. Energy-Budget Method :
i. The energy-budget method is an application of the law of conservation
of energy.
ii. The energy available for evaporation is determined by considering
the incoming energy, outgoing energy and energy stored in the water
body over a known time interval.
iii. Considering the water body as shown in the Fig. 1.23.3, the energy
balance to the evaporating surface in a period of one day is given by,
Hn = Ha + He + Hg + Hs + Hi ...(1.23.3)
Back radiation Heat loss to air
Hb Ha
Solar
radiation Reflected
Hc rHc Evaporation
LEL

(1 – r ) Hc
Water
Heat stored Advection
Heat flux Hs Hi
into the
ground Hg
Fig. 1.23.1. Energy balance in a water body.
where, Hn = Net heat energy received by the water surface.
Introduction to Hydrology 1–32 C (CE-Sem-8)
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= Hc(1 – r) – Hb
Hc(1 – r)= Incoming solar radiation into a surface of reflection
co-efficient (albedo) r.
Hb = Back radiation (long wave) from water body.
Ha = Sensible heat transfer from water surface to air.
He = Heat energy used up in evaporation = LE L
 = Density of water.
L= Latent heat of evaporation.
EL = Evaporation in mm.
Hg = Heat flux into the ground.
Hs = Heat stored in water body.
Hi = Net heat conducted out of the system by water flow
(advected energy).
iv. All the energy terms are in calories per square mm per day. If the
time periods are short, the terms Hs and Hi can be neglected as
negligibly small.
3. Mass-Transfer Method : This method is based on theories of turbulent
mass transfer in boundary layer to calculate the mass of water vapour
transfer from the surface to the surrounding atmosphere.

PART-5
Evapotranspiration Measurement and Estimation.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.24. Explain evapotrans piration, cons umptive us e,

potential evapotranspiration, actual evapotranspiration, field
capacity, permanent wilting point, available water and their
interaction.
OR
Briefly distinguish between :
i. Actual and potential evapotranspiration.
ii. Field capacity and permanent wilting point.
iii. Depression storage and interception.
iv. Infiltration capacity and infiltration rate.
AKTU 2014-15, 2018-19; Marks 10
OR
Define :
i. Evaporation.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 1–33 C (CE-Sem-4)
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ii. Potential evapotranspiration.
iii. Actual evapotranspiration.
iv. Pan coefficient. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Distinguish between :
i. Infiltration capacity and infiltration rate.
ii. Actual and potential evapotranspiration.
iii. Field capacity and permanent wilting point.
iv. Depression storage and interception.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1. Evapotranspiration :
i. Transpiration is the process by which water leaves the body of a
living plant and reaches the atmosphere as water vapour.
ii. While transpiration takes place, the land area in which plants stand
also lose moisture by the evaporation of water from soil and water
bodies.
iii. In hydrology and irrigation practice, it is found that evaporation and
transpiration processes can be considered advantageously under one
head as evapotranspiration.
2. Consumptive Use : The term consumptive use is also used to denote
the loss by evapotranspiration. For a given set of atmospheric conditions,
evapotranspiration obviously depends on the availability of water.
3. Potential Evapotranspiration :
i. If sufficient moisture is always available completely to meet the needs
of vegetation fully covering the area, the resulting evapotranspiration
is called potential evapotranspiration (PET).
ii. Potential evapotranspiration no longer critically depends on the soil
and plant factors but depends essentially on the climatic factors.
4. Actual Evapotranspiration : The real evapotranspiration occurring
in a specific situation is called actual evapotranspiration (AET).
5. Field Capacity : It is defined as the maximum quantity of water
that the soil can retain against the force of gravity. Any higher moisture
input to a soil at field capacity simply drains away.
6. Permanent Wilting Point :
i. It is the moisture content of a soil at which the moisture is no longer
available in sufficient quantity to sustain the plants.
ii. At this stage, even though the soil contains some moisture, it will be
so held by the soil grains that the roots of the plants are not able to
extract it in sufficient quantities to sustain the plants and consequently
the plants wilt.
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7. Available Water : The difference between the field capacity and
permanent wilting point is called available water, the moisture for
plant growth.
8. Depression Storage : Refer Q. 1.19, Page 1–25C, Unit-1.
9. Interception : Refer Q. 1.19, Page 1–25C, Unit-1.
10. Infiltration Capacity : The maximum rate at which a given soil at a
given time can absorb water is defined as the infiltration capacity. It is
designated as fp and is expressed in units of cm/h. The actual rate of
infiltration can be expressed as
f = fp when i  fp
f = i when i < fp
The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at the beginning of a storm and
has an exponential decay as the time elapses.
11. Infiltration Rate : Infiltration rate, at any instant is the rate at which
water actually enters into the soil during a storm, and is equal to the
infiltration capacity fp or the rainfall rate, whichever is less.
12. Pan Coefficient : The evaporation observed from a pan has to be
corrected to get the evaporation from a lake under similar climatic and
exposure condition thus a co-efficient is introduced as,
Lake evaporation = Cp × pan evaporation.
where, Cp = Pan co-efficient.
The values of Cp in use for different pans are given in Table 1.24.1.
Table 1.24.1. Values of pan coefficient Cp
S. No. Types of Pan Average Value Range
1. Class A land pan 0.70 0.60–0.80
2. ISI pan (modified class A) 0.80 0.65–1.10
3. Colorado sunken pan 0.78 0.75–0.86
4. USGS floating pan 0.80 0.70–0.82

Que 1.25. What is meant by evapotranspiration ? Also explain

measurement of evapotranspiration. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

OR
List the various direct methods of measurement of consumptive
use of water. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Evapotranspiration : Refer Q. 1.24, Page 1–32C, Unit-1.
B. Measurement of Evapotranspiration :
1. Lysimeters :
i. It is a special watertight tank containing a block of soil and set in a
field of growing plants.
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ii. The plants grown in the lysimeter are the same as in the surrounding
field.
iii. Evapotranspiration is estimated in terms of the amount of water
required to maintain constant moisture conditions within the tank
measured either volumetrically or gravimetrically through an
arrangement made in the lysimeter.
iv. Lysimeters should be designed accurately to reproduce the soil
conditions, moisture content, type and size of the vegetation of the
surrounding area.
v. They should be so buried that the soil is at the same level inside and
outside the container.
vi. Lysimeter studies are time consuming and expensive.
2. Field Plots :
i. In special plots all the elements of the water-budget in a known
interval of time are measured and the evapotranspiration determined as,
Evapotranspiration = Precipitation + Irrigation input – Runoff –
Increase in soil storage – Groundwater loss
ii. Measurements are usually confined to precipitation, irrigation input,
surface runoff and soil moisture.
iii. Groundwater loss due to deep percolation is difficult to measure and
can be minimized by keeping the moisture condition of the plot at the
field capacity.
iv. This method provides fairly reliable results.
C. Direct Measurement of Consumptive Use : Following are the
methods of direct measurement of consumptive use of water :
i. Tank and lysimeter methods.
ii. Field experimental plots.
iii. Soil moisture studies.
iv. Integration method.
v. Inflow and outflow studies for large area.

Que 1.26. Explain some important empirical formulae for

estimation of potential evapotranspiration based on climatological
data.

Answer
Empirical Formulae : Following are the empirical formulae for
estimation of potential evapotranspiration :
1. Blaney-Criddle Formula :
i. This formula assumes that the PET is related to hours of sunshine
and temperature, which are taken as measures of solar radiation at
an area.
Introduction to Hydrology 1–36 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. The potential evapotranspiration in a crop-growing season is given
by,
ET = 2.54 KF
F = Ph T f / 100 ...(1.26.1)
where, ET = PET in a crop season in cm.
K = An empirical co-efficient, depends on the type of the
crop and stage of growth.
F = Sum of monthly consumptive use factors for the period.
Ph = Monthly percent of annual day-time hours, depends
on the latitude of the place.
Tf = Mean monthly temperature in °F.
Values of K depend on the month and locality.
2. Thornthwaite Formula :
i. This formula was developed from data of eastern USA and uses only
the mean monthly temperature together with an adjustment for
day-lengths.
ii. The PET is given by,
a
 10T 
ET = 1.6 La   ...(1.26.2)
 It 
where, ET = Monthly PET in cm.
La = Adjustment for the number of hours of daylight and
days in the month, related to the latitude of the place.
T = Mean monthly air temperature °C.
12
It = The total of 12 monthly values of heat index = i .
1

where, i = (T /5)1.514
a = An empirical constant
= 6.75 × 10–7 I3t – 7.71 × 10–5 I2t + 1.792 × 10–2 It + 0.49239.

Que 1.27. For the given data below, determine the

evapotranspiration. The crop factor may be taken as 0.8.
Month Mean Monthly Temp °C Monthly % of Sunshine
Nov 18.0 7.20
Dec 15.0 7.15
Jan 13.5 7.30
Feb 14.5 7.10

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 1–37 C (CE-Sem-4)
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Answer

Given : Data table given in question, Crop factor, K = 0.8

To Find : Evapotranspiration.

9
1. We know that, °F = °C + 32
5
Month Tf (°F) Ph Ph × Tf / 100

Nov. 64.4 7.2 4.64

Dec. 59 7.15 4.22
Jan 56.3 7.3 4.11
Feb 58.1 7.1 4.13

 Ph × Tf / 100 = 17.1

2. From Blaney-Criddle formula, evapotranspiration, ET = 2.54 KF

F =  Ph  Tf / 100
ET = 2.54 × 0.8 × 17.1 = 34.75 cm

PART-6
Initial Losses Interception and Depression Storage.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.28. What is initial loss ? Discuss.

Answer
Initial Loss : In the precipitation reaching the surface of a catchment,
the major abstraction is from the infiltration process. However, two
other processes, though small in magnitude, operate to reduce the
water volume available for runoff and thus act as abstractions.
These are (i) the interception process, and (ii) the depression storage
and together they are called the initial loss.
Interception and Depres s ion Storage : Re fer Q. 1.19,
Page 1–25C, Unit-1.
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Que 1.29. Define the infiltration. Explain the moisture zone in
the soil and the resulting soil moisture zones in the soil.

Answer
Infiltration : It is the flow of water into the ground through the soil
surface.
0 Moisture content
1 Saturation zone
2 Transition zone

3 Transmission zone
Depth

4 Wetting zone

Wetting front
Fig. 1.29.1. Distribution of soil moisture in the infiltration process.
Zone 1 : At the top, a thin layer of saturated zone is created.
Zone 2 : Beneath zone 1 there is a transition zone.
Zone 3 :
i. Next lower zone is the transmission zone where the downward
motion of the moisture takes place.
ii. The moisture content in this zone is above field capacity but
below saturation.
iii. Further, it is characterized by unsaturated flow and fairly uniform
moisture content.
Zone 4 :
i. The last zone is the wetting zone. The soil moisture in this zone
will be at or near field capacity and the moisture content decreases
with the depth.
ii. The boundary of the wetting zone is the wetting front where a
sharp discontinuity exists between the newly wet soil and original
moisture content of the soil.
iii. Depending upon the amount of infiltration and physical properties
of the soil, the wetting front can extend from a few centimeters
to meters.

Que 1.30. What are infiltration capacity and its effect ?

OR
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Draw a typical curve of infiltration rate with time and discuss the
crucially the features. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
A. Infiltration Capacity : Refer Q. 1.24, Page 1–32C, Unit-1.
B. Features : The main features that influence the infiltration are :
1. The soil type (texture, structure, hydrodynamic characteristics). The
soil characteristics influence capillary forces and adsorption.
2. The soil coverage. Vegetation has positive influence on infiltration
by increasing the time of water penetration in soil.
3. The topography and morphology of slopes.
4. The flow supply (rain intensity, irrigation flow).
5. The initial condition of soil humidity. Soil humidity is an important
factor of infiltration regime. The infiltration regime evolves differently
in time for dry or wet soils.
6. Soil compaction due to rain drop impact and other effects. The use of
hard agricultural equipment can have consequences on the surface
layer of soil.
Soil without crust and very porous
i (t )

Uniform soil
Soil covered by a crust

Time
Fig. 1.30.1.
C. Effects of Infiltration : The following are the effects of infiltration :
1. It reduces the magnitude of the flood.
2. It delays the time of arrival of water to the channel.
3. It recharges the ground water reservoir.
4. It reduces soil erosion.
5. It fills the soil pores to its field capacity, thus making water available
to plants.
6. It sustains green vegetation cover on the ground surface and thus
helps in reducing dust storms.

Que 1.31. Describe various models adopted to represent the

variation of infiltration capacity with time.
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Answer
1. Fig. 1.31.1 shows a typical variation of infiltration capacity fp with
time.
2. Cumulative infiltration capacity Fp(t) is defined as the accumulation
of infiltration volume over a time period since the start of the process
and is given by,
t
FP = f p (t)dt ...(1.31.1)
0
3. Thus, the curve Fp(t) vs time in Fig. 1.31.1 is the mass curve of
infiltration.
4. It may be noted that from eq. (1.31.1), it follows that
dFp (t)
fp(t) = ...(1.31.2)
dt
5. Many equations have been proposed to express the curves f p(t) or
Fp(t) for use in hydrological analysis.
F p (t c)
Infiltration capacity fp

Cumulative infiltration
capacity Fp (t)
fp( t) vs t

fc
fc
tc
Time t
Fig. 1.31.1. Curves of infiltration capacity and
cumulative infiltration capacity.
6. Horton’s Equations (1933) : Horton expressed the decay of
infiltration capacity with time as an exponential decay given by,
fp = fc + (f0 – f c)e–Kht for 0  t  t ...(1.31.3)
where, fp = Infiltration capacity at any time t from the start of the
rainfall.
f0 = Initial infiltration capacity at t = 0.
fc = Final steady state infiltration capacity occurring at
t = tc. Also, fc is sometimes known as constant rate or
ultimate infiltration capacity.
Kh = Horton’s decay co-efficient which depends upon soil
characteristics and vegetation cover.
7. Philip’s Equation (1957) : Philip’s two term model relates Fp(t) as
Fp = st1/2 + Kt ...(1.31.4)
where, s = A function of soil suction potential called as
sorptivity.
K = Darcy’s hydraulic conductivity.
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Infiltration capacity could be expressed as,
1
fp = st 1 / 2  K ...(1.31.5.)
2
8. Kostiakov Equation (1932) : Kostiakov model expresses cumulative
infiltration capacity as, Fp = atb ...(1.31.6)
where, a and b are local parameters with a > 0 and 0 < b < 1.
The infiltration capacity would now be expressed by,
fp = (ab)t(b–1) ...(1.31.7)
9. Green-Ampt Equation (1911) : Green and Ampt proposed a model
for infiltration capacity based on Darcy’s law as,
 Sc 
fp = K  1   ...(1.31.8)
 Fp 

where,  = Porosity of the soil.
Sc = Capillary suction at the wetting front.
K = Darcy’s hydraulic conductivity.
Eq. (1.31.8) could be considered as
n
fp = m  ...(1.31.9)
Fp
where, m and n are Green-Ampt parameters of infiltration model.

Que 1.32. The infiltration capacity in a basin is represented by

Horton’s equation as fp = 4.0 + e–3t; where fp is in cm/h and t is in
hours. Assuming the infiltration to take place at capacity rates in a
storm of 60 minutes duration, estimate the depth of infiltration in
the first 15 minutes and in the second 45 minutes of the storm.

Answer

Given : Horton’s equation, fp = 4 + e– 3t, Infiltration duration,

t = 60 min.
To Find : Depth of infiltration in first 15 min and second 45 min.
1. Infiltration capacity, fp = 4 + e – 3t
t
2. Fp = f p dt
0
3. In the first 0.25 hours,
0.25 0.25
 1 
Fp1 =  (4  e 3t ) dt   4 t  e 3 t 
0  3 0
 1 (– 3  0.25 )   1
= (4  0.25) – e  –  – 3  = 1.17 cm
 3
4. In the second 0.75 hours
0.75 0.75
 1 
=  (4  e 3t ) dt   4 t  e 3 t 
0.25  3  0.25
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 1   1 
Fp2 =  4  (0.75)  e( 30.75)    4  (0.75)  e30.25  = 2.12 cm
 3   3 
Que 1.33. Explain infiltration index and types of infiltration
indices.
OR
State the Horton’s equation for infiltration capacity curve and
sketch with the salient components of the curve. And explain briefly
about the -index and W-index. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
Horton’s Equation and Curve Component : Refer Q. 1.31,
Page 1–39C, Unit-1.
1. Infiltration Index : It is the average rate of loss such that the
volume of rainfall in excess of that rate will be equal to the direct
runoff. Estimate of runoff vo lume from large are as having
heterogeneous infiltration loss and rainfall characteristics, are made
by use of infiltration indices.
2. -index :
i. The -index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall volume is
equal to the runoff volume.
ii. The -index is derived from the rainfall hyetograph with the knowledge
of the resulting runoff volume.
iii. The initial loss is also considered as infiltration.
iv. The -value is found by treating it as a constant infiltration capacity.
3. W-index :
i. In an attempt to refine the -index, the initial losses are separated
from the total abstractions and an average value of infiltration rate,
called W-index, is defined as,
P  R  Ia
W= ...(1.33.1)
te
where, P = Total storm precipitation (cm).
R = Total storm runoff (cm).
Ia = Initial losses (cm).
te = Duration of the rainfall excess, i.e., the total
time in which the rainfall intensity is greater
than W (in hours).
W = Defined average rate of infiltration (cm).
ii. Since initial losses are difficult to obtain, the accurate estimation of
W-index is rather difficult.
iii. The minimum value of the W-index obtained under very wet soil
conditions, representing the constant minimum rate of infiltration
of the catchment, is known as Wmin.
iv. It is to be noted that both the -index and W-index vary from storm to
storm.
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Que 1.34. The rates of rainfall for successive 20 minutes period of
a 140 minutes storm are 3.0, 3.0, 9.0, 6.6, 1.2, 1.2 and 6.0 mm/hr.
Assuming the Value of indexas 3.2 mm/hr and initial loss of 0.8 mm.
Find out the net runoff, the total rainfall and value of Windex for the
storm. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Rate of rainfall for successive 20 min period = 3, 3, 9, 6.6, 1.2,

1.2, 6 mm/hr, Value of index = 3.2 mm/hr, Initial loss, Ia = 0.8 mm.
To Find : Net runoff, total rainfall value of Windex.

20
1. Total rainfall, P = [3.0 + 3.0 + 9.0 + 6.6 + 1.2 + 1.2 + 6.0] × = 10 mm
60
2. Runoff, R = (i – ) t
20
R = [(9.0 – 3.2) + (6.6 – 3.2) + (6.0 – 3.2)] × = 4 mm
60
P  R  I a 10  4  0.8
3. Windex =  = 2.23 mm/hr
tr 140 / 60

Que 1.35. The following are the rates of rainfall for successive 20
minutes period of a 140 minutes storm : 2.5, 2.5, 10.0, 7.5, 1.25, 1.25, 5.0
cm/hr. Taking the value of -index as 3.2 cm/hr, find out the net
runoff in cm, the total rainfall and value of Windex.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Rate of rainfall = 2.5, 2.5, 1.0, 7.5, 1.25, 1.25, 5 cm/hr, Time
interval = 20 min, Total time = 140 min, index = 3.2 cm/hr.
To Find : Net runoff, Total rainfall and value of Windex.
10 Rainfall excess
Rainfall Intensity (cm/hr)

7.5
5

2.5 2.5
1.25

 = 3.2 cm/hr

20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Fig. 1.35.1.
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20
1. Total rainfall, P = (2.5 + 2.5 + 10.0 + 7.5 + 1.25 + 1.25 + 5.0) × = 10 cm
60
2. Total Runoff (hatched area),
20
R = [(10 – 3.2) + (7.5 – 3.2) + (5 – 3.2)] ×
= 4.3 cm
60

Windex =
P  R 10  4.3
tr

2.33
= 2.44 cm/hr tr  
140
60
hr  2.33 hr 
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Explain the hydrologic cycle with the help of diagram.

Ans. Refer Q. 1.1, Unit-1.
Q. 2. Define the hydrology and discuss critically the statement
“Knowledge of hydrology is must for any water resource
planning”.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.2, Unit-1.
Q. 3. A lake had water surface elevation of 103.200 m above datum
at the beginning of certain month. In that month, the lake
reserved an average inflow of 6.0 cumecs from surface
runoff sources. If the same period outflow from the lake
have an average value of 6.5 cumecs. Further in that month,
the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and evaporation
from lake surface was estimated at 6.10 cm. Write the water
budget equation for lake and calculate the water surface
elevation of the lake at end of month. The average lake
surface area may be taken as 5000 hectares. Assume that
there is no contribution to or from groundwater storage.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.5, Unit-1.
Q. 4. Explain both type of rain gauge :
A : Automatic rain-gauge.
B : Non-automatic rain-gauge.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.7, Unit-1.
Q. 5. A catchment has five rain-gauge stations. In a year, the
annual rainfalls recorded by the gauges are 78.8 cm, 90.2
cm, 98.6 cm, 102.4 cm and 70.4 cm. For a 6 % error in the
estimation of the mean rainfall, determine the additional
number of gauges needed.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 1–45 C (CE-Sem-4)
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Ans. Refer Q. 1.9, Unit-1.
Q. 6. During a month, rain gauge went out of order while the
other four gauges in the base in reported rainfalls of 110, 90,
120 and 115 mm. If the normal annual rainfalls for these
gauges are 115, 95, 125 and 120 mm respectively and the
rainfall for the broken gauge is 98 mm, estimate the monthly
rainfall at the broken gauge.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.12, Unit-1.
Q. 7. Find the mean precipitation for the area sketched below by
Thiessen’s polygon method. The area composed of a square
plus an equilateral triangle plot of side 5 km. Rainfall
readings in cm at the various stations are given in Fig. 1.

8.0 cm 5.4 cm
1 2
6
3
2.2 cm 8.3 cm
4 5
13.0 cm 4.8 cm
Fig. 1.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.16, Unit-1.
Q. 8. Define evaporation. Discuss the factors that affect the
evaporation from a water body.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.20, Unit-1.
Q. 9. Explain evapotranspiration, consumptive use, potential
evapotranspiration, actual evapotranspiration, field
capacity, permanent wilting point, available water and
their interaction.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.24, Unit-1.
Q. 10. What is meant by evapotranspiration ? Also explain
measurement of evapotranspiration.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.25, Unit-1.
Q. 11. What are infiltration capacity and its effect ?
Ans. Refer Q. 1.30, Unit-1.
Q. 12. Explain infiltration index and types of infiltration indices.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.33, Unit-1.
Q. 13. The following are the rates of rainfall for successive 20
minutes period of a 140 minutes storm : 2.5, 2.5, 10.0, 7.5, 1.25,
1.25, 5.0 cm/hr. Taking the value of -index as 3.2 cm/hr, find
out the net runoff in cm, the total rainfall and value of
Windex.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.35, Unit-1.

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2 Runoff and
Hydrographs

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Runoff Characteristics .............................. 2–2C to 2–7C
of Stream, Mass Curve

Part-2 : Hydrograph, Factor ................................. 2–7C to 2–11C

affecting Flood Hydrographs

Part-3 : Unit Hydrographs .................................. 2–11C to 2–18C

and its Analysis

Part-4 : S-curve Hydrograph, ............................. 2–19C to 2–32C

Synthetic and Instantaneous
Unit Hydrograph
Runoff & Hydrographs 2–2 C (CE-Sem-8)
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PART-1
Runoff Characteristics of Stream, Mass Curve.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. Define runoff and discuss the types of runoff.

Answer
Runoff :
1. Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a
catchment area through a surface channel.
2. It represents the output from the catchment in a given unit of time.
Types of Runoff : Based on the time delay between the precipitation
and the runoff, the runoff is classified into two categories as :
1. Direct Runoff :
i. It is that part of the runoff which enters into the stream immediately
after the rainfall.
ii. It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow and rainfall on the surface
of the stream.
iii. In the case of snow-melt, the resulting flow entering into the stream
is also a direct runoff.
iv. Sometimes terms such as direct storm runoff and storm runoff are
used to designate direct runoff.
2. Base Flow :
i. The delayed flow that reaches to a stream essentially as groundwater
flow is called base flow.
ii. Many times delayed interflow is also included under this category.
iii. In the annual hydrograph of a perennial stream, the base flow is
easily recognized as the slowly decreasing flow of the stream in rainless
periods.

Que 2.2. With the help of typical hydrographs describe the salient
features of :
i. Perennial.
ii. Intermittent.
iii. Ephemeral streams.
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Answer
A study of the annual hydrographs of streams enables one to classify
streams into three classes as :
1. Perennial Stream :
i. A perennial stream is one which always carries some flow in it Fig. 2.2.1.
ii. There is considerable amount of groundwater flow throughout the year.
iii. Even during the dry seasons the watertable will be above the bed of the
stream.
Discharge

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Jan Time (months) Dec
Fig. 2.2.1. Perennial stream.
2. Intermittent Stream :
i. An intermittent stream has limited contribution from the groundwater.
ii. During the wet season the watertable is above the stream bed and there
is a contribution of the base flow to the stream flow.
iii. However, during dry seasons the watertable drops to a level lower than
that of the stream bed and the stream dries up.
iv. Excepting for an occasional storm which can produce a short-duration
flow, the stream remains dry for the most part of the dry months
(Fig. 2.2.2).
Discharge

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Jan Time (months) Dec
Fig. 2.2.2. Intermittent stream.
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3. Ephemeral Stream :
i. An ephemeral stream is one which does not have any base flow
contribution.
ii. The annual hydrograph of such a river shows a series of short-duration
spikes marking flash flows in response to storms (Fig. 2.2.3).
iii. The stream becomes dry soon after the end of the storm flow. Typically
an ephemeral stream does not have any well defined channel.
iv. Most of the rivers in arid zones are of the ephemeral kind.
Discharge

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Jan Time (months) Dec
Fig. 2.2.3. Ephemeral stream.

Que 2.3. Explain with the help of neat sketches, the flow duration
curve method and mass curve method to measure the runoff.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
A. Flow Duration Curve : This question is out of syllabus from session
2019-20.
B. Mass Curve :
1. The flow-mass curve is a plot of the cumulative discharge volume
against time plotted in chronological order.
2. The ordinate of the mass curve, V at any time t is thus,
t

V=  Qdt
t0

where, to = Time at the beginning of the curve.

Q = Discharge rate.
3. Calculation of Storage Volume :
i. Consider a reservoir on the stream whose mass curve is plotted in
Fig. 2.3.1.
ii. If it is assumed that the reservoir is full at the beginning of a dry
period, i.e., when the inflow rate is less than the withdrawal (demand)
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 2–5 C (CE-Sem-8)
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rate, the maximum amount of water drawn from the storage is the
cumulative difference between supply and demand volumes from the
beginning of the dry season. Thus the storage required S is,
S = Maximum of (VD – Vs)
where, V D = Demand volume, V s = Supply volume.

B
3
Accumulated flow volume, V in Mm

D

S2

E
C
N Rates of flow
D

Volume
F Qav
S1 Qd
E
C
M
Unit time
A
tc tm tn
Time (months)
Fig. 2.3.1. Flow-mass curve.

iii. The storage, S which is the maximum cumulative deficiency in any

dry season is obtained as the maximum difference in the ordinate
between mass curves of supply and demand.

Que 2.4. What is runoff ? What are the factors that affect the
runoff from a catchment area ? Describe the methods of computing
runoff from a catchment area. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
Runoff : Refer Q. 2.1, Page 2–2C, Unit-2.
Factors : Following are the factors that affect the runoff from a
catchment area :
1. Precipitation Characteristics :
i. This is the most important factor on which runoff depends. Important
precipitation characteristics are :
a. Intensity. b. Duration.
c. Aerial distribution. d. Direction of storm movement.
e. Form of precipitation. f. Evapo-transpiration.
Runoff & Hydrographs 2–6 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. More the rainfall more will be the runoff. Runoff depends on the type of
the storm causing precipitation, and also upon its duration.
iii. Runoff also increases with the intensity of rainfall. Runoff also increases
with the extent of the storm over the catchment.
iv. If the rainfall intensity is very less, and it rains as light showers, much of
the water will be lost in infiltration and evaporation etc., and the runoff
will be less. Greater evapo-transpiration will result in lesser runoff.
v. Similarly, if the precipitation is in the form of snow, or if water freezes
as it falls, it will be retained in the catchment till temperature increases.
Thus runoff will be less.
2. Shape and Size of the Catchment :
i. The runoff from a catchment also depends upon the size, shape and
location of the catchment.
ii. More intense rainfalls are generally distributed over a relatively smaller
area. A stream collecting water from a small catchment area is likely to
give greater runoff intensity per unit area.
iii. In the case of a very big catchment, uniform rain seldom falls over the
entire area, with the result that only very few tributaries of the stream
feed water to main stream during a particular storm.
iv. Thus runoff intensity of larger stream, per unit catchment area is lesser.
v. In the case of a fan or sector shaped catchment Fig. 2.4.1(a) all the
tributaries are approximately of the same size.
vi. Such catchment gives greater runoff since the peak flood from the
tributaries is likely to reach the main stream approximately at the same
time.
vii. In the case of a fern leaf catchment Fig. 2.4.1(b), the tributaries are
generally of different lengths, and meet the main stream at the regular
intervals.
Watershed

Watershed

Main
stream
Watershed Main stream
(a) Fan shaped catchment (b) Fern left catchment
Fig. 2.4.1. Effect of shape of the catchment.
3. Topography of Catchment :
i. The runoff depends upon whether the surface of the catchment is smooth
or rugged.
ii. If the surface slope is steep, water will flow quickly, and absorption and
evaporation losses will be less, resulting in greater runoff.
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iii. If the catchment is mountainous, and is on the windward side of the
mountains, the intensity of rainfall will be more, and hence runoff will
also be more.
4. Orientation of Watershed :
i. The orientation of watershed affects the evaporation and transpiration
loss by influencing the amount of heat received from the sun.
ii. The north and south orientation of watershed affects the melting time
of collected snow and hence the runoff.
iii. Similarly, in mountainous watershed, the windward side of the mountain
receives comparatively higher intense rainfall than the leeward side.
Methods : This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.

PART-2
Hydrograph, Factor affecting Flood Hydrographs.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.5. What is hydrograph ? Draw a single peaked hydrograph

and explain its components. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

OR
Describe the analysis of the recession limb of a flood hydrograph.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
A. Hydrograph : A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted against time
chronologically is called a hydrograph.
B. Components of Hydrograph : The essential components of a
hydrograph are described below :
1. Rising Limb :
i. The rising limb of a hydrograph, also known as concentration curve
represents the increase in discharge due to the gradual building up of
storage in channels and over the catchment surface.
ii. The initial losses and high infiltration losses during the early period of
a storm cause the discharge to rise rather slowly in the initial periods.
iii. As the storm continues, more and more flow from distant parts reach
the basin outlet.
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iv. Simultaneously the infiltration losses also decrease with time. Thus,
under a uniform storm over the catchment, the runoff increases rapidly
with time.
v. As indicated earlier, the basin and storm characteristics control the
shape of the rising limb of a hydrograph.
2. Crest Segment :
i. The crest segment is one of the most important parts of a hydrograph
as it contains the peak flow.
ii. The peak flow occurs when the runoff from various parts of the catchment
simultaneously contribute amounts to achieve the maximum amount
of flow at the basin outlet.
iii. Generally, for large catchments, the peak flow occurs after the stopping
of rainfall, the time interval from the centre of mass of rainfall to the
peak being essentially controlled by basin and storm characteristics.

D hour
Hydrograph components
MA = Base flow recession
Rainfall AB = Rising limb
BC = Crest segment
P CD = Falling limb
DN = Base flow recession
Discharge (m3/s)

B C Points B and C = Inflection points

Direct runoff
Peak
flood
M
A D
N
Base flow

Time (hours)
Fig. 2.5.1. Elements of a flood hydrograph.
3. Recession Limb :
i. The recession limb, which extends from the point of inflection at the
end of the crest segment (point C in Fig. 2.5.1) to the commencement
of the natural groundwater flow (point D in Fig. 2.5.1) represents the
withdrawal of water from the storage built up in the basin during the
earlier phases of the hydrograph.
ii. The starting point of the recession limb, i.e., the point of inflection
represents the condition of maximum storage.
iii. Since the depletion of storage takes place after the stopping of rainfall,
the shape of this part of the hydrograph is independent of storm
characteristics and depends entirely on the basin characteristics.
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iv. The storage of water in the basin exists as (i) surface storage, which
includes both surface detention and channel storage, (ii) interflow
storage, and (iii) groundwater storage, i.e., base-flow storage.

Que 2.6. What do you mean by design flood ? What are the factors
affecting the flood hydrograph ?

Answer
A. Design Flood : It is the value of the instantaneous peak discharge
adopted for the design of a particular project or any of its structure. The
term design flood is used to denote the maximum flood flow that could
be passed without damage or serious threat to the stability of engineering
structure.
B. Factors : Following are the factors affecting the flood hydrograph :
1. Physiographic Factors :
i. Basin characteristics :
a. Shape. b. Size.
c. Slope. d. Nature of the valley.
e. Elevation. f. Drainage density.
ii. Infiltration characteristics :
a. Land use and cover.
b. Soil type and geological conditions.
c. Lakes, swamps and other storage.
iii. Channel characteristics : Cross-section, roughness, and storage capacity.
2. Climatic Factors :
i. Storm characteristics : Precipitation, intensity, duration, magnitude,
and movement of storm.
ii. Initial loss.
iii. Evapotranspiration.
3. Shape of the Basin :
i. The shape of the basin influences the time taken for water from the
remote parts of the catchment to arrive at the outlet. Thus, the occurrence
of the peak and hence the shape of the hydrograph are affected by the
basin shape.
ii. Fan-shaped, i.e., nearly semi circular shaped catchments give high
peak and narrow hydrographs while elongated catchments give broad
and low-peaked hydrographs.
4. Size :
i. Small basins behave different from the large ones in terms of the
relative importance of various phases of the runoff phenomenon.
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ii. In small catchments, the overland flow phase is predominant over the
channel flow.
iii. Hence the land use and intensity of rainfall have important role on
the peak flood. On large basins these effects are suppressed as the
channel flow phase is more predominant.
5. Slope :
i. The slope of the main stream controls the velocity of flow in the
channel.
ii. As the recession limb of the hydrograph represents the depletion of
storage, the stream channel slope will have a pronounced effect on
this part of the hydrograph.
iii. Large stream slopes give rise to quicker depletion of storage and
hence result in steeper recession limbs of hydrographs.
iv. The basin slope is important in small catchments where the overland
flow is relatively more important. In such cases the steeper slope of
the catchment results in larger peak discharges.
6. Drainage Density :
i. The drainage density is defined as the ratio of the total channel length
to the total drainage area.
ii. A large drainage density creates situation conducive for quick disposal
of runoff down the channels.
iii. This fast response is reflected in a pronounced peaked discharge.
iv. In basins with smaller drainage densities, the overland flow is predominant
and the resulting hydrograph is squat with a slowly rising limb.
7. Climatic Factors :
i. Among climatic factors the intensity, duration, and direction of storm
movement are the three important ones affecting the shape of a flood
hydrograph.
ii. For a given duration, the peak and volume of the surface runoff are
essentially proportional to the intensity of rainfall.
iii. This aspect is made use of in the unit hydrograph theory of estimating
peak-flow hydrographs.

Que 2.7. With a neat sketch, explain the various components of a

flood hydrograph. Also, explain any one method of base flow
separation. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
A. Components : Refer Q. 2.5, Page 2–7C, Unit-2.
B. Method of Base Flow Separation : Following are the methods of
base flow separation :
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1. Straight line method.
2. Two lines method.
3. Curves extension method.
Straight Line Method :
1. In this method, the separation of the base flow is achieved by joining
with a straight line the beginning of the surface runoff to a point on the
recession limb representing the end of the direct runoff.
2. In Fig. 2.7.1, point A represents the beginning of the direct runoff and it
is usually easy to identify in view of the sharp change in the runoff rate
at that point.
Peak N days

Pi
Discharge

A B E

Time
Fig. 2.7.1. Base flow separation method.
3. Point B, marking the end of the direct runoff is rather difficult to locate
exactly. An empirical equation for the time interval N (days) from the
peak to the point B is
N = 0.83 A0.2
where, A = Drainage area in km2
4. Points A and B are joined by a straight line to demarcate to the base flow
and surface runoff.
5. It should be realized that the value of N obtained as above is only
approximate and the position of B should be decided by considering a
number of hydrographs for the catchment.

PART-3
Unit Hydrographs and its Analysis.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.8. Define unit hydrograph. Discuss the assumption used

in unit hydrograph.
Runoff & Hydrographs 2–12 C (CE-Sem-8)
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OR
Discuss the several assumptions underlying the UH method in
hydrological analysis. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
A. Unit Hydrograph :
1. A unit hydrograph (or unit-graph) is the direct runoff hydrograph
resulting from one centimeter (or one millimeter or one inch) of excess
rainfall generated uniformly over a catchment area at a constant rate
for an effective duration.
2. The unit hydrograph for a catchment basin is the direct runoff
hydrograph produced by a unit (usually 1 cm) rainfall excess from a
storm of D-hour duration and therefore, is the lumped response of the
basin to the storm.
B. Assumptions : Following are the basic assumptions in the unit
hydrograph theory :
1. The excess rainfall has a constant intensity (1/D cm/hr) within effective
storm duration of D-hours.
2. The excess rainfall (giving rise to 1 cm depth of runoff) is uniformly
distributed throughout the entire catchment basin.
3. The base time of direct runoff hydrograph (i.e., the duration of the
direct runoff resulting from an excess rainfall of given duration) is
constant.
4. The ordinates of all direct runoff hydrographs of a common base
time are directly proportional to the total amount of direct runoff
represented by each hydrograph.
5. For a given catchment basin, the hydrograph, resulting from a given
excess rainfall, reflects the unchanging characteristics of the catchment
basin.

Que 2.9. Define unit hydrograph. Explain its assumption and

uses. A 12-hr UH of a catchment is triangular in the shape with a
base width of 144 hr and peak discharge of 23 m3/s. Calculate the
area of the catchment. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Unit Hydrograph and Assumption : Refer Q. 2.8, Page 2–11C, Unit-2.
B. Uses : Following are the uses of unit hydrograph :
1. It is use in the development of flood hydrographs for extreme rainfall
magnitudes for use in the design of hydraulic structures.
2. It is use in extension of flood-flow records based on rainfall records.
3. It is use in development of flood forecasting and warning systems
based on rainfall.
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C. Numerical :
Given : Base width, B = 144 hr, Peak discharge = 23 m3/sec
To Find : Area of catchment
Discharge
23 m 3/sec

Time
144 hr.

Fig. 2.9.1.
We know that, Area of UH = Area of catchment × 1 cm
(1 / 2) × B × 60 × 60 × peak = Area × 1 cm
(1/2) × 144 × 60 × 60 × 23 = A × (1/100)
A = 596160000 m2 = 596.16 km2

Que 2.10. Explain in details of hydrograph with neat sketch. Also

explain theory of unit hydrograph and limitation of unit
hydrograph. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
A. Hydrograph : Refer Q. 2.5, Page 2–7C, Unit-2.
B. Theory of Unit Hydrograph : Refer Q. 2.8, Page 2–11C, Unit-2.
C. Limitations of Unit Hydrograph : Following are the limitations to
the use of unit hydrographs :
1. Precipitation must be from rainfall only. Snow-melt runoff cannot be
satisfactory represented by unit hydrograph.
2. The catchment should not have unusually large storages in terms of
tanks, ponds, large flood-bank storages, etc., which affect the linear
relationship between storage and discharge.
3. If the precipitation is decidedly non-uniform, unit hydrographs can
not be expected to give good results.
4. In the use of unit hydrographs very accurate results should not be
expected. Variations in the hydrograph base of as much as ± 20 % and
in the peak discharge by ± 10 % are normally considered acceptable.

Que 2.11. How would you derive the unit hydrograph from a flood
hydrograph ?
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Answer
Derivation of Unit Hydrograph : The following are the steps for
constructing a unit hydrograph of some unit duration from a storm
hydrograph of the same unit duration Fig. 2.11.1 :

P N Days

Flood hydrograph
Discharge

Unit
hydrograph
A D

E
Base flow

Time
Fig. 2.11.1. Construction of unit hydrograph.

1. From the past records, select some unit period of intense rainfall duration
corresponding to an isolated storm uniformly distributed over the area.
2. From the past records of the river discharge for that storm, plot the
storm hydrograph for some days before and after the period of rainfall
of that unit duration.
3. Subtracting the ordinates of base flow from the total ordinates, find the
ordinates of direct runoff.
4. Calculate direct runoff n (in centimetres) by the expression :
(O)  t
Direct runoff, n = 0.36 cm
A
where, O = Sum of the discharge ordinates (direct runoff) in cumecs.
t = Time interval between successive ordinates in hours.
A = Area of drainage basin in sq. km.
5. Calculate the ordinates of unit hydrograph by the relation :
Ordinate of direct runoff
Ordinate of unit hydrograph =
Direct runoff in cm
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Que 2.12. What do you mean by design flood ? What are the factors
affecting the flood hydrograph ? Explain the procedure of using a
unit hydrograph to develop the flood hydrograph due to a storm in
a catchment. AKTU 2016-17, 2017-18; Marks 10

Answer
A. Design Flood and Factors : Refer Q. 2.6, Page 2–9C, Unit-2.
B. Procedure : The unit hydrograph is known and the design storm is
assumed, we proceed as follows :
1. Plot the assumed design storm as a bar diagram with the unit hydrograph
duration as the time interval. For example, storm of 16-hour duration
will be represented as four rainfall intervals of four hours each, if a
4-hour unit hydrograph is given.
2. Subtract the infiltration losses to obtain effective precipitation.
3. Applying linearity and superposition principles, obtain hydrographs
corresponding to each storm interval by multiplying the unit hydrograph
ordinates by the precipitation depths during the interval.
4. Add the ordinates of the hydrographs corresponding to each time interval
to obtain the direct runoff hydrograph for the composite storm.
5. Add the estimated base flow to get the anticipated flood hydrograph.

Que 2.13. Given below are the ordinates of 6-h unit hydrograph
for a catchment. Calculate the ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph
due to a rainfall excess of 3.5 cm occurring in 6-h.
Time (hr) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66
Unit
Ordinate 0 25 50 85 125 160 185 160 110 60 36 25 116 8 0
(m3/sec)

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer

Given : The ordinates of 6-h unit hydrograph, Rainfall excess = 3.5 cm

To Find : The ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph.
[Note : In the above data value 116 is wrong. We solve here the question
by taking the value only 16. As the time passes, runoff decreases
practically, also the intensity of rain decreases.]
1. The desired ordinates of the DRH are obtained by multiplying the
ordinates of the unit hydrograph by a factor of 3.5 as in Table 2.13.1.
2. The resulting DRH as also the unit hydrograph are shown in
Fig. 2.13.1.
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6-h

3.5 cm
Discharge (m 3/sec)
700
600

500
400 3.5 cm DRH
300
200

100 6-h UH

0 6 12 18 24
30 36 42 48 54 60 66 77
Time (hours)
Fig. 2.13.1. 3.5 cm DRH derived from 6-h Unit Hydrograph.

Table 2.13.1 : Calculating of DRH due to 3.5 cm excess rainfall.

Time (hr) Ordinate of 6-h Ordinate of 3.5 cm
Unit Hydrograph (m3/sec) DRH (m3/sec)
0 0 0
3 25 87.5
6 50 175.0
9 85 297.5
12 125 437.5
15 160 560.0
18 185 647.5
24 160 560.0
30 110 385.0
36 60 210.0
42 36 126.0
48 25 87.5
54 16 56.0
60 8 28.0
66 0 0

3. Note that the time base of DRH is not changed and remains the same as
that of the unit hydrograph. The intervals of coordinates of the unit
hydrograph are not in any way related to the duration of the rainfall
excess.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 2–17 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Que 2.14. The following are the ordinates for a flood hydrograph
resulting from an isolated storm of 6-hours duration.
Time (hr) 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96
Ordinates of 5 15 40 80 60 50 25 15 5
Flood
Hydrograph

Determine the ordinates of 1 cm, 6-hour unit hydrograph if the

catchment area is 450 km2. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Ordinates of a hydrograph are given in table, Area of

catchment, A = 450 km2.
To Find : The ordinates of 6-h unit hydrograph.
1. Let us assume a constant base flow of 5 cumecs.
2. The ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph are obtained by subtracting
base flow (= 5 cumecs) from each ordinate of the given flood hydrograph,
as given in the Table. 2.14.1.
Table 2.14.1.
Time in Ordinates of Flood Ordinate of Ordinate of
Hours Hydrograph Direct Runoff Unit Hydrograph
0 5 0 0
12 15 10 4.17
24 40 35 14.58
36 80 75 31.25
48 60 55 22.92
60 50 45 18.75
72 25 20 8.33
84 15 10 4.17
96 5 0 0
3. The direct runoff is given by,
( O)  t
n = 0.36 cm
A
O = 0 + 10 + 35 + 75 + 55 + 45 + 20 + 10 + 0 = 250 cumecs
t = Time interval between ordinates, in hours, = 12 hours
Direct runoff, n = (0.36 × 250 × 12) /450 = 2.4 cm
Runoff & Hydrographs 2–18 C (CE-Sem-8)
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4. Hence the ordinates of 6-hour unit hydrograph are obtained by dividing
the ordinates of direct runoff by n = 2.4, as shown in the Table 2.14.1.

Que 2.15. Unit hydrograph ordinates of 4 hour are given below.

Find out ordinates of 8 hr.
Time (hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
UHO 0 17 28 42 72 60 47 32 15 0

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer

Given : The ordinates of 4-h unit hydrograph

To Find : The ordinates of 8-h unit hydrograph
1. When 2 unit hydrographs, each of 4-hr duration, are added together
placed at 4-hr lag successively from one another, then we will get the
ordinates of 8-hr.
2. Surface runoff hydrograph, containing 2 cm of direct runoff. Hence
the ordinates of a 8-hr unit hydrograph are obtained by dividing each
of the ordinates of 8-hr hydrograph by 2.
3. The computations are done in table 2.15.1.
Table 2.15.1.
Time 1st 4 hr 2nd 4 hr Total 8 hr Ordinates
(hr) UH UH hydrograph of 8 hr
of 2 cm runoff UH
0 0 0 0
4 17 0 17 8.5
8 28 17 45 22.5
12 42 28 70 35
16 72 42 114 57
20 60 72 132 66
24 47 60 107 53.5
28 32 47 79 39.5
32 15 32 47 23.5
36 0 15 15 7.5
0 0 0
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 2–19 C (CE-Sem-8)
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PART-4
S-Curve Hydrograph, Synthetic and Instantaneous
Unit Hydrograph.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.16. Explain the methods of construction of unit

hydrograph of different durations.
OR
Explain the concept of S-hydrograph and under what
circumstances you would adoption of this hydrograph. Give a clear
associated sketch. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
Method of Construction of Unit Hydrograph :
1. Ideally, unit hydrographs are derived from simple isolated storms and
if the duration of the various storms do not differ very much, say
within a band of ± 20 % D, they would all be grouped under one
average duration of D-h.
2. If in practical applications unit hydrographs of different durations are
needed they are best derived from field data.
3. Lack of adequate data normally precludes development of unit
hydrographs covering a wide range of durations for a given catchment.
4. Under such conditions a D-hour unit hydrograph is used to develop
unit hydrographs of differing duration nD.
5. Two methods are available for this purpose :
i. Method of Superposition :
a. If a D-h unit hydrograph is available, and it is desired to develop
a unit hydrograph of nD-h, where n is an integer, it is easily
accomplished by superposing n unit hydrographs with each graph
separated from the previous on by D-h. Fig. 2.16.1 shows three
4-h unit hydrographs A, B and C.
Curve B begins 4 h after A and C begins 4-h, after B.
b. Thus the combination of these three curves is a DRH of 3 cm due
to an excess rainfall (ER) of 12-h duration. If the ordinates of this
DRH are now divided by 3, one obtains a 12-h unit hydrograph.
The calculations are easy if performed in a tabular form.
Runoff & Hydrographs 2–20 C (CE-Sem-8)
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0 4 8 12h
1 1 1
Discharge (m3/sec) 400 cm cm cm

F=A+B+C
300
= DRH of 3 cm

A B C
200

100

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52h
0
1 cm
Discharge (m 3/sec)

12-h
200
12-h unit hydrograph
= (ordinates of F)/3
100

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52h
Time hours
Fig. 2.16.1.
ii. The S-curve :
a. If it is desired to develop a unit hydrograph of duration mD,
where m is a fraction, the method of superposition cannot be
used.
b. A different technique known as the S-curve method is adopted in
such cases, and this method is applicable for rational values of m.
c. The S-curve, also known as S-hydrograph is a hydrograph produced
by a continuous effective rainfall at a constant rate for an infinite
period.
d. It is a curve obtained by summation of an infinite series of
D-h unit hydrographs spaced D-h apart.
e. Fig. 2.16.2 shows such a series of D-h hydrograph arranged with
their starting points D-h apart.
f. At any given time the ordinates of the various curves occurring
at that time coordinate are summed up to obtain ordinates of the
S-curve.
g. A smooth curve through these ordinates result in an S-shaped
curve called S-curve.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 2–21 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Unit rainfall excess equals 1 cm in D-h
1
cm
Average excess rainfall intensity = 1/ D cm/m
D

S-curve
Discharge (m3 /sec)

5
1 ui
n
1 ui = Qs
(u1 + u2 + u 3)

4
1 ui
(u1 + u2)

u1
u4
u3
u2 u5
u1 u6 u7
0
0 Time in hours
Fig. 2.16.2. S-curve.
h. This S-curve is due to a D-h unit hydrograph. It has an initial
steep portion and reaches a maximum equilibrium discharge at a
time equal to the time base of the first unit hydrograph.
i. The average intensity of ER producing the S-curve is 1/D cm/h
and the equilibrium discharge,
A 4
Qs =   10  m3/h
D 
where, A = Area of the catchment in km 2, and D = Duration in
hours of ER of the unit hydrograph used in deriving the S-curve.
Alternatively,
A
Qs = 2.778 m3/sec
D
where, A is in the km2, and D is in h.
j. The quantity Qs represents the maximum rate at which an ER
intensity of 1/D cm/h can drain out of a catchment of area A. In
actual construction of an S-curve, it is found that the curve oscillates
in the top portion at around the equilibrium value due to
magnification and accumulation of small errors in the hydrograph.
When it occurs, an average smooth curve is drawn such that it
reaches a value Qs at the time base of the unit hydrograph.
Runoff & Hydrographs 2–22 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Que 2.17. The ordinate of a 4-hour unit hydrograph are given
below. Us ing the principle of s uperposition construct an
S-hydrograph and calculate the discharge at equilibrium stage and
the time of its occurrence from the beginning of direct runoff.
Time (hour) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
cumecs 0 4 12 6 3 1 0

Answer

Given : Discharges at 4 hr time periods (in table).

To Find : Discharge at equilibrium stage and time of its occurrence.
1. Computations are shown in Table 2.17.1. In this table, col. 2 shows the
ordinates of the 4-h unit hydrograph. col. 3 gives the S-curve additions
and col. 4 gives the ordinates of the S-curve.
2. The sequence of entry in col. 3 is shown by arrows. Values of entries in
col. 4 are obtained by summing up of entries in col. 2 and col. 4 along
each row.
Table 2.17.1. Construction of S-curve.

Time in Ordinate of S-curve S-curve Ordinate

3 3
hours 4-h UH Addition (m /sec) (m /sec)

Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 = (col. 2 + col. 3)

0 0 0
4 4 0 4
8 12 4 16
12 6 16 22
16 3 22 25
20 1 25 26
24 0 26 26

3. At, t = 4 hours; Ordinate of 4-h UH = 4 m3/sec

S-curve addition = Ordinate of 4-h UH @ {t = (4 – 4) = 0 hours} = 0
Hence S-curve ordinate = 4 + 0 = 4 m3/sec
4. At, t = 8 hours; Ordinate of 4-h UH = 12 m3/sec
S-curve addition= Ordinate of 4-h UH @ {t = (8 – 4) = 4 hours) = 4 m3/sec
Hence S-curve ordinate = 12 + 4 = 16 m3/sec
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 2–23 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5. At, t = 12 hours; Ordinate of 4-h UH = 6 m3/sec
S-curve addition = Ordinate of 4-h UH @ {t = (12 – 4) = 8 hours} = 16 m3/sec
Hence S-curve ordinate = 6 + 16 = 22 m3/sec
6. This calculation is repeated for all time intervals till t = Base width of
UH = 24 hours. Plots of the 4-h UH and the derived S-curve are shown
in Fig. 2.17.1.

30

25
Discharge (m 3/sec)

S-curce
20

15
10
4-h UH
5
0
0 6 12 18 24 30
Time (h)
Fig. 2.17.1. Construction of S-curve.

7. Discharge at equilibrium stage is equal to 26 m3/sec after 20 hr of storm

or rainfall.

Que 2.18. The ordinates of a 4-h unit hydrograph are given.

Determine the ordinates of an S-curve hydrograph and using this,
determine the ordinates of 2-h unit hydrograph.

Time (hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
4-h UH Ordinate 0 20 80 130 150 130 90 52 27 15 5 0
(m3 / sec)

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Ordinates of a 4-h unit hydrograph are given in table.

To Find : The ordinates of S-curve hydrograph and the ordinates of
2-h unit hydrograph.

Final adjusted values are given in col 7.

Unadjusted values are given in parentheses.
 Ordinate Col. (4) 2-h UH
of 4-h S-curve S-curve S-curve – Col. (5) Ordinates
Time UH Addition Ordinate Lagged by DRH of Col.(6) / (2/4)
(hr) (m3/sec) (m3/sec) (m3/sec) (2/4) = 0.5 cm (m3/sec)

Que 2.19.
2h
Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 = Col. (2) + (3) Col. 5 Col. 6 Col. 7
0 0 – 0 – 0 0
2 8 – 8 0 8 16
4 20 0 20 8 12 24
Runoff & Hydrographs

6 43 8 51 20 31 62
8 80 20 100 51 49 98
10 110 51 161 100 61 122
12 130 100 230 161 69 138
14 146 161 307 230 77 154
16 150 230 380 307 73 146
18 142 307 449 380 69 138
20 130 380 510 449 61 122
22 112 449 561 510 51 102
24 90 510 600 561 39 78
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26 70 561 631 600 31 62

28 52 600 652 631 21 42
30 38 631 669 652 17 34
32 27 652 679 669 10 20
34 20 669 689 679 10 (20)15
36 15 679 694 689 5 (10)10
38 10 689 699 694 5 (10)6
40 5 694 699 699 (0) (0)3
42 2 699 701 699 (2) (4)0
44 0 699 699 701 (– 2) (– 4)0

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Determine the ordinates of a 3-hr unit hydrograph for the basin.
The ordinates of a 4-hr unit hydrograph of a basin of

68, 58, 49, 41, 34, 27, 23, 17, 13, 9, 6, 3 and 1.5 m3/s respectively.
2–24 C (CE-Sem-8)

area 300 km2 measured at 1-hr intervals are 6, 36, 66, 91, 106, 93, 79,
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 2–25 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer
Given : Area of basin, A = 300 km2
To Find : The ordinates of a 3-h unit hydrograph from the basin.
1. Column-2 of table below given the 4-hr unit hydrograph while column-
4 gives the ordinates of S-curve derived from it. Column-5 gives the
ordinates of the offset S-curve by to = 3-hr. Column-6 gives the
difference y between the ordinates of the two S-curve.
2. The ordinate of the 3-hr unit hydrograph are given by,
O = y(T0 / t0) = (4 / 3) y
where, T0 = 4-hr unit hydrograph.
t0 = 3-hr unit hydrograph.
4
Time 4 h-Unit Offset Ordinate of Ordinate y O= y
3
(hr) Hydrograph Ordinate of S-curve offset S-
curve
Col. (1) Col. (2) Col. (3) Col. (4) Col. (5) Col. (6) Col. (7)
00 0 – 0 – 0 0
01 6 – 6 – 6 8
02 36 – 36 – 36 48
03 66 – 66 0 66 88
04 91 0 91 6 85 113.3
05 106 6 112 36 76 101.33
06 93 36 129 66 63 84
07 79 66 145 91 54 72
08 68 91 159 112 47 62.67
09 58 112 170 129 41 54.67
10 49 129 178 145 33 44
11 41 145 186 159 27 36
12 34 159 193 170 23 30.67
13 27 170 197 178 19 25.33
14 23 178 201 186 15 20
15 17 186 203 193 10 13.33
16 13 193 206 197 9 12
17 9 197 206 201 5 6.67
18 6 201 207 203 4 5.33
19 3 203 206 206 0 0
20 1.5 206 207.5 206 1.5 2

207.5 207 0.5 0.67

Runoff & Hydrographs 2–26 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Que 2.20. The ordinates of a 2-h unit hydrograph are given.
Determine the ordinates of an S-curve hydrograph and using this
determine the ordinate of 4-h unit hydrograph.
Time (hr) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
2-h UH
Ordinate (m3/sec) 0 25 100 160 190 170 110 70 30 20 6 0

Answer

Given : Ordinates of a 2-h unit hydrograph given in table, T0 = 2 hr,

t0 = 4 hr.
To Find : The ordinates of a S-curve hydrograph and the ordinates
of 4-h unit hydrograph.

Time 2-h UH S-curve S-curve S-curve y 4-h UH

(hr) Ordinate Addition Ordinate Legged (Col. 5 – Ordinate
(m 3/sec) (m 3/sec) (Col. 2 + by 4 hr Col. 4) (m 3/sec)
Col. 3) y T0/t0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 0 – 0 – 0 0

2 25 0 25 – 25 12.5
4 100 25 125 0 125 62.5

6 160 125 285 25 260 130

8 190 285 475 125 350 175

10 170 475 645 285 360 180

12 110 645 755 475 280 140

14 70 755 825 645 180 90

16 30 825 855 755 100 50

18 20 855 875 825 50 25

20 6 875 881 855 26 13

22 0 881 881 875 6 3

24 – 881 881 881 0 0

Que 2.21. Write a short note on ‘Synthetic unit hydrograph’.

Describe how Snyder’s synthetic unit hydrograph is derived.
OR
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 2–27 C (CE-Sem-8)
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How will you derive the synthetic unit hydrograph from a number
of unit hydrograph ? Illustrate the method with suitable example
in a tabular form. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Synthetic Unit Hydrograph :
1. We have seen that if the rainfall and runoff records are available, unit
hydrographs can be derived.
2. However, in the case of ungauged rivers, these data are not available.
In some other cases, the data available may be scanty.
3. For such catchments, unit hydrographs are derived by relating the
selected basin characteristics to the unit hydrograph shape.
4. The resulting hydrograph, derived from basin characteristics
relationship is known as a synthetic unit hydrograph.
B. Snyder’s Method :
1. Snyder studied the data of catchments of Appalachian Highlands of
Eastern United States, and then developed empirical equations for
synthetic hydrograph.
2. Snyder selected three parameters of unit hydrograph :
i. Base width, Tb
ii. Peak discharge, Qp
iii. Basin lag, tL.
T

tL = Basin lag
T P
Qp —
2

Q
0.75 Q p W75

0.50 Q p W50

Qp

Tb
Time, t
Fig. 2.21.1. Parameters of synthetic unit hydrograph.
3. The equations given by him take into account catchment area, shape
of basin, topography, channel slopes, stream density and channel
storage.
Runoff & Hydrographs 2–28 C (CE-Sem-8)
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4. He eliminated all these parameters except the first two, by including
them in a single co-efficient Ct.
5. He dealt with the size and shape of the catchment by measuring the
length of the main stream channel, by proposing the following equation
for basin lag :
tL = Ct(Lca × L)0.3 ...(2.21.1)
where, tL = Basin lag in hours, (basin lag is the time
between mass of centre of unit rainfall of T
hour duration and runoff peak flow)
Ct = A co-efficient depending upon units and
drainage basin characteristics (1.35 – 1.65).
L = Distance from station to catchment boundary
measured along the main stream, in km.
Lca = Distance along the main stream from gauging
station to a point opposite the centroid of the
watershed, in km.
6. The peak discharge of Qp unit hydrograph of standard duration T is
given by,
2.778 C p A
Qp = ...(2.21.2)
tL
where, Qp = Peak discharge (m3/sec).
A = Catchment area (km2).
Cp = A regional constant, ranging from 0.56 to 0.69.
7. Snyder adopted the standard duration (T) hours of effective rainfall
given by,
T = (2 / 11)tL ...(2.21.3)
8. The duration of surface runoff or the base length Tb of unit hydrograph
is given by,
Tb = 3  3  tL  (days)
 24 
When Tb is expressed in hours,
Tb = 72 + 3 tL ...(2.21.4)
(where both Tb and tL are in hours)
9. It is found that equation (2.21.4) gives unreasonably long base periods
for small catchments. Some investigators recommend that a base period
equal to five times the time to peak should be taken :
T t 
Tb = 5   tL  = 5  L  tL 
2   11 
or Tb = 5.455 tL ...(2.21.5)
Alternatively, assuming a triangular shape of unit hydrograph,
Tb = 5.556/qp
10. Sketching of unit hydrographs becomes easier by adopting the following
recommendations given by US Army Corps of Engineers, for widths of
unit hydrographs at 50 and 75 % of the peak discharge :
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 2–29 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5.87
W50 =
q1.08
p

W50
and W75 =
1.75
where, W50 = Width of unit hydrograph in hours, at 50 % peak discharge.
W75 = Width of unit hydrograph, in hours, at 75 % peak discharge.
qp = Qp / A = Peak discharge per unit area.
11. Usually, one third of this width is kept before the unit hydrograph
peak and two thirds after the peak.
12. If synthetic unit hydrograph of any other duration T  is required, then
the modified basin lag is
T – T
TL = TL 
4
2.778 A C p
Also, Qp =
tL
Example :
A set of information extracted for estimating SUH are given below :
Area, A = 606.52 km2
Length of longest flow path, L = 56.4 km
Centroidal flow path, Lc = 28.2 km
Answer :
1. 1 hr Synthetic UH parameters generated by 1 cm effective rainfall.
SUH parameters are computed by using equations as follows :

Qp 0.905 (A)0.758 0.905 (606.52)0.758 116.42 say 116.0 cumec

qp (Qp/A) (116.0/606.52) 0.19 cumec/km2
tP 2.87 (qp)–0.839 2.87 (0.19)–0.839 11.56 say 11.50 hrs.
W50 2.304 (qp)–1.035 2.304 (0.19)–1.035 12.85 hrs
W75 1.339 (qp)–0.978 1.339 (0.19)– 0.978 6.79 hrs.
–1.018 –1.018
WR50 0.814 (qp) 0.814 (0.19) 4.41 hrs
–0.966 –0.966
WR75 0.494(qp) 0.494 (0.19) 2.46 hrs
1.157 1.157
TB 2.447 (tp) 2.447(11.50) 41.29 hrs say 41.00 hrs
TM tP + (tr / 2 ) 11.50 + (1/2) 12.00 hrs.

2. An SUH based on the estimated parameters in table is shown in

Fig. 2.21.2.
Runoff & Hydrographs 2–30 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Q
120
12, 116
100
9.54, 87 16.33, 87
80
27.71, 58
60
7.59, 58
40

20
0.0 41.0
0 hr
0 10 20 30 40
Fig. 2.21.2. Synthetic unit hydrograph.

Que 2.22. Write the short notes on synthetic unit hydrograph

and IUH. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
A. Synthetic Unit Hydrograph : Refer Q. 2.21, Page 2–26C, Unit-2.
B. Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH) :
1. For a given catchment a number of unit hydrographs of different
durations are possible.
2. The shape of these different unit hydrographs depend upon the value
of D.
3. Fig. 2.22.1 shows a typical variation of the shape of unit hydrographs
for different values of D. As D is reduced, the intensity of rainfall
excess being equal to 1/D increases and the unit hydrograph becomes
more skewed. A finite unit hydrograph is indicated as the duration
D  0.
4. The limiting case of a unit hydrograph of zero duration is known as
instantaneous unit hydrograph (IUH). Thus IUH is a fictitious, conceptual
unit hydrograph which represents the surface runoff from the catchment
due to an instantaneous precipitation of the rainfall excess volume of
1 cm. IUH is designated as u(t) or sometimes as u(0, t).
5. It is a single-peaked hydrograph with a finite base width and its important
properties can be listed as below :
i. 0  u(t)  a positive value, for t > 0;
ii. u(t) = 0 for t  0;
iii. u(t) = 0 as t  ;

iv.  u(t) dt = Unit depth over the catchment; and
0
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 2–31 C (CE-Sem-8)
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A ERH

D C C

Unit hydrographs
Discharge

D
A

Time
Fig. 2.22.1. Unit hydrographs of different durations.

v. Time to the peak time to the centroid of the curve.

6. Consider an effective rainfall I() of duration t0 applied to a catchment
as in Fig. 2.22.2. Each infinitesimal element of this ERH will operate
on the IUH to produce a DRH whose discharge at time t is given by

t0

I( ) I( )

0

d

u (t –  )
u (t –  )

t–
t–

Q( )

Q( )
t
t
Time
Fig. 2.22.2. Convolution of I( ) and IUH.
Runoff & Hydrographs 2–32 C (CE-Sem-8)
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t

Q(t) =  u(t – ) I () d

0
...(2.22.1)

where t = t when t < t0 and t = t0 when t  t0

Eq. (2.22.1) is called te convolution integral or Duhamel integral.
7. The main advantage of IUH is that it is independent of the duration of
ERH and thus has one parameter less than a D-h unit hydrograph.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Explain with the help of neat sketches, the flow duration

curve method and mass curve method to measure the
runoff.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.3, Unit-2.

Q. 2. What is runoff ? What are the factors that affect the runoff
from a catchment area ? Describe the methods of computing
runoff from a catchment area.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.4, Unit-2.

Q. 3. Describe the analysis of the recession limb of a flood

hydrograph.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.5, Unit-2.

Q. 4. What do you mean by design flood ? What are the factors

affecting the flood hydrograph ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.6, Unit-2.

Q. 5. Define unit hydrograph. Explain its assumption and uses.

A 12-hr UH of a catchment is triangular in the shape with
a base width of 144 hr and peak discharge of 23 m 3/s.
Calculate the area of the catchment.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.9, Unit-2.

Q. 6. Unit hydrograph ordinates of 4 hour are given below. Find

out ordinates of 8 hr.
Time (hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
UHO 0 17 28 42 72 60 47 32 15 0
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 2–33 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Ans. Refer Q. 2.15, Unit-2.

Q. 7. The ordinates of a 4-hr unit hydrograph of a basin of area

300 km2 measured at 1-hr intervals are 6, 36, 66, 91, 106, 93,
79, 68, 58, 49, 41, 34, 27, 23, 17, 13, 9, 6, 3 and 1.5 m 3/s
respectively. Determine the ordinates of a 3-hr unit
hydrograph for the basin.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.19, Unit-2.

Q. 8. How will you derive the synthetic unit hydrograph from a

number of unit hydrograph ? Illustrate the method with
suitable example in a tabular form.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.21, Unit-2.


Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 3–1 C (CE-Sem-8)
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3 Flood Analysis

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Rational Method, Empirical ................... 3–2C to 3–10C
Formulae, Flood
Frequency Studies

Part-2 : Design Storm and .................................. 3–10C to 3–14C

Design Flood

Part-3 : Flood Routing, Basic .............................. 3–14C to 3–19C

Equation, Hydrologic
Storage Routing
and Attenuation

Part-4 : Hydraulic Channel ................................ 3–19C to 3–26C

Routing, Flood Forecasting
and Control, Hydraulic
Method of Flood Routing
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PART-1
Rational Method, Empirical Formulae, Flood Frequency Studies.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.1. Explain the rational methods of computing the peak

discharge of a small catchment. Where this method is commonly
used and what are its merits and demerits ? Also discuss the runoff
co-efficient C of the rational formula. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
A. Rational Methods :
1. Amongst various types of empirical relations, rational formula is the
most rational method of calculating peak discharge for small
catchments.
2. In this method, it is assumed that the maximum flood flow is produced
by a certain rainfall intensity which lasts for a time equal to or greater
than the period of concentration time (tc).
3. The maximum rate of runoff from the watershed appears when the
entire area contributes at the basin outlet.
4. The runoff gradually increases from zero to peak when the rainfall
duration reaches the time of concentration (tc). If the rainfall continues
beyond tc, the runoff will be constant and at the peak value.
5. The peak value of runoff is given by,
Qp = FuCiA
where, C = Runoff co-efficient representing a ratio of runoff to
rainfall.
A = Catchment area in km 2 .
i = Rainfall intensity in cm/hour.
Fu = A factor which permits the expression of terms Qp, A and i
in consistent units.
Qp = Discharge in cubic meters per second (cumecs).
i. In order to find corresponding value of factor Fu, we have
 i  CiA
Qp = (106 A)(C)  = = 2.778 CiA
 100  3600  0.36
Hence, factor Fu = 2.778
ii. If, however, i is expressed in mm/hour, we have
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 i  CiA
Qp = (106 A)(C)   = = 0.2778 CiA
 1000  3600  3.6
B. Runoff Co-efficient, C :
1. It is a highly critical element that serves the purpose of converting
the average rainfall rate of a particular recurrence interval to the
peak runoff intensity of the same frequency. Its magnitude depends
upon the following factors :
i. Antecedent moisture conditions.
ii. Ground slope.
iii. Ground cover.
iv. Depression storage.
v. Soil moisture.
vi. Shape of drainage area.
vii. Overland flow velocity.
viii. Intensity of rainfall.
ix. Geology of catchment, etc.
2. If a watershed of total area A is non-homogeneous, having component
sub-areas having different values of C, a weighted runoff co-efficient
(Cw) is computed from the following equation :
jn

C A
C1 A1  C2 A2  ........Cn A n
j j

Cw = = j 1
A1  A2  ...... An A
where, A1, A 2 , A 3 ....... A n = Areas of sub-zones.
C1, C2, C3 ,......Cn = Runoff co-efficient for the
corresponding sub-zones.
C. Merit and Demerits of Rational Methods :
Merits :
i. The rational method is the simplest method of calculating peak discharge.
ii. It enables a quick mass balance to be made, i.e., comparison of rainfall
and runoff.
Demerits :
i. Rational Method provides the peak discharge only and it cannot produce
a hydrograph.
ii. The accuracy of rational method depends very much on correct selection
of runoff coefficient and delineation of catchment area.
D. Uses of Rational Method : Rational formula is generally used to
estimate the peak flood (Qp) in the design of urban drainage system,
storm sewers, design of small culverts, and bridges etc.

Que 3.2. What are the various empirical formulae for estimating
the flood discharge ?

Answer
Empirical Formulae : Some of the empirical formulae for estimating
the flood discharge are given below. Most of these are in the form :
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Q = CA n
where, Q = Flood discharge.
A = Catchment area.
n = Flood index.
C = Flood co-efficient.
Both C and n depend upon various factors, such as :
i. Size, shape and location of catchment.
ii. Topography of the catchment.
iii. Intensity and duration of rainfall, and distribution pattern of the
storm over the basin.
1. Dicken’s Formula : Q = CA 3/4
The constant C depends upon the catchment and may be obtained
from Table. 3.2.1.
Table 3.2.1.
Region C
Northern India 11.4
Central India 13.9 – 19.5
Western India 22.2 – 25
2. Ryve’s Formula : For Madras catchments,
Q = CA2/3
Values of C may be obtained from Table. 3.2.2.
Table 3.2.2.

S. No. Location of the Catchment C

1. Areas within 24 km from the coast 6.75
2. Areas within 24 km to 161 km from the coast 8.45
3. Limited areas near hills 10.1

3. Inglis Formula : It is applicable for catchments of the former Bombay

Presidency.
123 A
Q=  123 A1/2
A  10.4
4. Nawab Jang Bahadur Formula : This formula is applicable for
catchments of old Hyderabad state.
1
(0.993  log A )
Q = CA 14

where, C varies from 48 to 60.

5. Fanning’s Formula : For American catchments.
Q = CA5/6
where, average value of C may be taken equal to 2.54.
6. Creager’s Formula : Applicable for American catchments, expressed
in FPS units.
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 0.048
Q1 = 46 C1 A1(0.8904 A1 )

Where, C1 varies from 30 to 100.

7. Fuller’s Formula : The formula takes into account, the flood
frequency also; expressed in metric units,
Qmax = CA 0.8 (1 + 0.8 log T) (1 + 2.67 A(–0.3))
where, T = Number of years after which such a flood is to reoccur.
Q = Maximum flood (in cumecs) during any part of the day
that could occur in T-years.
C = Constant (varying from 0.185 to 1.3).

Que 3.3. Write short on the following :

1. Flood frequency.
2. Recurrence interval.
3. Return period.
4. Probability of occurrence (P).

Answer
1. Flood Frequency : Flood frequency denotes the likelihood of flood being
equaled or exceeded. A 10 % frequency means that the flood has 10 out
of 100 chances of being equaled or exceeded.
2. Recurrence Interval : Recurrence interval denotes the number of
years in which a flood can be expected once. It is the period of time
between the equaling or exceeding of a specific flood. This is usually
denoted by a symbol T.
3. Return Period : It is the average recurrence interval for a certain
event or flood.
4. Probability of Occurrence (P) : The probability of an event being
equaled or exceeded in any one year is the probability of its occurrence.
The probability (P) of occurrence of a flood having a recurrence
interval of T years in any year or the probability of exceedance is
P= 1/ T
The probability that it will not occur in a year, is known as probability
of non-exceedance (q) and is given by,
q= 1–P
Que 3.4. What is flood frequency analysis ? How flood frequency
analysis at a project site is conducted ? What are the data
requirements ?

Answer
Frequency Studies for Flood :
1. It is technique used by hydrologists to predict flow values corresponding
to specific return periods or probabilities along a river.
2. It is based on the assumption that combination of the numerous
factors which produce floods are a matter of pure chance and therefore
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are subjected to analysis according to mathematical theory of
probability.
3. There are two methods of compiling flood peak data :
i. Annual Duration Series : In the annual series, the largest flood
observed in each water year only is taken.
ii. Partial Duration Series : It ignores the second and lower order
events of each year which may sometimes exceed many of the annual
maximum. In the partial duration series all flood events above a
selected base value are included. The base is usually so chosen that
not more than three or four events are included for each year.
4. If the extreme floods are of primary concern, wherein the flood
magnitude with exceedance probability of 0.5 or less are estimated,
the annual series is used.
5. When estimates of very frequent events with return periods of less
than 5 years are required, (such as in design of coffer dams, urban
drainage etc.) the partial series is preferable to annual series.
6. However, for spillway design flood, the annual series is preferable
since the flood should not be exceeded in the dam’s life time, say 100
years.
Method : Following are the methods to conducted frequency :
1. Annual Flood Series :
i. Annual flood series consist of the values of annual maximum flood
from a given catchment area, for large number of successive years.
ii. The data of the series are arranged in the decreasing order of magnitude.
iii. The probability (P) of each event being equaled to or exceeded (known
as plotting position) is computed from one of the following plotting
position formulae :
m N
a. California method : P = ;T=
N m
2m  1 2N
b. Allen Hazen method : P = ;T=
2N 2m  1
m N 1
c. Weibull method : P = or T =
N 1 m
m  C 1 N
d. Gumbel’s method : P = or T =
N m  C 1
where, C is known as Gumbel’s correction. The correction depends
upon m/N ratio.
iv. The exceedance probability of the event (such as flood discharge
etc.) obtained by the use of an empirical formula (such as Weibull
formula) is called the plotting position.
v. Weibull equation given above is the most popular plotting position
formula.
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2. Binomial Distribution : The binomial distribution given below
can be used to find the probability of occurrence of the event r times
in n successive years.
n!
Pr,n = nCr Pr qn – r = P r qn  r
 n  r ! r !
where, Pr, n = Probability of flood of given magnitude and exceedance
probability P, occurring r times in n successive years,
and q= 1–P
3. Data for Frequency Studies :
i. The flood frequency analysis is a direct means of estimating the
desired flood based upon the available flood flow data of the catchment.
ii. The results of the frequency analysis depend upon the length of
data.
iii. The minimum number of years of record required to obtain satisfactory
estimates depends upon the variability of data and hence on the
physical and climatological characteristics of the basin. Generally, a
minimum of 30 years of data is considered as essential.
iv. Smaller lengths of records are also used when it is unavoidable.
However, frequency analysis should not be adopted if the length of
records is less than 10 years.

Que 3.5. Explain the following with the help of simple sketches :
1. Partial duration series.
2. Extreme values series. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
1. Partial Duration Series :
i. In the annual hydrologic data series of floods, only one maximum value
of flood per year is selected.
ii. It is likely that in some catchments there are more than one independent
flood in a year and many of these may be of appreciably high magnitude.
iii. To enable all the large flood peaks to be considered for analysis, a flood
magnitude larger than an arbitrary selected base value are included in
the analysis. Such a data series is called partial duration series.
iv. In using the partial duration series, it is necessary to establish that all
events considered are independent.
v. Hence, the partial duration series is adopted mostly for rainfall analysis
where the conditions of independency of events are easy to establish.
vi. Its use in flood studies is rather rare.
vii. The recurrence interval of an event obtained by annual series (TA) and
by the partial duration series (TP) are related by,
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1
Tp =
ln TA  ln (TA  1)
From this, it can be seen that the difference between TA and TP is
significant for TA < 10 years and that for TA > 20, the difference is
negligibly small.
2. Extreme Values Series : It includes largest or smallest values in equal
intervals :
i. Annual series : interval = 1 year.
ii. Annual maximum series : largest values.
iii. Annual minimum series : smallest values.
100

80
Magnitude

60

40

20

0
Annual maxima Time
Fig. 3.5.1.

Que 3.6. In an annual flood series, N consecutive entries are

available for a catchment. Describe a procedure to verify whether
the data follow Gumbel’s distribution.

Answer
1. Gumbel’s Extreme Value Distribution :
i. This method is useful for obtaining values of flood discharges for a
high recurrence interval.
ii. According to Gumbel, the probability of occurrence of an event equal
to or larger than a value x0 is given by,
y
e
P(X  x 0) = 1  e ...(3.6.1)
iii. In the above equation, y is a dimensionless variable, given by the
expression,
y = (x – a)
where,  = 1.2825/x and a = x – 0.45005 x
1.2825( x  x )
Hence, y=  0.577 ...(3.6.2)
x
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iv. Transposing eq. (3.6.1), we get
yP = – ln [–ln (1 – P)] ...(3.6.3)
1
Return period, T =
P
v. If yT = Value of y, commonly called the reduced variate for a given T
 T 
We have, yT =   ln  ln  ...(3.6.4)
  T  1 
 T 
or yT =  0.834  2.303log log ...(3.6.5)
 T  1 
vi. Again re-arranging equation (3.6.2), the value x with a return period
T is given by,
xT = x + Kx ...(3.6.6)
yT  0.577
where, K= ...(3.6.7)
1.2825
vii. Eq. (3.6.6) and (3.6.7) are the basic Gumbel’s equations which are
applicable to an infinite series (i.e., where N).
viii. In actual practice, N is finite and hence eq. (3.6.6) is modified as
under :
xT = x + KT n – 1 ...(3.6.8)
where, n – 1 = Standard deviation of the sample of size N
 ( x  x )2
N=
N 1
yT  yn
KT = Modified frequency factor =
Sn
yT = Reduced variate given by eq. (3.6.4)
yn = Reduced mean, a function of sample size N.
(Note that when N , yn  0.577)
Sn = Reduced standard deviation, a function of sample size N.
(Note that when N , Sn  1.2825)
2. Procedure :
Step 1 : For the given annual flood discharge data of size N, find
mean ( x ) and standard deviation (n– 1 ).
Step 2 : From Gumbel’s extreme value distribution table, find reduced
mean yn for the given value of N.
Step 3 : From Gumbel’s extreme value distribution table, find reduced
standard deviation Sn for the given value of N.
Step 4 : For the given value of recurrence interval T, determine y T
from equation (3.6.4)
Step 5 : Knowing yT, yn and Sn, calculate the value of KT from equation,
 y  yn 
KT =  T 
 Sn 
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Step 6 : Lastly, compute the value of xT (i.e., the desired flood discharge
at recurrence interval (T) from equation, xT = x + KT n – 1 in which
x , K T and n – 1 are known.

Que 3.7. Analysis of a 30 year data at a point on a river of gives

mean discharge as 1200 cumec and standard deviation 650 cumec.
For what value of discharge would you design a structure at the
point so as to provide 95 % assurance that the structural would not
fail in the next 50 years. Assume Yn = 0.53625, Sn = 1.11238.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Mean discharge, x = 1200 m3/sec, Standard deviation,

n – 1 = 650 m3/sec, Reliability, Re = 95 %, Design period, n = 50 yr,
yn = 0.53625, Sn = 1.11238
To Find : Safe discharge.
n 50
1 1
1. Reliability is given by, R e =  1    0.95 =  1  
 T  T
Return period, T = 975.3 years
2. We know that,
  T   975.3 
yT = –  ln ln       ln ln (975.3  1)  = 6.882
  T  1   
yT  yn
3. Frequency factor, K =
Sn
6.882  0.53625
K= = 5.705
1.11238
4. Discharge at return period is given by,
xT = x + Kn – 1
xT = 1200 + (5.705) × 650 = 4908.25 m 3/sec

PART-2
Design Storm and Design Flood.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

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Que 3.8. Describe the term design storm. How is it determined ?

Answer
Design Storm :
1. To estimate the design flood for a project by the use of a unit hydrograph,
one needs the design storm.
2. This can be the storm-producing probable maximum precipitation
(PMP) for deriving PMF or a standard project storm (SPS) for SPF
calculations.
3. The computations are performed by experienced hydrometeorologists
by using meteorological data. Various methods ranging from highly
sophisticated hydrometeorological methods to simple analysis of past
rainfall data are in use depending on the availability of reliable relevant
data and expertise.
4. The following is a brief outline of a procedure followed in India :
i. The duration of the critical rainfall is first selected. This will be the
basin lag if the flood peak is of interest. If the flood volume is of
prime interest, the duration of the longest storm experienced in the
basin is selected.
ii. Past major storms in the region which conceivably could have occurred
in the basin under study are selected. DAD analysis is performed
and the enveloping curve representing maximum depth-duration
relation for the study basin obtained.
iii. Rainfall depths for convenient time intervals (e.g., 6 h) are scaled
from the enveloping curve. These increments are to be arranged to
get a critical sequence which produces the maximum flood peak
when applied to the relevant unit hydrograph of the basin.
iv. The critical sequence of rainfall increments can be obtained by trial
and error. Alternatively, increments of precipitation are first arranged
in a table of relevant unit hydrograph ordinates, such that :
a. The maximum rainfall increment is against the maximum unit
hydrograph ordinate.
b. The second highest rainfall increment is against the second largest
unit hydrograph ordinate, and so on.
c. The sequence of rainfall increments arranged above is now
reversed, with the last item first and first item last. The new
sequence gives the design storm.
v. The design storm is then combined with hydrologic abstractions most
conductive to high runoff, viz., low initial loss and lowest infiltration
rate to get the hyetograph of rainfall excess to operate upon the unit
hydrograph.
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Que 3.9. Explain the term risk, reliability and safety factor.

Answer
A. Risk and Reliability :
1. The designer of a hydraulic structure always faces a nagging doubt
about the risk of failure of his structure.
2. This is because the estimation of the hydrologic design value (such
as the design flood discharge and the river stage during the design
flood) involve a natural or inbuilt uncertainty and as such a hydrological
risk of failure.
3. The probability of occurrence of an event (x ≥ xT) at least once over
a period of n successive years is called the risk, R. Thus, the risk is
given by,
R = 1 – (Probability of non-occurrence of the event x ≥ xT in n years)
n
 1
R = 1 – (1 – P)n = 1   1  
 T
1
where, P = Probability P (x  x T) = , T = Return period.
T
4. The reliability Re, is defined as
n
 1
Re = 1 – R =  1  
 T 
5. It can be seen that the return period for which a structure should be
designed depends upon the acceptable level of risk. In practice, the
acceptable risk is governed by economic and policy considerations.
B. Safety Factor :
1. In addition to the hydrological uncertainty, as mentioned above, a
water resource development project will have many other uncertainties.
2. These may arise out of structural, constructional, operational and
environmental causes as well as from non-technological considerations
such as economic, sociological and political causes.
3. As such, any water resource development project will have a safety
factor for a given hydrological parameter M as defined below.
4. Safety factor (for the parameter M), (SF) m
Actual value of the parameter M adopted in the design of the project
=
Value of the parameter M obtained from hydrolgical considerations only

Cam
=
Chm
5. The parameter M includes such items as flood discharge magnitude,
maximum river stage, reservoir capacity and free board. The difference
(Cam – Chm) is known as safety margin.
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6. The concepts of risk, reliability and safety factor form the building
blocks of the emerging field of reliability based design.

Que 3.10. Explain the terms risk, reliability and safety factor. A
factory is proposed to be located on the edge of the 40 year flood
plain of a river. If design life of factory is 20 years, what is the
reliability that is will not be flooded during its design life ?
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
Risk, Reliability and Safety Factor : Refer Q. 3.9, Page 3–12C, Unit-3.
Numerical :
Given : Return period of flood, T = 40 yr
Design life of factory, n = 20 yr
To Find : Reliability.
n 20
1 1 
Reliability, Re =  1   =  1   = 0.6026 = 60.26 %
 T  40 
Que 3.11. Explain briefly the types of rain gauges.
A one-day rainfall of 100 mm at a station was found to have a return
period of 50 years. Determine the probability that a one-day rainfall
of this or larger magnitude will occur at least once in 20 successive
years. AKTU 2016-17, 2017-18; Marks 10

Answer
A. Types of Rain Gauges : Refer Q. 1.7, Page 1–8C, Unit-1.
B. Numerical :
Given : One-day rainfall depth = 100 mm, Return period, T = 50 years,
Design period, n = 20 years
To Find : The probability that a one-day rainfall

1
Probability, p=  0.02 , q = 1 – p = 1 – 0.02 = 0.98
50
n!
Pr,n = pr qn r
( n  r)! r !
n = 20, r = 1;
20! 20!
P1, 20 = p1 q201 =  0.02(0.98)19 = 0.272
(20  1)! 1! 19! 1!
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Que 3.12. Explain the term risk, reliability and safety factor. A
factory is proposed to be located on the edge of the 50 year flood
plain of river. If design life of factory is 25 years, what is the reliability
that it will not be flooded during its design life ?
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
A. Risk, Reliability and Safety Factor : Refer Q. 3.9, Page 3–12C, Unit-3.
B. Numerical :
Given : Return period, T = 50 years, Design life, n = 25 year
To Find : Reliability.
n
 1
Reliability, Re = 1  R   1  
 T
25
 1
Re =  1   = 0.6035 = 60.35 %
 50 

PART-3
Flood Routing, Basic Equation, Hydraulic Storage Routing and
Attenuation.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.13. Define flood routing. Discuss broad categories of routing.

Answer
Flood Routing : It is the technique of determining the flood hydrograph
at a section of a river by utilizing the data of flood flow at one or more
upstream sections.
In these applications two broad categories of routing can be recognized.
These are :
1. Reservoir Routing :
i. In Reservoir routing the effect of a flood wave entering a reservoir is
studied.
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ii. Knowing the volume-elevation characteristic of the reservoir and
the outflow-elevation relationship for the spillways and other outlet
structures in the reservoir, the effect of a flood wave entering the
reservoir is studied to predict the variations of reservoir elevation
and outflow discharge with time.
iii. This form of reservoir routing is essential :
a. In the design of the capacity of spillways and other reservoir
outlet structures.
b. In the location and sizing of the capacity of reservoirs to meet
specific requirements.
2. Channel Routing :
i. In Channel routing the change in the shape of a hydrograph as it
travels down a channel is studied.
ii. By considering channel reach and an input hydrograph at the upstream
end, this form of routing aims to predict the flood hydrograph at
various sections of the reach.
iii. Information on the flood-peak attenuation and the duration of high-
water levels obtained by channel routing is of utmost importance in
flood-forecasting operations and flood-protection works.
iv. A variety of routing methods are available and they can be broadly
classified into two categories as :
a. Hydrologic routing methods employ essentially the equation of
continuity.
b. Hydraulic methods, on the other hand, employ the continuity
equation together with the equation of motion of unsteady flow.

Que 3.14. What are the basic equations used for flood routing ?

Answer
Equations for Flood Routing :
1. The passage of a flood hydrograph through a reservoir or a channel
reach is an unsteady flow phenomenon. It is classified in open channel
hydraulics as gradually varied unsteady flow. The equation of continuity
used in all hydrologic routing as the primary equation states that the
difference between the inflow and outflow rate is equal to the rate of
change of storage, i.e.,
dS
I–Q= ...(3.14.1)
dt
where, I = Inflow rate.
Q = Outflow rate.
S = Storage.
2. Alternatively, in a small time interval t the difference between the
total inflow volume and total outflow volume in a reach is equal to
the change in storage in that reach,
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It  Qt = S ...(3.14.2)
where, I = Average inflow in time
Q = Average outflow in time t.
S = Change in storage.
3. By taking I = (I1 + I2) /2, Q = (Q1 + Q2)/2 and S = S2 – S1 , with
suffixes 1 and 2 to denote the beginning and end of time interval t,
eq. (3.14.2) is written as,
 I1  I2   Q1  Q2 
  t    t = S2 – S1 ...(3.14.3)
 2   2 
4. The time interval t should be sufficiently short so that the inflow
and outflow hydrographs can be assumed to be straight lines in that
time interval. Further, t must be shorter than the time of transit of
the flood wave through the reach.
5. In the differential form, the equation of continuity for unsteady flow
in a reach with no lateral flow is given by,
Q y
T =0 ...(3.14.4)
x t
where, T = Top width of the section.
y = Depth of flow.
6. The equation of motion for a flood wave is derived from the application
of the momentum equation as,
y V  V 1  V
  = So – Sf ...(3.14.5)
x g x g t
where, V= Velocity of flow at any section.
So = Channel bed slope.
Sf = Slope of the energy line.

Que 3.15. What do you mean by hydrologic reservoir routing ?

Describe any two methods of hydrologic reservoir routing.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
Hydrologic Reservoir Routing : Reservoir routing is a mathematical
procedure by which the hydrograph immediately below the reservoir
is determined for the given inflow hydrograph (s) of the river (s)
contributing to the storage of the reservoir.
Methods of Hydrologic Reservoir Routing : Following are the
two methods used in hydrologic reservoir routing :
1. Modified Puls Method :
 I  I2   Q  Q2 
i. Equation  1 t   1  t = S2 – S1 is rearranged as
 2   2 
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 I1  I2   Q1t   Q2 t 
  t   S1   =  S2   ...(3.15.1)
2  2  2 
ii. At the starting of flood routing, the initial storage and outflow discharges
are known.
iii. In eq. (3.15.1) all the terms in the left-hand side are known at the
 Q t 
beginning of a time step t. Hence the value of the function  S2  2 
 2 
at the end of the time step is calculated by equation (3.15.1).
 Qt 
iv. Since the relation S = S(h) and Q = Q(h) are known,  S   will
 2 2
enable one to determine the reservoir elevation and hence the
discharge at the end of the time step. The procedure is repeated to
cover the full inflow hydrograph.
v. For practical use in hand computation, the following semi-graphical
method is very convenient :
a. From the known storage-elevation and discharge-elevation data,
 Qt 
prepare a curve of  S   vs. elevation. Here, t is any chosen
 2 
interval, approximately 20 to 40 % of the time of rise of the
inflow hydrograph.
b. On the same plot prepare a curve of outflow discharge vs. elevation.
c. The storage, elevation and outflow discharge at the starting of
routing are known.

Outflow Q(m 3/sec)

010 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

103.0

102.50 Q vs elevation
Eleva tion (m)

102.00

101.50
Q
S+ t vs elevation
101.00 2

t = 6 h
100.50 initial elevation = 100.50

100.00
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
Q
S+t in Mm3
2
Fig. 3.16.1 Modified Pul’s method of storage routing.
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 I  I2   Q1t 
For the first time interval t,  1  t and  S1   are known
 2   2 
 Q t 
and hence by eq. (3.15.1) the term  S2  2  is determined.
 2 
 Q t 
d. The water surface elevation corresponding to  S2  2  is
 2 
found by using the plot of step (a). The outflow discharge Q2 at
the end of the time step t is found from plot of step (b).

 Q t   Q t 
e. Deducting Q2 t from  S2  2  gives  S   for the
 2   2 1
beginning of the next time step.
f. The procedure is repeated till the entire inflow hydrograph is
routed.
2. Goodrich Method :
i. Another popular method of hydrologic reservoir routing, known as
I  I2   Q  Q2  t = S – S
Goodrich method utilizes eq.  1 t   1
 2   2
 2 1

rearranged as :
2S2 2S1
I1 + I2 – Q1 – Q2 =  ...(3.15.2)
t t
where, suffixes 1 and 2 stand for the values at the beginning and end
of a time step t respectively. Collecting the known and initial value
together,
 2S 
( I1  I2 )   1  Q1  =  2S2  Q2  ...(3.15.3)
 t   t 
ii. For a given time step, the left hand side of eq. (3.15.3) is known and
 2S 
the term   Q is determined by using eq. (3.15.3). From the
 t 2

 2S 
known storage-elevation-discharging data, the function   Q
 t 2
is established as a function of elevation. Hence, the discharge, elevation
and storage at the end of the time step are obtained.
 2S  
iii. For the next time step,   Q   2Q2  of the previous time step =
   t  2 

 2S 
  Q  for use as the initial values.
 t 1
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Que 3.16. Write short note on attenuation.

Answer
Attenuation :
1. Owing to the storage effect, the peak of the outflow hydrograph will
be smaller than that of the inflow hydrograph. This reduction in the
peak value is called attenuation.
2. Further, the peak of the outflow occurs after the peak of the inflow,
the time difference between the two peaks is known as lag.
3. The attenuation and lag of a flood hydrograph at a reservoir are two
very important aspects of a reservoir operating under a flood control
criterion.

PART-4
Hydraulic Channel Routing, Flood Forecasting and Control,
Hydraulic Method of Flood Routing.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.17. What do you mean by hydrologic channel routing ?

What is the basic premise in the Muskingum method of flood
routing ? Describe a procedure for estimating the values of the
Muskingum coefficients K and x for a stream reach.

Answer
Hydrologic Channel Routing :
1. In reservoir routing, the storage was a unique function of the outflow
discharge, S = f(Q). However, in channel routing the storage is a
function of both outflow and inflow discharges and hence a different
routing method is needed.
2. The flow in a river during a flood belongs to the category of gradually
varied unsteady flow. The water surface in a channel reach is not
only parallel to the channel bottom but also varies with time
(Fig. 3.17.1).
3. Considering a channel reach having a flood flow, the total volume in
storage can be considered under two categories as :
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i. Prism Storage : It is the volume that would exist if the uniform
flow occurred at the downstream depth, i.e., the volume formed by
an imaginary plane parallel to the channel bottom drawn at the
outflow section water surface.
Inflow

Wedge storage

1
Prism storage Outflow
2
(a)
Negative wedge Positive wedge
storage storage

Prism Prism storage

Prism
(b )
Fig. 3.17.1. Storage in a channel reach.
ii. Wedge Storage :
a. It is the wedge-like volume formed between the actual water
surface profile and the top surface of the prism storage.
b. At a fixed depth, at a downstream section of a river reach, the
prism storage is constant while the wedge storage changes from
a positive value at an advancing flood to a negative value during
a receding flood.
c. The prism storage Sp is similar to a reservoir and can be expressed
as a function of the outflow discharge, Sp = f (Q).
d. The wedge storage can be accounted for by expressing it as
Sw = f(I).
e. The total storage in the channel reach can then be expressed as,
S = K [x Im + (1 – x) Qm] ...(3.17.1)
where, K and x are coefficients and m = A constant exponent.
f. It has been found that the value of m varies from 0.6 for rectangular
channels to a value of about 1.0 for natural channels.
Muskingum Equation :
1. Using m = 1.0, eq. (3.17.1) reduces to a linear relationship for S in
terms of I and Q as,
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 3–21 C (CE-Sem-8)
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S = K [x I + (1 – x) Q] ...(3.17.2)
and this relationship is known as the Muskingum equation.
2. In this the parameter x is known as weighting factor and takes a
value between 0 and 0.5.
3. When x = 0, obviously the storage is a function of discharge only and
eq. (3.17.2) reduces to
S = KQ ...(3.17.3)
Such storage is known as linear storage or linear reservoir.
4. When x = 0.5, both the inflow and outflow are equally important in
determining the storage.
5. The coefficient K is known as storage-time constant and has the
dimensions of time.
Procedure :
i. Knowing K and x, select an appropriate value of t.
ii. Calculate C0, C1 and C2.
iii. Starting from the initial conditions I1, Q1 and known I2 at the end of
the first time step t calculate Q2 by eq. (3.17.3).
iv. The outflow calculated in step (iii) becomes the known initial outflow
for the next time step. Repeat the calculations for the entire inflow
hydrograph.

Que 3.18. What do you mean by flood control ? Explain various

methods of flood control.
OR
What do you mean by flood control ? Explain any two methods of
flood control and also mention any two empirical formulate for
estimating flood ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
A. Flood Control : The term flood control is commonly used to denote all
the measures adopted to reduce damages to life and property by floods.
Structural Methods : Following are the structural method :
1. Storage Reservoir :
i. Storage reservoirs offer one of the most reliable and effective methods
of flood control.
ii. Ideally, in this method, a part of the storage in the reservoir is kept
apart to absorb the incoming flood.
iii. Further, the stored water is released in a controlled way over an
extended time so that downstream channels do not get flooded.
iv. Fig. 3.18.1 shows an ideal operating plan of a flood control reservoir.
v. To achieve complete flood control in the entire length of the river, a
large number of reservoirs at strategic locations in the catchment
will be necessary.
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vi. The Hirakud and Damodar valley corporate (DVC) reservoirs are
example of major reservoirs in the country which have specific volumes
earmarked for flood absorption.

Flood Inflow hydrograph

Discharge

volume Safe discharge channel

stored capacity
B C
A Reservoir
Controlled release release (ABCD)
D
Time
Fig 3.18.1. Flood control operation of a reservoir.
2. Levees :
i. Levees, also known as dikes or flood embankments are earthen
banks constructed parallel to the course of the river to confine it to a
fixed course and limited cross-sectional width.
ii. Masonry structures used to confine the river in a manner similar to
levees are known as flood walls. These are used to protect important
structures against floods, especially where the land is at a premium.
iii. The heights of levees will be higher than the design flood level with
sufficient free board.
iv. The confinement of the river to a fixed path frees large tracts of land
from inundation and consequent damage.
v. Levees are one of the oldest and most common methods of flood-
protection works adopted in the world. Also, they are probably the
cheapest of structural flood-control measures.
vi. While the protection offered by a levee against flood damage is obvious,
what is not often appreciated is the potential damage in the event of
a levee failure.
vii. The design of a levee is a major task in which costs and economic
benefits have to be considered.
viii. The cross-section of a levee will have to be designed like an earth
dam for complete safety against all kinds of saturation and drawdown
possibilities.
3. Floodways :
i. Floodways are natural channels into which a part of the flood will be
diverted during high stages.
ii. A floodway can be a natural or manmade channel and its location is
controlled essentially by the topography.
iii. Generally, wherever they are feasible, floodways offer an economical
alternative to other structural flood-control measures.
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iv. To reduce the level of the river Jhelum at Srinagar, a supplementary
channel has been constructed to act as a floodway with a capacity of
300 m3/s. This channel is located 5 km upstream of Srinagar city and
has its outfall in Lake Wullar.
v. In Andhra Pradesh, a floodway has been constructed to transfer a
part of the flood waters of the river Budamaru to river Krishna to
prevent flood damages to the urban areas lying on the downstream
reaches of the river Budamaru.
4. Channel Improvement : The works under this category involve :
i. Widening or deepening of the channel to increase the cross-sectional
area.
ii. Reduction of the channel roughness, by clearing of vegetation from
the channel perimeter.
iii. Short circuiting of meander loops by cutoff channels, leading to
increased slopes.
5. Watershed Management :
i. Watershed management and land treatment in the catchment aims
at cutting down and delaying the runoff before it gets into the river.
ii. Watershed management measures include developing the vegetative
and soil cover in conjunction with land treatment words like Nalabunds,
check dams, contour bunding, zing terraces etc.
iii. These measures are towards improvement of water infiltration capacity
of the soil and reduction of soil erosion.
iv. Watershed treatment is now a day’s an integral part of flood
management.
v. It is believed that while small and medium floods are reduced by
watershed management measures, the magnitude of extreme floods
are unlikely to be affected by these measures.
Empirical Formulae : Refer Q. 3.2, Page 3–3C, Unit-3.

Que 3.19. Describe the various structural methods adopted for

control of floods. Also discuss the problems of floods and their control
with special reference to the Indian scene.
AKTU 2014-15, 2018-19; Marks 10

Answer
1. Structural Methods Adopted for Control of Flood : Refer Q. 3.18,
Page 3–21C, Unit-3.
2. Flood Control in India :
i. In India, the Himalayan rivers account for nearly 60 % of the flood
damage in the country.
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ii. Floods in these rivers occur during monsoon months and usually in the
months of August or September. The damages caused by floods are
difficult to estimate.
iii. During 1953-2004, the average number of human lives and cattle lost
due to floods in the country were 1597 and 94,000 respectively.
iv. It is estimated that annually, on an average about 40 Mha of land is
liable to flooding and of this about 14 Mha have some kind of flood
control measures.
v. At the beginning of the current millennium, in the country, as per flood
control measures, there were about 15800 km of levees and about 32000
km of drainage channel affording protection from floods.
vi. On an average, about 7.5 Mha land is affected by flood annually. Out of
this, about 3.56 Mha are lands under crops.
vii. Similarly, annually about 3.345 lakhs people are affected and about
12.15 lakhs houses are damaged by flood. On an average, about 60-80 %
of flood damages occur in the state U.P., Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and
Odisha.
viii. Flood forecasting is handled by CWC. The CWC has 157 flood forecasting
stations, of which 132 stations are for river stage forecast and 25 for
inflow forecast.
ix. A National programme for flood management was launched in 1954 and
an amount of 3165 crores was spent till 1992. The tenth plan
(2002-2007) had an expenditure of 4468 crores for flood management.

Que 3.20. What is meant by the term flood forecasting and

warning? Describe the various flood forecasting techniques.

Answer
A. Flood Forecasting and Warning :
1. Forecasting of floods sufficiently in advance enables a warning to be
given to the people likely to be affected and further enables civil
authorities to take appropriate precautionary measures.
2. It thus forms a very important and relatively inexpensive non-structural
flood management measure.
3. However, it must be realized that a flood warning is meaningful only
if it is given sufficiently in advance.
4. Further, erroneous warnings will cause the populace to lose confidence
and faith in the system. Thus the dual requirements of reliability and
advance notice are the essential ingredients of a flood forecasting
system.
Flood Forecasting Techniques : The flood forecasting techniques
can be broadly divided into three categories :
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1. Short-Range Forecasts :
i. In this the river stages at successive stations on a river are correlated
with hydrological parameters, such as rainfall over the local area,
antecedent precipitation index, and variation of the stage at the
upstream base point during the travel time of a flood.
ii. This method can give advance warning of 12-40 hours for floods. The
flood forecasting used for the metropolitan city of Delhi is based on
this technique.
2. Medium-Range Forecasts :
i. In this method rainfall-runoff relationships are used to predict flood
levels with warning of 2-5 days.
ii. Coaxial graphical correlations of runoff, with rainfall and other
parameters like the time of the year, storm duration and antecedent
wetness have been developed to a high stage of refinement by the
US weather bureau.
3. Long-Range Forecasts : Using radars and meteorological satellite
data, advance information about critical storm-producing weather
systems, their rain potential and time of occurrence of the event are
predicted well in advance.

Que 3.21. What is the various hydraulic method of flood routing ?

Answer
Hydraulic Method of Flood Routing : Following are the hydraulic
method of flood routing :
1. Approximate Methods :
i. These are based on the equation of continuity only or on a drastically
curtailed equation of motion.
ii. Other methods in this category are diffusion analogy and kinematic
wave models.
2. Complete Numerical Methods :
i. These are the essence of the hydraulic method of routing and are
classified into many categories as mentioned below :
I = Implicit method, E = Explicit method.
ii. In the direct method, the partial derivatives are replaced by finite
differences and the resulting algebraic equations are then solved.
iii. In the method of characteristics (MOC), St. Venant equations are
converted into a pair of ordinary differential equations (i.e.,
characteristic forms) and then solved by finite difference techniques.
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Complete numerical method

Method of characteristics Finite element

Direct method
(MOC) method (FEM)

I E
Characteristic Rectangular
nodes grid

I E I E
Fig. 3.21.1.
iv. In the finite element method (FEM), the system is divided into a
number of elements and partial differential equations are integrated
at the nodal points of the elements.
v. The numerical schemes are further classified into explicit and implicit
methods.
vi. In the explicit method the algebraic equations are linear and the
dependent variables are extracted explicitly at the end of each time
step.
vii. In the implicit method, the dependent variables occur implicitly and
the equations are nonlinear.
viii. Each of these two methods has a host of finite-differencing schemes
to choose from.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Explain the rational methods of computing the peak

discharge of a small catchment. Where this method is
commonly used and what are its merits and demerits ? Also
discuss the runoff co-efficient C of the rational formula.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.1, Unit-3.

Q. 2. What are the various empirical formulae for estimating

the flood discharge ?
Ans. Refer Q. 3.2, Unit-3.
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Q. 3. Explain the following with the help of simple sketches :
i. Partial duration series.
ii. Extreme values series.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.5, Unit-3.

Q. 4. Analysis of a 30 year data at a point on a river of gives mean

discharge as 1200 cumec and standard deviation 650 cumec.
For what value of discharge would you design a structure
at the point so as to provide 95 % assurance that the
structural would not fail in the next 50 years. Assume Yn =
0.53625, Sn = 1.11238.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.7, Unit-3.

Q. 5. Explain the terms risk, reliability and safety factor. A factory

is proposed to be located on the edge of the 40 year flood
plain of a river. If design life of factory is 20 years, what is
the reliability that is will not be flooded during its design
life ?
Ans. Refer Q. 3.10, Unit-3.

Q. 6. Explain briefly the types of rain gauges. A one-day rainfall

of 100 mm at a station was found to have a return period of
50 years. Determine the probability that a one-day rainfall
of this or larger magnitude will occur at least once in 20
successive years.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.11, Unit-3.

Q. 7. What do you mean by hydrologic reservoir routing ?

Describe any two methods of hydrologic reservoir routing.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.15, Unit-3.

Q. 8. What do you mean by flood control ? Explain any two

methods of flood control and also mention any two empirical
formulate for estimating flood ?
Ans. Refer Q. 3.18, Unit-3.

Q. 9. Describe the various structural methods adopted for control

of floods. Also discuss the problems of floods and their
control with special reference to the Indian scene.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.19, Unit-3.


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4 Groundwater

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction, Forms of ............................ 4–2C to 4–13C
Subsurface Water, Aquifers
and Its Properties

Part-2 : Occurrence of Groundwater, .............. 4–13C to 4–15C

Hydrogeology and Aquifers,
Groundwater Management

Part-3 : Steady and Unsteady ............................ 4–15C to 4–25C

Flow Through Confined
and Unconfined Aquifer
Well Hydraulics

Part-4 : Single and Multiple ................................ 4–25C to 4–34C

Well System, Partially
Penetrating Wells
Image Wells

Part-5 : Mutual Interference .............................. 4–34C to 4–37C

of Wells, Well Losses,
Specific Capacity
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PART-1
Introduction, Forms of Subsurface Water, Aquifers
and Its Properties.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.1. Describe in detail about the occurrence of groundwater.

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

OR
Discuss briefly as to how the water is stored into the groundwater
reservoir. Briefly mention the various zones and importance of the
zone of saturation in this connection. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Occurrence of Subsurface Water (Groundwater) :
Water in the soil mantle is called subsurface water and is considered
in two zones :
Land surface

Soil water
zone
Zone of
Intermediate aeration
Water table zone
Capillary fringe
Saturated Zone of saturation
zone (groundwater zone)
unconfined
Bed rock
Fig. 4.3.1. Classification of subsurface water.
1. Saturated Zone : This zone, also known as groundwater zone, is
the space in which all the pores of the soil are filled with water. The
water table forms its upper limit and marks a free surface, i.e., a
surface having atmospheric pressure.
2. Zone of Aeration : In this zone the soil pores are only partially
saturated with water. The space between the land surface and the
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water table marks the extent of this zone. The zone of aeration has
three subzones :
i. Soil Water Zone : This lies close to the ground surface in the major
root band of the vegetation from which the water is lost to the
atmosphere by evapotranspiration.
ii. Capillary Fringe : In this the water is held by capillary action. This
zone extends from the water table upwards to the limit of the capillary
rise.
iii. Intermediated Zone :
a. This lies between the soil water zone and the capillary fringe.
b. The thickness of the zone of aeration and its constituent subzones
depends upon the soil texture and moisture content and vary
from region to region. The soil moisture in the zone of aeration
is of importance in agricultural practice and irrigation engineering.
B. Saturated Formation :
1. All earth materials, from soils to rocks have pore spaces.
2. Although these pores are completely saturated with water below the
watertable, from the groundwater utilization aspect only such material
through which water moves easily and hence can be extracted with
ease are significant.
3. On this basis the saturated formations are classified into four
categories :
i. Aquifer :
a. It is a saturated formation of earth material which not only
stores water but yields it in sufficient quantity. Thus an aquifer
transmits water relatively easily due to its high permeability.
b. Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifers.
ii. Aquitard :
a. It is a formation through which only seepage is possible and
thus the yield is insignificant compared to an aquifer.
b. It is partly permeable. A sandy clay unit is an example of aquitard.
c. Through an aquitard appreciable quantities of water may leak to
an aquifer below it.
iii. Aquiclude :
a. It is a geological formation which essentially impermeable to the
flow of water.
b. It may be considered as closed to water movement even though
it may contain large amounts of water due to its high porosity.
Clay is an example of an aquiclude.
iv. Aquifuge :
a. It is a geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable.
b. There are no interconnected openings and hence it cannot transmit
water.
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c. Massive compact rock without any fractures is an aquifuge.
Que 4.2. Discuss the different types of aquifers.
OR
Distinguish between unconfined aquifer and leaky aquifer.

Answer
Types of Aquifers : Following are the various types of aquifer :
1. Unconfined Aquifers :
i. An unconfined aquifer is one which signifies the absence of any geological
layer confining the zone of saturation (above the watertable).
ii. The unconfined aquifer is in direct contact with atmosphere through
the zone of aeration.
iii. The hydraulic pressure head at any point within the unconfined aquifer
is equal to depth of the point from the watertable.
Water level in well 1 and 2
1 will be equal to the level
of the watertable
Ground level
2
WL in well 1
WL in well 2
WT
WT

Aquifer, say sand

and gravel

Fig. 4.2.1.
iv. In unconfined aquifer, the watertable goes down if water is withdrawn
from the aquifer storage and the watertable moves up if water is added
into the aquifer storage.
v. This aquifer is also known as watertable aquifer or phreatic aquifer.
2. Perched Aquifers :
Perched aquifer Land surface

Perched
water Saturated
table Pervious
material
Patch of
Unconfined impervious
aquifer stratum
Generalwater table

Impervious

Fig. 4.2.2. Perched aquifers.

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i. A special case of unconfined aquifer is known as perched aquifer, is
formed when infiltrated rain water is intercepted within the zone of
aeration by an impermeable layer and a local zone of saturation is formed.
ii. The upper surface of such local zone of saturation is known as perched
watertable.
iii. The perched aquifer occurs at higher elevation than the regional
watertable.
3. Confined Aquifers (Artesian aquifers) :
i. It is the one which is overlain by an impermeable layer or an aquiclude.
ii. Unlike the unconfined aquifer, the water in the confined aquifer is not
in direct contact with the atmosphere.
Recharge area in
Ground surface Imaginary
the catchment
pressure surface
2 or Piezometric
WL
1 surface Water flowing
out under
pressure

Impe 3
r
Per
viou aquic vious
lude
s ar (S hale)
te
encl sian aq
osed ui
on a fer (san
ll sid d st
Sand & Impervious es one
)
Gravel aquiclude (Shale)

Fig. 4.2.3. Confined aquifers.

4. Leaky Aquifer : Aquifers which are overlain or underlain by semi-
permeable strata are referred to as leaky aquifers. In such aquifers a
significant portion of the yield may be derived by vertical leakage or
seepage through the semiconfining formations into the aquifer.

Que 4.3. Write the short notes on :

1. Specific yield. 2. Specific retention.
3. Specific capacity. 4. Porosity.
5. Permeability. 6. Flownet.
7. Radius of influence.
8. Cone of depression.

Answer
1. Specific Yield :
i. While porosity gives a measure of the water storage capability of a
formation, not all the water held in the pores is available for extraction
by pumping or draining by gravity.
ii. The pores hold back some water by molecular attraction and surface
tension.
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iii. The actual volume of water that can be extracted by the force of gravity
from a unit volume of aquifer material is known as the specific yield
(Sy).
2. Specific Retention : The fraction of water held back in the aquifer is
known as specific retention. It is also called as field capacity Sr. Thus,
Porosity, n = Sy + Sr.
3. Specific Capacity : The specific capacity of a well is defined as the well
yield per unit of drawdown.
Discharge of well Q  1 
Specific capacity = = 2 =  
Drawdown C1 Q  C2 Q C
 1  C2 Q 
The equation clearly shows that the specific capacity of the well is not
constant but decreases as the discharge increases.
4. Porosity : The amount of pore space per unit volume of the aquifer
material is called porosity. It is expressed as
V
n= v
V
where, Vv and V = Volume of voids and porous medium.
5. Permeability : Permeability is a ability of a porous material to allow
fluids to pass through it.
6. Flownet : A grid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential lines and
streamlines is known as flownet.
7. Radius of Influence : The areal extent of the cone of depression is
called area of influence and its radial extent radius of influence.
8. Cone of Depression : If the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic and
the water table assumes a conical shape called cone of depression.

Que 4.4. Explain in detail about the forms of subsurface water

with neat sketch. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

OR
Discuss the different forms of subsurface water in detail with
diagram.

Answer
Forms of Subsurface Water : The underground water is generally
available in the following forms :
1. Infiltration Galleries :
i. These are horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnels constructed at shallow
depths (3 to 5 metres) along the bank of the river through the water
bearing strata, as shown in Fig. 1.4.1. They are sometimes called
horizontal wells.
ii. These galleries are generally constructed of masonry walls with roof
slabs, and derive their water from the aquifer by various porous drain
pipes.
iii. These pipes are generally covered with gravel, so as to prevent the
entry of the fine sand particles into the pipe.
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iv. These tunnels or galleries are generally laid at a slope and the water
collected in them is taken to a sump well, from where it is pumped,
treated and distributed to the consumers.

Pervious river Aquifer

bank Infiltration
RCC slab
gallery
River or
stream channel Masonry
Gravel

Foundation Porous drain

pipes
Fig. 4.4.1. Section of an infiltration gallery.
2. Infiltration Wells :
i. These are the shallow wells constructed in series along the banks of the
rivers, in order to collect the river water seeping through their bottom,
as shown in Fig. 4.4.2(a).
ii. These wells are generally constructed of brick masonry with open joints.
They are generally covered at the top and kept open at the bottom, as
shown in Fig. 4.4.2(b). For inspection purposes, manholes are provided
in the top cover.
Infiltration wells

WT
Mound

(a) Location of infiltration wells.

Manhole Top cover
Sandy river bed

Water Jack
lable well
Masonary wall
with Porous pipes
Sand bed open joints from infiltrations
wells
(b ) Section of an infiltration well. (c) Plan of a jack well drawing water
from several infiltration wells.
Fig. 4.4.2.
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iii. The various infiltration wells are connected by porous pipes to a sump
well, called jack well, as shown in Fig. 4.4.2(c). The water reaching the
jack well from different infiltration wells is lifted, treated and distributed
to the consumers.
3. Springs : The natural outflow of groundwater at the Earth’s surface is
said to form a spring. A pervious layer sandwiched between two
impervious layers, give rise to natural spring.
Types of Springs :
i. Gravity Springs : When the ground watertable rises high and the
water overflows through the sides of a natural valley or a depression,
the spring formed is known as a gravity spring.
ii. Surface Springs : Sometimes, an impervious obstruction or stratum,
supporting the underground storage, becomes inclined causing the
watertable to go up and get exposed to the ground surface. This type of
spring is known as a surface spring.
iii. Artesian Springs : When the storage is under pressure (i.e., the water
is flowing through some confined aquifer), the spring formed is known
as artesian spring. These types of springs are also use to provide almost
uniform quantity of water.
4. Wells : A water well is a hole usually vertical, excavated in the Earth for
bringing groundwater to the surface.
The wells may be classified into two types :
i. Open Wells :
a. These are generally open masonry wells, having comparatively
bigger diameters, and are suitable for low discharges of the order of
1–5 litres per second.
b. The diameter of open wells generally varies from 2 to 9 m, and they
are generally less than 20 m in depth.
c. The walls of an open well may be built of precast concrete rings or
in brick or stone masonry.
Type of Open Wells : The open wells may be classified into the following
two types :
a. Shallow open wells.
b. Deep open wells.
GL
WT
Pervious
Deep
well
Shallow well
Mota layer

Pervious cavity
Bore hole
Sand layers free from finer grains
Fig. 4.4.4. Shallow and deep dug wells.
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ii. Tube Wells :
a. The discharge from an open well is generally limited to 3 to 6 litres/sec.
b. Mechanical pumping of small discharges available in open wells is
not economical.
c. To obtain large discharge mechanically, tube well, which is a long
pipe or a tube, is bored or drilled deep into the ground, intercepting
one or more water bearing stratum.
Types of Tubewells : The tubewells can be broadly classified into the
following two categories :
a. Cavity type tubewells.
b. Screen tubewells.

Que 4.5. Describe various types of tubewells.

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
Types of Tubewells : Following are the various types of tubewells :
1. Strainer Type Tubewell :
i. The strainer well is the most common and widely used well. In common
term, the word “tube well” refers to the strainer type of tube well.
ii. In this type of well, a strainer, which is a special type of wire mesh, is
wrapped round the main tube of the well.
iii. The main pipe contains bigger holes or slots than the openings of the
strainer.
iv. The total area of the openings of the tube is kept equal to the openings
of the strainer so that the velocity of flow does not change.
v. Due to fineness of the openings of the strainer, a higher operational
velocity of water can be permitted.
vi. Little annular space is left between the strainer and the pipe so that the
open area of pipe perforations is not reduced.
Ground surface
Water table
Blind pipe

Impervious layer

Confined aquifer Strainer

Impervious layer Blind pipe

Confined aquifer
Strainer

Impervious layer Plug

Fig. 4.5.1. Strainer type tube well.
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vii. A strainer well may draw water either from an unconfined aquifer of
unlimited extent, or from one or more confined aquifer layers.
viii. The strainers are provided only in that length of the pipe where it
crosses the aquifer.
ix. The pipe in the aquifer portion is kept perforated. In the rest of the
portion, plain or blind pipe is provided.
2. Cavity Type Tubewell :
i. This is a special type of tube well in which water is not drawn through
the strainer, but it is drawn through the bottom of the well where a
cavity is formed.
ii. The tube well pipe penetrates a strong clay layer which acts as a strong
roof. Thus, a cavity tube well is similar to a deep well.

Mota layer

Aquifer

Aquiclude

Strong Aquiclude
Cavity
Aquifer Sand free
from fine
material
Critical velocity surface
Fig. 4.5.2. Cavity type tubewell.
iii. However, a deep well draws from the first aquifer below the mota layer
while a cavity well need not do so.
iv. The essential condition for a cavity tube well to function efficiently is to
have confined aquifer of good specific yield, and the aquifer should have
a strong impervious material above it.
v. In the initial stage of pumping with the help of a centrifugal pump or an
air lift pump, fine sand comes with water and consequently a hollow
cavity is formed.
vi. As the spherical surface area of cavity increases outwards, the radial
critical velocity decreases, and the sand particles stop entering the well.
vii. At this stage, equilibrium in the cavity formation is established and
clean water continues to enter the well on further pumping at the same
constant discharge.
viii. After the formation of the cavity, the velocity of entry of water at the
bottom of the pipe is lesser than the critical.
3. Slotted Type Tube Well :
i. A slotted tube well is resorted under two circumstances :
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Compressed air

Casing pipe Main pipe

(Removed later) Top soil

Gravel Slots
shrouding
Water bearing strata

Fig. 4.5.3. Slotted type tube well.

a. Sufficient depth of water bearing stratum is not available even
upto a depth of 75 to 100 m, so that strainer type tube well cannot
be used.
b. Suitable strong roof is not available so that a cavity well cannot be
formed.
ii. In such a circumstance, a slotted well is used and it is made to penetrate
to some depth in the water bearing strata.
iii. A slotted tube well essentially consists of a slotted tube penetrating
the confined aquifer.
iv. The size of slots may be 25 mm × 3 mm at 10 to 12 mm spacing. In
order to prevent the fine particles entering the pipe, it is shrouded
with a mixture of gravel and bajri (coarse sand).

Que 4.6. Write down in details selection of suitable site for a tube
well.

Answer
Selection of the Suitable Site : The following points should be
considered for the selection of the site :
1. Tube well should be selected at a site where large underground reservoir
exists.
2. If the geological explorations indicate ridges and depressions of
impermeable strata inside the ground, the tube well should be located
where there is the valley.
3. The area should have an access for the availability of a cheap electric
supply so that motor driven pumps can be fitted with tube wells without
an exorbitant cost.
4. The area should have a well distributed and uniform demand for
irrigation throughout the year. If the demand is not uniform, tube well
will be idling for some time or has to work inefficiently and thus the cost
for overall irrigation will increase.
5. The area around the tube well should have an intensive cultivation and
the tube well should be located centrally so as to reduce the length of
gulf and thereby transient losses.
6. The water available from the tube well should be tested to find out the
irrigation quality of water. If the water is found to have harmful salts,
the site may have to be changed in spite of various advantages.
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Que 4.7. Write short note on the spherical flow in well.

Answer
Fig. 4.7.1 shows a special case of partially penetrating well, where the
well just penetrates upto the top surface of the semi-infinite porous
medium. In this case, the general equation is not applicable, because
the flow towards the well becomes purely spherical. The discharge Qs
from such a well can however be calculated from the equations.
Qs = 2krw (H – hw)
GL

H hw

Confined B
aquifer

Impervious
Fig. 4.7.1. Spherical flow in well.

Que 4.8. What is the surface of seepage and free surface of curve ?

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
Surface of Seepage and Free Surface Curve :
1. The surface throughout which the pressure is atmospheric is known as
the free surface.
2. Let us consider an unconfined aquifer and let AD be the position of the
original free water surface (i.e., the watertable) which is approximately
horizontal.
3. Let a gravity well of radius rw be constructed throughout the depth of
the aquifer.
4. Let d be the height from the bottom of the well to the groundwater
table.
5. Let the water be pumped from this well. After the pumping, the water
will stand in the rest of the bore holes along the lines ABCD, there is no
groundwater except capillary moisture.
6. But according to the Dupuit’s formula, the water level in the pumped
well is not found at BC level, but at a slightly lower than this level, i.e.,
at BC.
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Groundlevel
Original water surface R
or Water table D
A B' C'
Free surface curve
d hx
h B C Dupuit's curve or Thiem's
r base pressure curve

rx r
Fig. 4.8.1. Free surface curve vs Dupuit’s base
pressure curve in a gravity well.
GL GL

Free surface curve

C'
Surface of
seepage

Fig. 4.8.2. Surface of seepage.

7. Hence, the drawdown in the pumped well is slightly more than the
drawdown of the groundwater table immediately adjacent to the well.
8. This vertical surface of the ground, forming outside of the well hole,
which is exposed between the water surface in the well and the free
surface is known as the “surface of seepage”.
9. While ABCD will be the cone of depression or Dupuit’s base pressure
curve.

PART-2
Occurrence of Groundwater, Hydrogeology and Aquifers,
Groundwater Movement.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.9. What is Darcy’s law ? Explain its significance in

groundwater movement. What are its limitations ?

Answer
Darcy’s Law : Henry Darcy, on the basis of his experimental finding
proposed a law relating the velocity of flow in a porous medium. This
law, known as Darcy’s law can be expressed as
v = ki
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where, v = Velocity.
i = Hydraulic gradient.
k = Co-efficient of permeability (hydraulic conductivity).
Significance :
i. One application of Darcy’s law is to flow water through an aquifer.
ii. Darcy’s law with the conservation of mass equation is equivalent to the
groundwater flow equation, being one of the basic relationships of
hydrogeology.
Limitations :
i. Darcy’s law is valid only for laminar flow, which occurs for Reynold’s
number less than one.
ii. Darcy’s law is valid for flow in clay, silt and fine sand.

Que 4.10. Expres s the flow net cons truction for s teady

groundwater flow. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
Flow Net for Steady Groundwater Flow :
1. For drawing a flow net, the boundary conditions should be known. For
a steady state flow, these are as follows :
i. The line GK and its elongation of the left side, as far as the section
extends, is an equipotential line with head H.
ii. ABC is a flow line.
iii. The line CJ and its elongation to the right side is an equipotential line
with zero head.
iv. Along the impervious bottom is the last flow line.
2. The procedure for drawing the flow net can be divided into the following
steps :
i. First identify the hydraulic boundary conditions. In Fig. 4.10.1, the
upstream bed level GDAK represents 100 % potential line and the
downstream bed level MCFJ, 0 % potential line.
ii. The first flow KLM hugs the hydraulic structure and is formed by the
flow of water on the upstream of the sheet pile, the downstream of the
sheet pile and at the interface of the base of the dam and the soil
surface.
iii. The last flow line is indicated by impervious stratum NP.
iv. Draw a trial flow line ABC adjacent to the boundary line. The line must
be at right angles to the upstream and downstream beds.
v. Starting from the upstream end, divide the first flow channel into
approximate squares by equipotential lines. The size of the square should
change gradually.
vi. Extend downward the equipotential lines forming the sides of the square.
These extensions point out approximate width of the squares, such as
squares marked (1) and (2).
vii. Other sides of the squares are set equal to the widths as determined
above. Irregularities are smoothened out, and the next flow line DF is
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 4–15 C (CE-Sem-8)
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drawn joining these bases. While sketching the flow line, care should be
taken to make flow fields as approximate squares throughout.

H
G D AK MC F J
Flow line (1)
(2)
L Equipotential
B line

N E P

Fig. 4.10.1.
viii. The equipotential lines are further extended downward, and one more
flow line GEJ is drawn, repeating the step (vi).
ix. If the flow fields in the last flow channel are inconsistent with the actual
boundary conditions, the whole procedure is repeated after taking a
new trial flow line.

PART-3
Steady and Unsteady Flow Through Confined and Unconfined
Aquifers, Well Hydraulics.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.11. Explain in detail about well hydraulics.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer

Well Hydraulics :
1. Wells are in direct hydraulic communication with aquifers, they are
used to extract ground water and sometimes of recharging of aquifers
as well.
2. By conducting pumping tests on wells, which provide direct access to
ground-water conditions, they can also be used to estimate aquifer
properties, such as the storage coefficient and transmissivity in the
vicinity of the well.
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3. The coefficient of storage is a measure of the amount of water obtained
as the amount of water given by the aquifer per unit surface area per
unit change (decrease) of pressure head.
4. An aquifer is recharged, s is defined as the amount of water taken into
storage by the aquifer per unit surface area per unit change (increase)
of pressure head.
5. The coefficient of transmissibility, T, is a measure of the rate at which
water flows through the saturated thickness of an aquifer.
6. Often the term applied to this type of quantitative method is the aquifer
performance test, or simply the aquifer test.
7. With the knowledge of these aquifer characteristics, future declines in
groundwater levels associated to help with resource management and
environmental conservation when needed.

Que 4.12. Develop an equation relating the steady state discharge

from a well in an unconfined aquifer and depth of watertable at two
known positions from the well. State clearly all the assumption
involved in your derivation. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
OR
Derive an expression for discharge from a well in unconfined
aquifer. The well fully penetrates it. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
1. Assumptions of Dupuit’s Theory : Dupuit’s theory of flow for
unconfined aquifer is based on the following assumptions :
i. The velocity of flow is proportional to the tangent of the hydraulic
gradient instead of sine.
ii. The flow is horizontal and uniform everywhere in the vertical section.
iii. Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of infinite areal extent.
iv. The well penetrates and receives water from the entire thickness of
the aquifer.
v. The coefficient of transmissibility is constant at all places and at all
time.
vi. Natural ground water regime affecting an aquifer remains constant
with time.
vii. Flow is laminar and Darcy’s law is applicable.
2. Equation Relating the Steady State Discharge from a Well in
an Unconfined Aquifer :
i. Fig. 4.9.1 shows a well penetrating an unconfined or free aquifer to
its full depth.
Let, r = Radius of the well.
H = Thickne ss o f the aquife r, me asure d fro m the
impermeable layer to the initial level of watertable.
s = Drawdown at the well.
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h = Depth of water in the well measured above impermeable
layer.
ii. Considering the origin of co-ordinates at a point O at the centre of
the well at its bottom, let the co-ordinates of any point P on the
drawdown curve be (x, y).
Then, from Darcy’s law, Q = k A x i x
where, Ax = Area of cross-section of the saturated part of aquifer at P
= (2 x) × (y) = 2  x y
dy
ix = Hydraulic gradient at P =
dx
dy
iii. Discharge, Q = k(2  x y)
dx
dx
 Q = 2  k y dy
x
iv. Integrating between the limits (R, r) for x and (H, h) for y, we get
R H
dx
Q = 2 k  y dy
r x h
H
 2
Q  log xr = 2 k  y 
R

 2 h
k( H 2 – h 2 ) 1.36 k( H 2 – h2 )
Q= 
R R
log e log10
r r
Q
Ground level
r r
r2 R
r1 Initial water table
s2
s1 P
2 s Cone of
(x , y )
depression
1
Observation wells

H
h2
h1
h

y
x

Impervious layer O
Fig. 4.12.1. Unconfined aquifer.
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Que 4.13. What are the differences between confined and
unconfined aquifers for the determination of discharge with steady
flow condition ? A well penetrates into an unconfined aquifer
having a saturated depth of 100 m. The discharge is 250 litres per
minute at 12 m drawdown. Assuming equilibrium flow conditions
and a homogeneous aquifer, estimate the discharge at 18 m
drawdown. The distance from the well where the drawdown
influences are not appreciable may be taken equal for both cases.
AKTU 2016-17, 2017-18; Marks 10

Answer
Difference between Confined and Unconfined Aquifers :
S. No. Confined Aquifers Unconfined Aquifers

1. Confined aquifer is the one Unconfined aquifer, or watertable

in which ground water is aquifer is the one in which a
confined under pressure watertable serves as the upper
greater than atmospheric by surface of the zone of saturation.
overlying, relatively
impermeable strata.
2. Confined aquifers are also It is also sometimes known as the
known as artesian aquifers. free, phreatic or non-artesian
aquifer.
3. In confined aquifer, the water In such an aquifer, the water
table varies in static form and table varies in undulating form
in slope. and in slope.
4. In a well penetrating aquifer, Rises and falls in the watertable
the water level will rise to the corresponds to changes in the
le ve l of the local static volume of water in storage within
pressure or artesian head. unconfined aquifer.
5. Artesian aquifers usually Unconfined aquifer usually has
have relatively small relatively large recharge areas as
recharge areas as compared compared to confined aquifers.
to unconfined aquifers.

Numerical :
Given : Saturated depth, H = 100 m, Discharge, Q1 = 250 litres/min
Drawdown, s1 = 12 m, s2 = 18 m
To Find : Discharge at 18 m drawdown
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2Ts
Discharge, Q= ,Qs
R
ln
rw
Q1 s
= 1
Q2 s2
s2 18
Q2 = Q1  = 250 × = 375 litres/min
s1 12

Que 4.14. Describe an expression for discharge from a well fully

penetrating a confined aquifer.

Answer
Expression for Discharge from a Well fully Penetrating a
Confined Aquifer :
1. Fig. 4.14.1 shows a well completely penetrating a horizontal confined
aquifer of thickness B.
2. Consider the well to be discharging a steady flow, Q.
3. The original piezometric head (static head) was H and the drawdown
due to pumping is indicated in Fig. 4.14.1.
4. The piezometric head at the pumping well is hw and the drawdown Sw.
Q
Pumping well dia. = 2rw Original piezometric surface

s s1 s2
sw
Aquiclude Piezometric surface
under pumping
H

Flow
Confined
aquifer

r 2rw Aquiclude
r1
R r2
Fig. 4.14.1. Well operating in a confined aquifer.
5. At a radial distance r from the well, if h is the piezometric head, the
velocity of flow by Darcy’s law is
dh
vr = k
dr
6. The cylindrical surface through which this velocity occurs is 2rB.
Hence by equating the discharge entering this surface to the well
discharge,
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 dh 
Q = (2rB)  k 
 dr 
Q dr
dh =
2kB r
7. Integrating between limits r1 and r2 with the corresponding piezometric
heads being h1 and h2 respectively,
Q r
ln 2 = (h2 – h1)
2 kB r1
2kB(h2  h1 )
or Q= ...(4.14.1)
r
ln 2
r1
8. This is the equilibrium equation for the steady flow in a confined
aquifer. This equation is popularly known as Thiem’s equation.
9. If the drawdown s1 and s 2 at the observation wells are known, then
by noting that s1 = H – h1, s 2 = H – h2 and kB = T
Eq. from (4.14.1) we get
2T (s1  s2 )
Q= ...(4.14.2)
r
ln 2
r1
10. Further at the edge of the zone of influence, s 2 = 0, r2 = R and h2 = H;
at the well wall r1 = rw, h1 = hw and s1 = sw. Eq. (4.11.2) would then be
2Tsw
Q= ...(4.14.3)
ln R / rw

Que 4.15. A 30 cm well completely penetrates an artesian aquifer.

The length of the strainer is 25 m. Determine the discharge from the
well when the drawdown at pumping well is 4.0 m. The coefficient of
permeability of the aquifer is 45 m/day. Assume the radius of influence
of the well as 350 m. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Diameter of well, d = 30 cm, Length of strainer, L = 25 m,

Drawdown, s = 4.0 m, Coefficient of permeability, k = 45 m/day
= 5.208 × 10 –4 m/sec, Radius of influence of the well, R = 350 m
To Find : Discharge from a well.

30
1. Radius of well, r = = 15 cm = 0.15 m
2
2 kBs 2    5.208  10 – 4  25  4
2. Discharge from the well, Q = =
ln ( R / r ) 350 
ln  
 0.15 
3
= 0.042195 m /sec = 42.195 l/sec
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 4–21 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Que 4.16. A well 0.5 m in diameter penetrates 33 m below the static
watertable. After a long period of pumping at a rate of 80 m3/hr, the
drawdown in well 18 and 45 m from the pumped well were found to
be 1.8 and 1.1 m respectively.
i. What is the transmissibility of the aquifer ?
ii. What is the approximate drawdown in the pumped well ?
iii. Determine the radius of influence of the pumping well.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Well diameter, d = 0.5 m, Depth of well, B = 33 m,

Discharge from well, Q = 80 m3/hr, Drawdown of test well
at radial distance 18 m, s1 = 1.8 m,
Drawdown of test well at radial distance 45 m, s2 = 1.1 m
To Find : Transmissibility, drawdown, radius of influence.
1. Coefficient of transmissibility,
Q r 
T= ln  2 
2 (s1  s2 )  r1 
80 / 3600  45 
= ln    4.63  10 3 m2/sec
2(1.8  1.1)  18 
2. Coefficient of permeability,
T 4.635  10 3
k=   1.403  104 m/ sec
B 33
2 kB ( H  h1 )
3. We know that, Q=
R
ln
r1
80 2  4.645  10 3  1.8
=
3600 R
ln
18
Radius of influence, R = 190 m
2 kBs 2  4.645  10 3  s 80
4. We know that, Q=  
R 190 3600
ln ln
r 0.25
Drawdown, s = 5.067 m

Que 4.17. Design a tube well for the following data :

Yield required = 0.08 cumecs
Thickness of confined aquifer = 30 m
Radius of circle of influence = 300 m
Permeability coefficient = 60 m/day
Drawdown = 5 m AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Groundwater 4–22 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer

Given : Discharge, Q = 0.08 m3/sec, Thickness of confined aquifer,

B = 30 m, Radius of circle of influence, R = 300 m, Coefficient of
permeability, k = 60 m/day, Drawdown, s = 5 m
To Find : Radius of tube well.
Discharge from confined aquifer is given by,
2kBs
Q=
 R
ln  
 r
60
2   30  5
86400 300
0.08 =  ln = 8.181
 300  r
ln  
 r 
Radius of tube well, r = 0.084 m = 84 mm

Que 4.18. A 60 cm well is being pumped at a rate of 1360 litres per

minute. At a distance of 6 m from the well being pumped, the
drawdown was 6 m and at 15 m the drawdown was 1.5 m. The bottom
of the well is 90 m below the groundwater table, (a) Find out k, (b) If
all the observed points were one the Dupuit’s curve, What was the
drawdown in the well during pumping ? What is the specific capacity
of the well ? What is the rate at which water can be draw from this
well. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Diameter of well, 2rw = 60 cm, Drawdown, s1 = 6 m, s2 = 1.5 m,

Radius, r1 = 6 m, r2 = 15 m, Height, H = 90 m,
Discharge, Q = 1360 lit/min = 1.36 m3/min
To Find : Permeability, k, drawdown, specific capacity, maximum
discharge.
1. h2 = H – s2 = 90 – 1.5 = 88.5 m
2. h1 = H – s1 = 90 – 6 = 84 m
3. Radius of well, rw = 60 / 2 = 30 cm
4. Discharge is given by,
k(h22  h12 ) k[(88.5)2  (84)2 ]
Q=  1.36 =
r   15 
ln  2  ln  
 r1   6 
k = 1.605 × 10– 3
Coefficient of permeability, k = 0.51 × 10 3 m / min
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 4–23 C (CE-Sem-8)
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k(h22  hw2 )
5. Q=
r 
ln  2 
 rw 
1.603  103  [(88.5)2  hw2 ]
1.36 =  hw = 67.18 m
ln(50)
6. Drawdown in the pumped well = 90 – 67.18 = 22.82 m
7. Specific capacity of the well. It is the discharge for a unit (i.e., 1 m)
drawdown in the pumped well. Let us first find out the value of R.
Use Dupuit’s theory for unconsolidated aquifers.
k( H 2  hw2 )
i.e., Q=
 R
ln  
 rw 
1.603  10 3 (902  67.182 )
1.36 =  R = 20.56 m
 R
ln 
 0.3 
Now, specific capacity = Q per unit drawdown
h = 90 – 1 = 89 m
(1.603  10  3 ) (90 2  892 ) m3
Specific capacity =  67.87  10  3
 20.56  min
ln 
 0.3 
Hence, the specific capacity, = 67.87 lit / min
8. Maximum discharge will occur when, hw = 0
(1.603  10  3 ) (902  0 2 ) m3
Qmax =  3.07
 20.56  min
ln 
 0.3 
Hence, the maximum rate of discharge = 3070 lit/min.

Que 4.19. A 30 cm well completely penetrates an unconfined aquifer

of saturated depth 40 m. After a long period of pumping at a steady
rate of 1500 lpm, the drawdown in two observation wells 25 m and 75
m from the pumping well were found to be 3.5 m and 2.0 m respectively.
Determine the transmissibility of the aquifer. Find also the
drawdown at the well. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Diameter of well, 2rw = 0.3 m, Depth of aquifer, H = 40 m,

Discharge, Q = 1500 lpm = 0.025 m3/sec, r1 = 25 m, r2 = 75 m, s1 = 3.5 m,
s2 = 2 m
To Find : Transmissibility and drawdown at well.
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Q r 
1. Coefficient of permeability, k = ln  2 
(h22  h12 )  r1 
0.025  75 
=  ln   = 7.823 × 10– 5 m/sec
(382  36.52 )  25 
2. Transmissibility, T = kH = 7.823 × 10– 5 × 40 = 3.13 × 10– 3 m2/sec
Q r 
3. We known that, k=  ln  2 
(h22  hw 2 )  rw 
0.025  75 
7.823 × 10– 5 =  ln 
(38 2  hw2 )  0.15 
hw = 28.5 m
4. Drawdown at well, s = 40 – 28.5 = 11.5 m

Que 4.20. A 25 cm diameter well penetrates 20 m below water

table. After 1 day pumping at a rate of 4600 litre/minutes. The water
level in a test well at 110 m is lowered by 0.7 m and test well at 40 m
away drawdown is 1.25 m. What is the transmissibility of aquifer ?
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Diameter of well = 25 cm, Depth of water table, H = 20 m,

r1 = 40 m, s1 = 1.25 m, r2 = 110 m, s2 = 0.7 m, Q = 4600 litre/min.
To Find : Transmissibility, T.

k (h22 – h12 )
1. Discharge is given by, Q =
ln (r2 / r1 )
2. h1 = H – s1 = 20 – 1.25 = 18.75 m
3. h2 = H– s2 = 20 – 0.7 = 19.3 m
4600  10 –3
4. Q = 4600 litre/minutes = = 0.0767 m3/sec
60
k (19.32 – 18.752 )
0.0767 =
 110 
ln 
 40 
k = 1.18015 × 10–3 m/sec
5. Transmissibility, T = kH = 1.18015 × 10–3 × 20 = 0.0236 m2/sec

Que 4.21. In a field test, a time of 6 h was required for a tracer to

travel between two observations well 42 m a part. If the difference in
water table elevations in these wells were 0.85 m and the porosity of
the aquifer is 20 %. Calculate the coefficient of permeability of aquifer.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 4–25 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer

Given : Time taken by tracer = 6 h, Travelling distance by tracer = 42 m,

Porosity, n = 20 %, Difference in water level = 0.86 m
To Find : Coefficient of permeability.

42
1. Actual velocity of water = = 1.94 × 10–3 m/sec
6  3600
2. Discharge velocity, v = n va
= 0.20 × 1.94 × 10–3 = 3.89 × 10–4 m/sec
0.86
3. Hydraulic gradient, i = = 0.0205
42
4. Coefficient of permeability,
3.89  10 4
k= = 0.019 m/sec
0.0205

PART-4
Single and Multiple Well System, Partially Penetrating Wells,
Image Wells.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.22. Explain the method of determining the aquifer constant

or coefficient of transmissibility of a confined aquifer by pumping
out test. How can this method be extended for unconfined aquifer ?
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
1. Confined Aquifer :
i. The aquifer constant T (coefficient of transmissibility) can be determined
by a pumping out test, and by observing drawdown at various observation
wells.
ii. Pumping must continue at a uniform rate for a sufficient time to approach
a steady state condition for which equilibrium equation is applicable.
iii. Steady state condition is the one in which the drawdown changes
negligibly with time.
Let, s1 = Drawdown in observation well 1 = (H – h1)
s2 = Drawdown in observation well 2 = (H – h2)
 h2 – h1 = (H – s2) – (H – s1) = s1 – s2
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2.72 T ( h2 – h1 ) 2.72 T (s1 – s2 )
iv. Then equation, Q= = ...(4.22.1)
r2 r
log 10 log 10 2
r1 r1

Q r
 Transmissibility constant, T = log10 2 ...(4.22.2)
2.72 ( s1 – s2 ) r1
r2
v. Choosing r2 = 10 r1, we find log10 =1
r1
Q Q
Hence, T== ...(4.22.3)
2.72 ( s1 – s2 ) 2.72 s
where, s = Difference in drawdowns.
vi. The method, therefore, consists in observing drawdowns s1, s2 ..., sx at
certain observation wells r1, r2,...... rx etc., and plotting a graph between
sx as ordinate and log10 rx as abscissa, thus getting a straight line as
shown in Fig. 4.22.1.
vii. From the graph, s can be obtained for one log cycle of distance and can
be substituted in eq. (4.22.2) to get T.

12

10
s
Drawdown, s

6
4

2
0
1 10 100 1000
log10 rx
Fig. 4.22.1.
2. Unconfined Aquifer :
i. The above method of determination of T can also be extended to
unconfined aquifer Fig. 4.22.2.

12
Modified drawdown, s'

10
8 s'
6
4
2
0
1 10 100 1000
log 10 rx
Fig. 4.22.2.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 4–27 C (CE-Sem-8)
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h1 = H – s1, h2 = H – s2
h – h12 = (H – s2)2 – (H – s1)2
2
2

 s2   s2  
= 2 H  s1 – 1  –  s2 – 2   = 2 H (s1 – s2 )
 2H   2 H  

ii. where, s1 and s2 are modified drawdowns given by,

s12 s2
s1 = s1 – , s2 = s2 – 2
2H 2H

k (h22 – h12 ) 1.36 k (h22 – h12 )

iii. We know that, Q= =
r2 r
log e log10 2
r1 r1

iv. Substitute the value of ( h22 – h12 ) from above, we get

1.36 k [2 H ( s1 – s2 )] 2.72 kH ( s1 – s2 )
Q= =
r2 r
log 10 log 10 2
r1 r1
v. Since, H = Aquifer thickness, we have kH = T
2.72 T (s1 – s2 )
 Q=
r
log 10 2
r1
Q r
From which, T= log10 2 ...(4.22.4)
2.72 ( s1 – s2 ) r1
vi. It should be noted that eq. (4.22.1) and (4.22.4) are identical. Choosing
r2 = 10 r1 as before, we get
Q
T= ...(4.22.5)
2.72  s
vii. Thus, the observed drawdowns are corrected or modified, and a graph is
plotted between the modified drawdowns (s) and logarithm of distance
of observation wells from the discharge well.
viii. Measuring s for one log cycle of distance, we get T from eq. (4.22.5).

Que 4.23. Discuss the concept of multiple well system in well

hydraulics.

Answer
Multiple Well System :
1. If there are a number of pumping wells in a given well field, the drawdown
at any point is the sum of the drawdowns due to each pumping well, for
which the distance of the point from each well and the discharge of each
well should be known.
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2. The drawdowns depend upon the pumping pattern, i.e., the number of
wells, their pumping rate and their array.
3. Solutions may be obtained using equilibrium or non-equilibrium
equations, as the case may be.
4. Multiple well systems are used for lowering the ground water table in a
given area to facilitate excavation for foundation work, etc.
y
Wells

a
Line
source d

X
Fig. 4.23.1. Wells parallel to a line source.
5. Wells may be closely spaced (resulting in mutual interference) and all
the wells may be connected to a common supply pipe to meet the large
demand for water supply.
6. For an array of a number of equally spaced (B metres apart) fully
penetrating wells, all discharging at the same rate (Q), parallel to a line
source (at a distance d), Fig. 4.23.1, the drawdown at any point (x, y) is
given by,

2 2y
cosh ( x  d)  cos
Q a a ...(4.23.1)
H–h=s= log e
2kB 2 2y
cosh ( x  d)  cos
a a
7. For unconfined aquifers eq. (4.23.1) becomes,

2 2y
cosh ( x  d)  cos
Q a a
H2 – h2 = log e ...(4.23.2)
k 2 2y
cosh ( x  d)  cos
a a
8. Muskat developed solutions for well discharges for various well patterns
localised near the centre of a well field of radius R such that for each
well the head at the external boundary can be taken to be H (i.e., R is the
radius of influence for each well), Fig. 4.23.2.
9. In the following solutions it is assumed that all the wells fully penetrate
a confined aquifer, have the same diameter, and drawdown, and discharge
for the same period of time.
10. The equations can also be applied to unconfined aquifers by replacing H
H2 h2
by and hw by w
2B 2B
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 4–29 C (CE-Sem-8)
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i. Two wells spaced at a distance a (a << R), discharging Q1 and Q2 for
confined and unconfined aquifers, respectively, are given by,
2kB ( H  hw ) k ( H 2  hw2 )
Q1 = Q2 = 
R2 R2
log e log e
rw a rw a

a a a

+ + a +
R a R
R

(b )
(a) (c )
Boundary of well field a << R
Fig. 4.23.2. Closely spaced wells in a well field.
where, rw is the radius of each well and H – hw = sw.
ii. For three wells forming an equilateral triangle of side a (a << R),
2kB ( H  hw ) k ( H 2  hw2 )
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = 
R3 R3
log e 2
log e
rw a rw a2
iii. For four wells forming a square of side a (a << R),
2 2
2kB ( H  hw )
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4 4
= k ( H  hw )
4
R R
log e log e
2rw a3 2rwa3
iv. As the number of wells in the group increase, the mutual interference
between wells becomes more, with the result the production capacity
per well decreases.

Que 4.24. The aquifer properties S and T of a confined aquifer in

which a well is driven are known. Explain a procedure to calculate
the drawdown at a location away from the well at any instant after
the pump has started. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
1. When a well in a confined aquifer starts discharging, the water from
the aquifer is released resulting in the formation of a cone of depression
of the piezometric surface. This cone gradually expands with time till
equilibrium is attained.
2. In polar coordinates, to represent the radial flow into a well, takes
the form
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 2 h 1 h S h
 = ...(4.24.1)
r 2 r r T t
3. Theis obtained the solution of this equation as :

Q e u
s = (H – h) = du ...(4.24.2)
4 T u u
where, s = H – h = Drawdown at a point distance r from the
pumping well.
H = Initial constant piezometric head.
Q = Constant rate of discharge.
T = Transmissibility of the aquifer.
u = A parameter = r2 S/4Tt.
S = Storage coefficient.
t = Time from start of pumping.
4. The integral on the right hand side is called the well function, W(u)
and is given by,

e u u2 u3
W(u) =  du = – 0.577216 – ln u + u – + .... ...(4.24.3)
u u 2.2! 3.3!
5. Values of W(u) can be easily calculated by the series eq. (4.24.3) to
the required number of significant digits which rarely exceed 4.
6. The solution of eq. (4.24.2) to find the drawdown (s) for a given S, T,
r, t and Q can be obtained in a straightforward manner.
7. For small values of u(u  0.01), Jacob showed that the calculations
can be considerably simplified by considering only the first two terms
of the series of W(u), eq. (4.24.3). This assumption leads eq. (4.24.2)
to be expressed as :
Q  r 2S 
s=  0.5772  ln 
4 T  4Tt 
Q  2.25Tt 
i.e., s= ln
4 T  r 2 S 

Que 4.25. Define the efficiency of a well.

Answer
Efficiency of Well :
1. The discharge from a well is approximately proportional to the drawdown
s. The discharge per unit of drawdown was called specific capacity of the
well. This specific capacity will be different for different well designs.
2. For determining the best drawdown discharge conditions for a well, the
well may be operated under varying drawdown conditions, and a graph
may be plotted between discharge and drawdown (called yield-drawdown
curve) as shown in Fig. 4.25.1.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 4–31 C (CE-Sem-8)
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100

80

60

Percent % II yield 40

20

20 40 0 60 80 100
Percent drawdown
Fig. 4.25.1. Yield-drawdown curve.
3. The curve obtained is a straight line upto a certain stage of drawdown,
beyond which the drawdown increases disproportionately to the yield.
4. This places an optimum and efficient limit to the drawdown which may
be allowed to be created in a well.
5. This is generally found to be 70 % of the maximum drawdown which can
be created in a well.

Que 4.26. What do you understand by cavity formation in open

well ?

Answer
Cavity formation in Open Well :
1. Consider a well from which no water is being withdrawn.
2. The water level in such a well will obviously be the same as is the static
watertable outside the well.
3. Now, if a discharge is withdrawn from this well at a constant rate, the
level in the well will go down and stabilize at a lower level than that of
the outside watertable.
4. The head difference between these two levels is called the depression
head.
5. Under the influence of this head difference, water enters the well, from
outside, so as to fill the gap created by the withdrawal water.
6. As the water from the surrounding soil travels towards the well, there
is a gradual loss of head, and water surface drops towards the well.
7. Since the same discharge is passing through the reducing soil areas as it
approaches the well, there is a gradual increase in the flow velocity can
gradually increase only if the hydraulic gradient gets gradually increased.
8. Hence, the water surface will fall gently in the beginning and will fall
more and more rapidly as it approaches the well.
9. The surface of water table surrounding the well, therefore, takes up a
curved shape and is called the cone of depression.
10. At a certain distance from the central line of the well is called the radius
of influence of the well.
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11. The velocity of percolating water into the well depends upon the
depression head.
12. If more amount of water is withdrawal from the well, thereby increasing
the depression head, higher flow velocities will prevail in the vicinity of
well.
13. Thus, at a certain rate of withdrawal, it is very much possible that the
flow velocity may exceed the critical velocity for the soil, thereby causing
the soil particles to lift up.
14. As more and more sand particles are lifted, a hollow is created in the
bottom of the well, resulting in the increased effective area, so that
ultimately, the velocity falls below the critical value and then no further
sand goes out of the well.
Depression head

Hollow
Sand formation
Fig. 4.26.1. Cavity formation.

Que 4.27. What do you understand by image well ?

Answer
Image Well :
1. Ferris (1959) and Moulder (1963) describe image well theory by which
the influence of hydrogeologic boundaries on aquifer tests can be
determined.
2. Image well theory assumes that the aquifers are of an infinite areal
extent.
3. An image well is a hypothetical well that simulates recharge or discharge
at the same distance from the hydraulic boundary as the real production
well. In other words, the geologic boundary is replaced by an imaginary
well for analytical purposes.
4. Both the real production well and the image well are considered to be
operating simultaneously.
5. In the case of a barrier boundary, the effect on drawdown in the
production well is the same as through the aquifer were of an infinite
extent and a discharge image well were located across the boundary on
a line normal and the same distance from the boundary as the real well.

Que 4.28. Explain the partial penetrating well.

Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 4–33 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer
Partially Penetrating Artesian Well :
1. A partially penetrating artesian well is the one in which the well screen
does not penetrate to the full depth of the confined aquifer.
2. The pattern of flow in the aquifer in the vicinity of such a well deviates
from that for a fully penetrating well.
3. In practice, we often encounter such wells that extend only part way
through the water bearing strata.
4. Fig. 4.28.1 shows a partially penetrating artesian well in which the
strainer length B1 is less than the aquifer thickness B.
5. The discharge Qp from such a well can be computed from the following
equation :
2 kB ( H  h)
Qp = G  QG
R
log e
r
Qp
Ground surface

Initial piezometric surface

Cone of depression

B1
H h
B
Confined aquifer

Impervious layer
Fig. 4.28.1. Partially penetrating artesian well.
where, Qp = Discharge for partially penetrating well.
Q = Discharge for a fully penetrating well for the same
drawdown (H – h).
G = Correction factor for partial penetration = Qp / Q
6. A reasonable estimation of the correction factor G can be obtained from
the following expression developed by Kozeny :
B  r B 
G = 1 1  7 cos 1 
B  2 B1 2B 

Que 4.29. A 40 cm well penetrates an aquifer of 30 m, thickness and

the length of strainer is 10 m. The yield is 2000 lpm with a drawdown
in the well 2 m, if the length of the screen is increased 16 m. What
will be the drawdown in the well and the increase in the specific
capacity ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Groundwater 4–34 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer

Given : Depth of aquifer, B = 30 m, Diameter of well, 2rw = 40 cm,

Length of strainer, l1 = 10 m, Yield = 2000 lpm, Drawdown, sw1 = 2 m,
Increased length of screen, l2 = 16 m.
To Find : Drawdown in well (sw2), Increase in specific capacity.
1. By Muskat’s equation

 Q Q   rw   
= s   1  7  2 B
cos 
2  
 sw 
p
 
w 

l Length of strainer
Penetration fraction,  = 
B Thickness of the aquifer
Q1 = Q2 = 2000 × 10 – 3 m3/min, rw = 0.2 m
l1 10 l 16 8
1 =   1 / 3 , 2  2  
B 30 B 30 15

 Q Q   rw 1  
 1  7  cos 
 s 
w 1
sw  1  21 B 2  
=
 Q Q  rw  2  
 s   1  7  cos 
w 2 sw  2  2 2 B 2  
 0.2   1 
1 / 3 1  7  cos   
(2 / 2)  2  1 / 3  30 2  3 
=
(2 / sw2 ) 8  0.2   8 
1  7  8
cos   
 15 
15  2  30 2 
 15 
sw2 0.567
=
2 0.828
Drawdown, sw2 = 1.369 m, (reduced drawdown in the well)
Q 2
2. Specific capacity is increased to, = = 1.46 m2/min
sw2 1.369
2
3. Initial specific capacity, Q/sw1 = = 1 m2/min
2
1.46  1
4. Increase in specific capacity =  100 = 46 %
1

PART-5
Mutual Interference of Wells, Well Losses, Specific Capacity.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 4–35 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.30. Write a short note on interference among well.

Answer
Interference Among Wells :
1. When two wells, situated near to each other, are discharging, their
drawdown curves intersect within their radius of zero drawdown.
2. Thus, though the total discharge is increased, the discharge in individual
well is decreased due to interference.
3. Fig. 4.30.1 shows interference between two wells. If the two wells are a
distance a apart, and have the same diameter and drawdown and
discharge over the same period of time, it can be shown with the help of
method of complex variables, that the discharge through each well is
given by,
2kB ( H – h)
Q1 = Q2 =
R2
log e
ra
where, R = Radius of area of influence (R >> a).
4. If there were only one well, then the discharge, under the same
drawdown, would have been, from equation
2kB ( H – h)
Q=
R
log e
r
R2 R
Since, R >> a,  Hence, Q > Q1
ra r
Q1 Q2

Drawdown curve
for Q 1 only Drawdown curve
Composite for Q2 only
drawdown curve
H

h a
B Confined
aquifer

Fig. 4.30.1. Interference between two wells.

Groundwater 4–36 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5. Thus, discharge in each well decreases when the interference decreases.
6. Similarly, if there are three wells forming equilateral triangle a distance
a on a side, and if all the three wells have the same characteristics,
2kB ( H  h)
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 =
R3
log e 2
ra
Que 4.31. Explain in detail about well losses.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05

OR
State the characteristic well losses in detail.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
OR
Explain the following terms :
i. Well loss and specific capacity.
ii. Interference among wells.
iii. Real well and image well.
iv. Confined and perched aquifer. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
OR
Write short notes on following :
i. Specific capacity of well.
ii. Well loss.
iii. Spherical flow in well. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Well Loss :
1. When water is pumped out of a well, the total drawdown caused includes
not only that of the logarithmic drawdown curve at the well face, but
also drawdown caused by flow through well screen and axial movement
within the well. The latter drawdown is called well loss.
2. Since, turbulent flow generally occurs near the well face, this loss may
be taken to be proportional to Qn.

 k (h22 – h12 ) 
Rewriting equation Q  and adding well loss CQn to it,
r2 
 log e 
 r1 
For confined aquifer, s = (H – h) = (Q/2kB) loge (R/r) + CQn ...(4.31.1)
where the constant C is governed by several factors such as well radius,
construction and condition of the well.
3. Rewriting the above, we get, s = C1Q + CQn ...(4.31.2)
log e ( R / r)
where, C1 = ; C1Q = Aquifer loss and CQn = Well loss.
2kB
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 4–37 C (CE-Sem-8)
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4. Fig. 4.31.1(a) illustrates that the total drawdown consists of the sum of
the aquifer loss (C1Q) and the well loss (CQn).
5. Fig. 4.31.1(b) shows the variations of drawdown and well loss with the
discharge.
Q
Ground surface

Initial piezometric surface

C1Q

Drawdown (s)
Drawdown curve
H
CQn Well loss

n
w
do
C1Q

aw
r s
h D
Confined aquifier l lo s s
W el
CQn

(a) (b) Discharge ( Q)

Fig. 4.31.1. Well loss in confined aquifer.
6. For a screen which is not clogged or encrusted and whose size is
compatible to the surrounding porous media, the portion of the well loss
caused by water entering the well is small in comparison with the portion
resulting from axial movement inside the well to the pump intake.
B. Specific Capacity : Refer Q. 4.3, Page 4–5C, Unit-4.
C. Interface Among Wells : Refer Q. 4.30, Page 4–35C, Unit-4.
D. Real Well : Refer Q. 4.4, Page 4–6C, Unit-4.
E. Image Well : Refer Q. 4.27, Page 4–32C, Unit-4.
F. Confined and Perched Aquifer : Refer Q. 4.2, Page 4–4C, Unit-4.
G. Spherical Flow in Well : Refer Q. 4.7, Page 4–12C, Unit-4.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Describe in detail about the occurrence of groundwater.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.1, Unit-4.

Q. 2. Explain in detail about the forms of subsurface water with

neat sketch.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.4, Unit-4.
Groundwater 4–38 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Q. 3. What is the surface of seepage and free surface of curve ?
Ans. Refer Q. 4.8, Unit-4.
Q. 4. What is Darcy’s law ? Explain its significance in
groundwater movement. What are its limitations ?
Ans. Refer Q. 4.9, Unit-4.
Q. 5. Express the flow net construction for steady groundwater
flow.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.10, Unit-4.
Q. 6. Explain in detail about well hydraulics.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.11, Unit-4.
Q. 7. Develop an equation relating the steady state discharge
from a well in an unconfined aquifer and depth of water
table at two known positions from the well. State clearly all
the assumption involved in your derivation.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.12, Unit-4.
Q. 8. What are the differences between confined and unconfined
aquifers for the determination of discharge with steady
flow condition ? A well penetrates into an unconfined
aquifer having a saturated depth of 100 m. The discharge
is 250 litres per minute at 12 m drawdown. Assuming
equilibrium flow conditions and a homogeneous aquifer,
estimate the discharge at 18 m drawdown. The distance
from the well where the drawdown influences are not
appreciable may be taken equal for both cases.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.13, Unit-4.
Q. 9. A well 0.5 m in diameter penetrates 33 m below the static
watertable. After a long period of pumping at a rate of
80 m3/hr, the drawdown in well 18 and 45 m from the pumped
well were found to be 1.8 and 1.1 m respectively.
i. What is the transmissibility of the aquifer ?
ii. What is the approximate drawdown in the pumped well ?
iii. Determine the radius of influence of the pumping well.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.16, Unit-4.
Q. 10. Explain the method of determining the aquifer constant or
coefficient of transmissibility of a confined aquifer by
pumping out test. How can this method be extended for
unconfined aquifer ?
Ans. Refer Q. 4.22, Unit-4.
Q. 11. Explain in detail about well losses.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.31, Unit-4.


Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–1 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5 Groundwater Quality
and Modals

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction to Well .................................. 5–2C to 5–6C
Construction, Completion
and Development

Part-2 : Pumping Equipment ............................... 5–6C to 5–10C

for Water Wells,
Maintenance of Wells

Part-3 : Groundwater Quality, ........................... 5–10C to 5–17C

Contamination of
Groundwater and its Control

Part-4 : Groundwater Modelling ....................... 5–17C to 5–24C

Techniques and Exploration

Part-5 : Artificial Discharge ................................ 5–24C to 5–33C

and Recharge of
Groundwater, Rooftop
Rainwater Harvesting
and Recharge
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–2 C (CE-Sem-8)
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PART-1
Introduction to Well Construction, Completion and Development.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.1. Write short note on well construction.

Answer
Well Construction : Well construction usually comprises four or five
distinct operations : drilling, installing the casing, placing a well screen
and filter pack, if required, grouting to provide sanitary protection, and
developing the well to insure sand-free operation at maximum yield.
1. Drilling Methods :
i. Wells may be dug, bored, driven, jetted or drilled. Simple drilling methods
like drive point, jetting, and hand boring can be adopted in favourable
conditions for construction of shallow wells up to 25 cm diameter and
45 m deep.
ii. Selection of drilling equipment depends upon the hydrogeology of the
formation, diameter and depth of the production well, availability of
funds, maintenance and spares, production capacity, volume of work,
operating crew and easy movement of the rig.
2. Installation of Well Screen : The common methods adopted in the
case of naturally developed wells are given in the following :
i. Pull back method.
ii. Open hole method.
iii. Baildown method.
iv. Washdown method.

Que 5.2. Define the following :

i. Well completion.
ii. Well disinfection. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
OR
Write short notes on :
i. Well construction.
ii. Well completion.
iii. Well disinfection. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–3 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer
A. Well Completion : Well completion operations include :
i. Grouting and sealing the casing.
ii. Completion of the top of the well.
iii. Disinfection of the well.
1. Grouting the casing means filling the annular space between the outside
of the casing and the inside of the drilled hole with a cement grout.
2. The grout is a fluid mixture of cement and water of such a consistency
that can be forced through the grout pipes and placed as required.
3. Grouting and sealing the casing in water wells serves to prevent the
downward seepage of sewage or other polluted surface water along the
outside of the casing, to seal of aquifer yielding water of poor quality, to
make the casing stay tight in the drilled hole and to form a protective
sheath around the casing against exterior corrosion, thereby increasing
its life.
4. The top of the casing should normally extend at least 50 cm above the
general level of the surrounding surface, well above the maximum flood
water levels and isolated from direct contact with accumulating drainage
wastes and sudden drainage discharge.
5. The space around the casing should be grouted to a depth of about 6 m
to seal of the well from the entrance of surface drainage.
6. A concrete platform should be constructed around the casing at the
ground surface.
7. The top of the casing should be provided with a sanitary seal consisting
of suitable bushing or packing glands that makes a water-tight seal
between the pump column pipe and the well casing.
8. Abandoned wells should be sealed by filling with puddled clay or cement
grout to avoid possible movement of inferior water from one aquifer to
another and conserve the water in pumped wells.
9. This is a necessary precaution even if the well casings are perforated in
only one aquifer, since casings may eventually deteriorate, permitting
interconnection of ground water bodies.
B. Well Disinfection :
1. After completion of construction, the well and its appurtenances like
the casing, pump and pipe systems have to be disinfected or sterilized
promptly, for which chlorine solution is the simplest and most effective
agent.
2. Highly chlorinated water can be prepared by dissolving dry calcium
hypochlorite, liquid sodium hypochlorite or gaseous chlorine in water.
3. A solution containing about 100 ppm of available chlorine should be
used.
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–4 C (CE-Sem-8)
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4. This can be obtained by adding 125 g of dry calcium hypochlorite
containing 70 % of available chlorine to every 1000 litres of water standing
in the well or about 2 litres of liquid bleach containing 5 % of available
chlorine to every 1000 litres.
5. A solution is made by mixing this total amount in a small quantity of
water and is poured into the well through the top of the casing, before it
is sealed.
6. The water in the well is thoroughly agitated and allowed to stand for
several hours or overnight.
7. The well is then flushed to remove all of the disinfecting agent.
8. Flowing artesian wells may be disinfected, if found necessary, by lowering
a perforated tube, capped at both ends, filled with an adequate quantity
of dry calcium hypochlorite to the bottom of the well.
9. The natural upflow of water in the well will distribute the dissolved
chlorine throughout the depth of the well.
10. A stuffing box may be provided at the top of the well to restrict the flow
and reduce the loss of chlorine.
C. Well Construction : Refer Q. 5.1, Page 5–2C, Unit-5.

Que 5.3. What do you understand by well development ?

Enumerate various methods for well development and explain any
two of them in detail with neat sketches.
OR
What is the development of tube wells and also explain tube well
development method. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
OR
What is the development of tube wells and also explain tube well
development methods ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
OR
Describe in brief various method of developing a tube well. What do
you mean by recuperation test ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 05

Answer
A. Development of Tube Wells : It is the process by which the finer
particles from around the screen are removed to increase the
permeability of the formation through which water moves towards
the well.
B. Method : Following are the methods commonly adopted for development
of a tube well :
1. Development by Pumping :
i. It is the simplest and most common method of removing fine particles.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–5 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. In this method water is ultimately pumped from the well at a rate equal
to or higher than the design discharge. So it is a case of over-pumping.
iii. A variable speed pump of large capacity is used.
iv. Water is withdrawn at a very slow rate in the beginning. Then the rate
of withdrawal is increased in steps. In between the steps, the rate of
withdrawal is kept constant until no further sand particles are removed.
2. Development by Compressed Air :
i. The main components of this assembly are air pipe (air line) of smaller
diameter and a drop pipe of bigger diameter.
ii. The drop pipe is also called discharge pipe because the assembly is similar
that of air lift pump assembly.
iii. An air compressor is directly connected to an air tank which in turn is
connected to the air pipe through a quick opening valve.
iv. In this method an assembly of air pipe of smaller diameter and drop or
discharge pipe surrounding the air pipe is introduced into the well till it
reaches nearly bottom of the first strainer pipe.
v. The air pipe is so adjusted that its bottom end is about 30 cm above the
lower end of discharge pipe. It is called pumping position of the air pipe.
3. Development by Surging :
i. A surge is formed by the reciprocating movement of a plunger in the
well.
ii. The water moves alternately into the soil and comes out in the well
during downward and backward stroke respectively.
iii. The speed of the plunger is slowly increased. The plunger is operated in
the casing pipe provided above the screened portion of the well.
iv. The repeated application of surging force draws the fine particles into
the well, leaving coarser particles intact in the aquifer.
4. Development by Back-Washing :
i. As the name suggests it is a process in which the water is made to flow
into the aquifer formation from the well through the screen.
ii. The back-washing causes agitation of the formation and breaks down
the bridging of sand particles.
iii. Back-washing thus helps in effective removal of fine particles.
5. Development by High Velocity Jetting :
i. It is one of the most effective methods of development.
ii. In this method high velocity jets released through the jetting tool pass
through the screen and the formation behind the screen gets agitated.
iii. It loosens the fine particles which can be removed from the well by
pumping or bailing the well water.
6. Development by Using Chemicals :
i. Dispersing agents are many times added to the water used for back-
washing or jetting.
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–6 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. The dispersing agents counteract the property of clay to stick to sand
particles.
iii. The common dispersing agents which are quite effective are various
po lyphosphates like te trasodium pyro phosphate, sodium
tripolyphosphate, sodium hexametaphosphate (calgon) and sodium
deptaphosphate.
iv. Once the dispersing agent neutralises colloidal property of clay it can be
easily removed by surging and back-washing.
C. Recuperation Test :
1. Though the constant level pumping test gives an accurate value of the
safe yield of an open well, it is sometimes very difficult to regulate the
pump in such a way that constant level is maintained in the well.
2. In such a circumstance, a recuperation test is resorted to.
3. In the recuperation test, water level is depressed to any level below the
normal and the pumping is stopped.
4. The time taken for the water to recuperate to the normal level is noted.
From the data, the discharge from the well can be calculated as :

2.303  h1  3
Q=  log 10 h  AH m /hr
T  2 

a a Water table
h2
h c
c
h1

dh
b b

Fig. 5.3.1. Recuperation test.

PART-2
Pumping Equipment for Water Wells Maintenance of Wells.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.4. Explain the equipments which are used for groundwater
pumping.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–7 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer
Following are the equipments used for groundwater :
1. Plunger Pumps :
i. Hand pumps with the cylinder at the ground surface or the hollow brass
cylinder lowered below the ground surface (depending upon the
groundwater level) can discharge 20-60 lpm.
ii. A plunger which is connected to the pump handle rod moves up and
down in the cylinder. It can be hand operated or driven by a 1 or 2 hp
(V-belt driven) motor.
iii. Pump handles often get broken in constant village use; handles should
be kept in spare as also extra bolts, nut and bushings needed at the
moving joint of the handle.
iv. Villagers should be taught to handle the pumps gently. The pump should
be set so that the cylinder is within 6.7-7.6 m of the lowest water table,
and can pump of a total head of 45-60 m.
2. Jet Pumps :
i. Jet pumps are often practicable for pumping rather small flows
(40-90 lpm) under low heads (15-45 m) when the water level is beyond
7.6 m from the ground surface. Their capacity reduces as the lift
increases.
ii. A jet pump consists of a pump and a jet.
iii. Water is recirculated from the delivery side of the pump to the bottom of
the suction pipe and is injected through a nozzle to impart additional
kinetic energy.
iv. This gives additional suction lift by creating a partial vacuum at this
point.
v. The advantage of the jet pump over most other types of deep-well pumps
is that the pump and motor may be set away from the well.
vi. Jet pumps are usually used for residential buildings and hotels.
vii. These are of two types : twin type for bore wells 15 cm and above, and
packer type (duplex) for bore wells less than 15 cm.
3. Deep Well Vertical Turbine Pumps :
i. Deep-well vertical turbine pumps are most widely used for large tube
wells.
ii. The bowl-assembly (impellers) is kept below the lowest pumping water
level, but the driving unit-electric motor or petrol or diesel engine-is on
the ground surface and is connected by a long shaft.
iii. Usually deep-well turbine pumps are used for fairly high flows under
high heads. This type of pump has the advantages of high efficiency,
high head pumping capability and excellent serviceability.
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–8 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iv. The impellers can be obtained semi open or fully enclosed. This pump
requires sufficiently straight and plumb well for installation and proper
operation and is subject to abrasion from sand.
v. The maintenance problem is severe when pumping corrosive water
unless pump, column, shaft etc., are made of non-corrosive materials.
Lubrication and vertical alignment of shaft is critical. The overall
efficiencies of turbine pumps range from 50 to 80 %.
4. Submersible Pumps :
i. Submersible pumps have the motor and the bowl assembly as a unit
submerged below the lowest pumping water level.
ii. A water proof cable supplies power to motor.
iii. Submersible pumps to fit inside 10, 15, 20 and 25 cm borewells are
available in India.
iv. They can be used for low rates from 40-3000 lpm and heads from
15-150 m.
v. They can be installed in crooked wells but repair to motor or pump
requires removal from well is subject to abrasion from sand.
vi. This type of pump has the advantage that it can be installed when there
is little of no floor space to install the unit and in locations that require
quiet operation.
vii. They can be either water or oil lubricated.
viii. Their initial costs are lower than those of vertical turbine pumps. Their
repair and maintenance costs, however, are high.
ix. The new type of voltage regulated starters has solved the problem of
over loading.
5. Air-Lift Pumps :
i. Air-lift pumps have efficiencies ranging from 20 to 35%; the efficiency
greatly depends upon the percentage submergence and is reasonable
when the percentage submergence is 50 to 60%.
ii. These pumps have the advantage of having no moving parts below the
ground level.
iii. However, the disadvantage of low efficiency, coupled with the pump’s
inability to pump against high head requirements, has limited its use.
iv. Air lifts are adapted to crooked wells, to wells discharging large amounts
of sand, and to installations where reliability is of more importance than
efficiency.
v. Capacities for well pumping range from 90 to 9000 lpm.

Que 5.5. Write the short note on the well maintenance.

Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–9 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer
Well Maintenance :
1. While the expected service life of a well depends upon the design,
construction, development and operation of the well, proper maintenance
helps to improve the performance and increase the life of the well.
2. Proper records of power consumption, well discharge, drawdown,
operating hours, periodical chemical analysis of water and, other such
observations will help in devising proper maintenance procedures.
3. The sudden pressure drop and increase in the entrance velocity near
the screen due to high pumping rates releases carbon dioxide and
causes precipitation of calcium carbonate and iron deposits near the
screen.
4. The change in entrance velocities results in precipitation of iron and
manganese hydroxides.
5. The presence of oxygen in the well can change soluble ferrous iron to
insoluble ferric hydroxide. The perforations can be cleaned by adding
hydrochloric (muriatic) acid or calgon followed by agitation and surging
which removes the incrusting deposits.
6. Normally, the volume of acid required for a single treatment will be
about 1.5 to 2 times the volume of water in the screen.
7. Sulfuric acid can also be used instead of hydrochloric acid but its
action is a little slower and requires a longer contact time in the well.
8. The yield of the well may decrease due to the deposition of incrustation
of fine particles of silt and clay near the screen. This can be removed
by the use of a dispersing agent such as polyphosphates. For effective
treatment, 15 to 30 kg of polyphosphate is added to every 1000 litres of
water in the well.
9. 1 kg of calcium hypochlorite should be added for every 1000 litres of
water in the well to facilitate the removal of iron bacteria and their
slimes, and also for disinfection purposes.
10. The solution of polyphosphate and hypochlorite is poured into the well
and a surge plunger or the jetting technique is used to agitate the
water. The well may be treated 2-3 times for better results.
11. The perforations may become plugged with algae or bacterial growths.
Chlorine treatment of wells has been found more effective than acid
treatment in loosening bacterial growths and slime deposits which
often accompany the deposition of iron oxide.
12. Since a very high concentration of 100 to 200 lpm of available chlorine
is required, the process is known as shock treatment with chlorine.
13. Faulty well construction such as poor casing connections, improper
perforations or screens, defective gravel packs and poorly seated valves
should be located and set right immediately. Sudden failure of a casing
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–10 C (CE-Sem-8)
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pipe or strainer, resulting in the entry of sand, will require replacement
of the well as a whole.

Que 5.6. Write a short note on protection of water wells.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
The protection of water wells can be consists of :
1. Sanitary Protection :
i. Wherever groundwater pumped from a well is intended for human
consumption, proper sanitary precautions must be taken to protect
the water quality. Pollution sources may exist either above or below
ground surface.
ii. Surface pollution can enter wells either through the annular space
outside of the casing or through the top of the well itself.
iii. To close avenues of access for undesirable water outside of the casing,
the annular space should be filled with cement grout for deep wells.
iv. Entry through the top of the well can be avoided by providing a
watertight cover to seal the top of the casing.
v. Some pumps are available with closed metal bases that provide the
necessary closure.
vi. For pumps having an open-type base, or where the pump is not placed
directly over the well, a seal is required for the annular opening between
the discharge pipe and casing.
vii. Seals may be made of metal or lead packing, asphaltic and mastic
compounds are also satisfactory.
viii. Covers around the well should be made of concrete, should be elevated
above the adjacent land level, and should slope away from the well.
2. Frost Protection :
i. In regions where winter frost occurs, it is important to protect pumps
and water lines from freezing.
ii. Provide pitless adopter for frostproofing a domestic well.
iii. The pitless adapter, attached to the well casing, provides access to the
well, while the discharge pipe runs about 2 m underground basement
of the house.

PART-3
Ground Water Quality, Contamination of Ground Water
and its Control.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–11 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.7. Explain the physical, chemical and biological water

quality standards for various purposes. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
Table 5.7.1. World Health Organization drinking water standards
International Standards, 1963.
Characteristic Limit of General Allowable
Acceptability (mg/l) Limit (mg/l)
Total solids 500 1500
Colour (°H) 5 50
Turbidity 5 25
Chloride 200 600
Iron 0.3 1
Manganese 0.1 0.5
Copper 1.0 1.5
Zinc 5 15
Calcium 75 200
Magnesium 50 150
Magnesium and 500 1000
sodium sulphate
Nitrate (as NO3) 45 —
Phenols 0.001 0.002
Synthetic detergents (ABS) 0.5 1.0
Carbon-chloroform extract 0.2 0.5
pH 7-8 minimum 6.5
maximum 9.2

Que 5.8. Write about the contamination of groundwater. Also

give the measures to control the groundwater pollution.
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–12 C (CE-Sem-8)
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OR
Sources of contamination of groundwater and preventive measures.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
OR
Discus s in detail about the remediation of contaminated
groundwater. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
A. Contamination of Groundwater :
1. Groundwater is more protected than surface water, but it can be
contaminated from different sources.
2. Water dissolves more things than any other substance, it is very
susceptible to contamination or pollution.
3. Contamination is a modification of physical, chemical, and biological
properties of groundwater, restricting or preventing its use for various
purposes.
4. It can impair the use of water and can create hazards to public health
through toxicity or the spread of disease.
5. Generally, contamination and pollution terms are used as synonymous
in groundwater.
6. The possible pollutants in groundwater are many. They could be from
geogenic sources or anthropogenic sources.
7. Contamination from the dissolution of aquifer material is geogenic.
Fluoride, arsenic, iron, and other heavy metals in groundwater are
usually due to geogenic source contamination.
8. Anthropogenic sources and causes of groundwater pollution are
associated with human interventions and use of water.
9. Most pollution stems from disposal of wastes on or into the ground.
10. The principal anthropogenic sources and causes (continuous and/or
accidental types) can be categorized as follows :
i. Municipal : Sewer leakage, liquid waste, solid waste, and landfill,
ii. Industrial : Liquid waste, leakage, mining activity, and oil field brine,
iii. Agricultural : Return flows, fertilizers and pesticides, and animal
waste,
iv. Miscellaneous : Salt water intrusion, acid rain, and de-icing salts.
B. Remedial Measures : Measures that can be adopted to prevent,
reduce and eliminate the contamination are as follows :
1. Pretreatment of industrial and sewerage wastes before disposal into
lagoons, or other approved receivable areas.
2. Lining of disposal basins to prevent leaching into groundwater.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–13 C (CE-Sem-8)
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3. Collection, by means of drains and wells, and treatment of lactate
from landfills industrial basins, and sewage lagoons.
4. Proper management of groundwater pumping to prevent, stabilize or
retard saltwater intrusion into coastal freshwater aquifer.
5. Creation, by means of installing wells, injection ridges or pumping
troughs to retard saltwater intrusion.
6. Abandonment or prohibition of on-site septic tank and leach field
systems in densely populated areas and replacement of sanitary wastes
by the addition of central or municipal sewer systems.
7. Desalination of wastewater before discharge.

Que 5.9. Describe fluoride removal techniques.

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Removal Techniques : Following are the technologies generally
used for removing fluorides from water :
1. Absorption by activated alumina (AA), commonly known as Prashanti
technology.
2. Nalgonda technique.
3. Ion exchange adsorption method.
4. Reverse osmosis process.
1. Prashanti Technique using Adsorption by Activated Alumina
(AA) : In this methods, the raw water containing high contents of
fluoride, is passed (percolated) through the insoluble granular beds of
substance like activated alumina (AA), or Bone Char, or activated
carbon, or serpentinite, or activated bauxite ; which adsorbs fluoride
from the percolating water, giving out defluoridated water.
2. Nalgonda Technique :
i. Nalgonda technique uses aluminium salt (alum) for removing fluoride.
ii. The raw water is firstly mixed with adequate amount of lime (CaO) or
sodium carbonate (Na2 CO3) and thoroughly mixed.
iii. Alum solution is then added, and water is stirred slowly for about 10
minutes, and allowed to settle for nearly one hour.
iv. The precipitated sludge is discarded, and the clear supernatant containing
permissible amount of fluoride is withdrawn for use.
v. The line diagram for the process is shown in Fig. 5.9.1.
vi. The added lime or sodium carbonate helps to ensure adequate alkalinity
required for effective hydrolysis of aluminium salts, so that the residual
aluminium does not remain in the treated water.
vii. Bleaching powder is also generally added with lime prior to the addition
of alum, to achieve simultaneous disinfection of treated water, and
also to keep the system free from undesirable biological growth.
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–14 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Lime Alum Overhead tank

Rapid mixing
(1 minute) Bleaching
+ powder
Floculation
(9 minutes) Supernatant Stand
Raw
post
water

Sedimentation Filter
(90 minutes)

Fig. 5.9.1. Line diagram for Nalgonda technology.

Que 5.10. Write the different phenomenon that occurs in the

movement of contaminated water. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1. A transport mechanism influences the migration of dissolved
contaminant in saturated flow in granular aquifers.
2. The different transport mechanisms are as follows :
i. Advection.
ii. Diffusion.
iii. Dispersion.
iv. Sorption.
v. Decay.
vi. Physical, natural, or anthropogenic activities.
vii. Hydrolysis, volatilization, and biotransformation.
viii. Transport in aquifers with a pronounced bimodal permeability
distribution.
ix. Chemical reactions.
3. The first three processes (advection, diffusion, and dispersion) are
physical fundamental processes that govern the migration of contaminant
in groundwater in the absence of any natural or anthropogenic stresses/
activities.
4. The relationship between advection and dispersion is used to determine
the transport of mass in porous media. Generally the bulk transport
of fluids, and solutes, is dominated by advection and dispersion.
5. Diffusion is a process of mass transport in response to a concentration
gradient. It is usually lumped in with the advective and dispersive
behaviour of fluids.
6. The solubility of a contaminant compound will determine the transport
rate, and toxicology of that compound in a groundwater system.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–15 C (CE-Sem-8)
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7. The main characteristics of a system that may affect solubility are pH,
sorption to solids, and temperature.
8. Sorption is the exchange of molecules and ions between the solid
phase and liquid phase.
9. There are two types of associations among aqueous/liquid and solid
phases : Adsorption and absorption.
10. Adsorption is the attachment of molecules and ions from the solute to
the rock material, causing a decrease of concentration of solute.
11. This is also referred to as a retardation of the contaminant transport.
12. The absorption is the intermingling of solute molecules with the
molecules of the solid phase and thus the absorption is the dissolution
of a liquid material in a solid solvent.
13. Desorption is the release of the molecules and ions from the solid
phase to the solute.

Que 5.11. What do you mean by saltwater intrusion in coastal

aquifer ? What is the method of locate it ? Explain the various
methods to limit saltwater intrusion. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Saltwater Intrusion :
1. Saltwater intrusion is the movement of saline water into fresh water
aquifers, which can lead to contamination of drinking water sources
and other consequences.
2. Saltwater intrusion occurs naturally to some degree in most coastal
aquifers, owing to the hydraulic connection between groundwater and
seawater.
3. Because saline water has a higher mineral content than fresh water, it
is denser and has a higher water pressure. As a result, saltwater can
push inland beneath the freshwater.
B. Method of Location of Intrusion in Coastal Aquifer :
1. Analysis of groundwater samples collected in zones of seawater intrusion
may show a chemical composition differing from a simple proportional
mixing of seawater and groundwater.
2. Modifications in composition of seawater entering an aquifer can occur
by three processes :
i. Base exchange between the water and the minerals of the aquifer
ii. Sulfate reduction and substitution of carbonic or other weak acid radicals.
iii. Solution and precipitation.
3. Revelle recommended the chloride-bicarbonate ratio as a criterion to
evaluate intrusion.
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–16 C (CE-Sem-8)
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4. Chloride is the dominant anion of ocean water, is unaffected by the
above processes, and normally occurs in only small amounts in
groundwater.
5. On the other hand, bicarbonate is usually the most abundant anion in
groundwater and occurs in only minor amounts in seawater.
6. Although pollutants other than seawater can change the chloride-
bicarbonate ratio, these would seldom be important in water collected
from a well subject to intrusion.
C. Method : Following are the methods of limit saltwater intrusion :
1. Modification of Pumping Pattern :
i. Changing the location of pumping wells, typically by dispersing them in
inland areas, can aid in reestablishing a stronger seaward hydraulic
gradient.
ii. Also reduction in pumping of existing wells can produce the same
beneficial effect.
2. Artificial Recharge :
i. Groundwater levels can be raised and maintained by artificial recharge,
using surface spreading for unconfined aquifers and recharge wells for
confined aquifers.
ii. This necessitates development of a supplemental water source.
3. Extraction Barrier :
Pumping well Ground surface

Piezo metric surface

Ocean Trough line

Aquifer

Seawater Stable Fresh water

seawater wedge
Fig. 5.11.1. Control of seawater intrusion by an extraction barrier
forming a pumping trough paralleling the coast.
i. An extraction barrier is created by maintaining a continuous pumping
trough with a line of wells adjacent to the sea.
ii. Seawater flows inland from the ocean to the trough, while fresh water
within the basin flows seaward toward the trough, as shown in
Fig. 5.11.1.
iii. The water pumped is brackish and normally is discharged into the sea.
4. Injection Barrier :
i. This method maintains a pressure ridge along the coast by a line of
recharge wells. Injected fresh water flows both seaward and landward,
as indicated in Fig. 5.11.2.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–17 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Recharge well Ground surface

Piezometric surface
Ocean Ridge line

Aquifer
Seawater Fresh water
Fig. 5.11.2. Control of seawater intrusion by an injection barrier forming
a pressure ridge paralleling the coast.
ii. High-quality imported water is required for recharge into wells.
iii. A combination of injection and extraction barriers is feasible; this reduces
both recharge and extraction rates but requires a larger number of
wells.
5. Subsurface Barrier :
i. Construction of an impermeable subsurface barrier parallel to the coast
and through the vertical extent of the aquifer can effectively prevent
the inflow of seawater into the basin.
ii. Materials to construct a barrier might include sheet piling, puddled clay,
emulsified asphalt, cement grout, bentonite, silica gel, calcium acrylate,
or plastics.
iii. Chief problems are construction cost and resistance to earthquakes and
chemical erosion.
Ground surface

Piezometric surface
Ocean
Impermeable barrier
Aquifer

Seawater Fresh water

Fig. 5.11.3. Control of seawater intrusion by an impermeable
subsurface barrier paralleling the coast.

PART-4
Ground Water Modelling Techniques and Exploration.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–18 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Que 5.12. Des cribe the various groundwater modelling
techniques.
OR
Define groundwater modelling techniques and explain any one of
them. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
A. Groundwater Modelling : The following are the main four categories
of the groundwater models :
1. Physical models.
2. Analog models.
3. Model-based analytical formulas coupled with experience.
4. Numerical models.
The groundwater models may also be classified as continuous models
or discrete models. Physical models and many analogs are continuous
models, whereas electric network-based analog models and majority
numerical models are discrete models.
1. Physical Models :
i. A physical model is a scaled-down model of a prototype aquifer.
ii. In the case of physical models, scale factor need to be chosen, which
results in convenient model characteristics. These are conversion
constants that relate the corresponding parameters and variables of
the models to those of the aquifer.
iii. Among the physical models, a sand tank model is most commonly
used for simulation of simple aquifer system.
iv. The sand tank model is a scale model of an aquifer with the boundaries
scaled down and the absolute value and spatial distribution of the
hydraulic conductivity modified.
v. These models are constructed in water-tight columnar or wedge-shaped
boxes made of wood, perspex, or steel.
vi. A uniform hydraulic conductivity in the model can be achieved by
placing coarse sand in small quantities under water and compacting
consistently to remove air.
vii. Anisotropy can be attained by layers of different sands.
viii. Complex boundaries, three-dimensional systems, free surfaces such
as water table and interfaces different liquids are also possible in sand
tank models.
2. Analog Models :
i. Analogs are devices with similar input-output or cause-and-effect
relations as the prototype, but with different physical properties.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–19 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. Flow through porous medium obeys laws that are analogous to laws
governing other physical systems. For example, viscous fluid flow,
membrane deflection, heat flow, or flow of electric current are some
of the physical phenomenon that are analogous to and governed by
similar mathematical formulae as groundwater flow in porous media.
iii. These analogies provide a variety of techniques for studying the
movement of groundwater and models based on such analogy are
termed as analog models.
iv. One of the greatest advantages of the analog models is that time need
not be discretized otherwise the necessity of using time increments in
numerical modeling is always somewhat of an aggravation and source
of possible error.
3. Model-Based Analytical Formulas Coupled with Experience :
i. Analytical models generally require the solution of partial differential
equation. Such models may be deterministic, stochastic, or it may be a
combination of both.
ii. Deterministic models are used for solving regional groundwater problems
involving cause and effect relationship of known systems and processes.
iii. Stochastic models which are based on probabilities of occurrence can
be used in planning and decision-making processes for the groundwater
resources and in evaluating the uncertainties of a system.
iv. Model-based analytical formulas coupled with experience are always
one of the first to be applied in solving a groundwater problem.
v. These models can greatly reduce the time and effort in assembling a
solution to a groundwater problem.
4. Numerical Models :
i. Mathematical formulations, which consist of appropriate differential
equations for the system, and their solutions, can be used as models
for duplicating the hydrology and evaluating the response of groundwater
reservoirs.
ii. Analytical models that consist of various analytical solutions of the
differential equation of groundwater flow are applicable to relatively
uniform aquifers with simple geometry for problems involving parts
of aquifer of small areal extent, and have restricted use for problems
of heterogeneous and extensive aquifers with irregular boundaries
and multiple sources of recharge and discharge.

Que 5.13. Describe main step in groundwater modelling and

practical consideration.
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–20 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer
A. Main Step in Groundwater Modelling :
Start by defining the problem

Conceptual
model

Gather
more data Mathematical
model

Revamp
model Computation

One or both

Compare Poor fit Calibrate

Unsatisfactory model and field model
model
Satisfactory model

Conclude
study
Make recommendations/decisions
Fig. 5.13.1.
B. Practical Consideration :
1. The applicability of a groundwater model to a real situation depends
on the accuracy of the input data and the parameters.
2. Determination of these requires considerable study, like collection of
hydrological data (rainfall, evapotranspiration, irrigation, drainage)
and determination of the parameters mentioned before including pumping
tests.
3. As many parameters are quite variable in space, expert judgment is
needed to arrive at representative values.
4. The Models can also be used for the if-then Analysis :
i. If the value of a parameter is A, then what is the result, and if the
value of the parameter is B instead, what is the influence ?
ii. This analysis may be sufficient to obtain a rough impression of the
groundwater behaviour, but it can also serve to do a sensitivity analysis
to answer the question, which factors have a great influence and
which have less influence.
iii. With such information one may direct the efforts of investigation
more to the influential factors.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–21 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iv. When sufficient data have been assembled, it is possible to determine
some of missing information by calibration.
v. This implies that one assumes a range of values for the unknown or
doubtful value of a certain parameter and one runs the model repeatedly
while comparing results with known corresponding data.

Que 5.14. What do you understand by ground water exploration

and define surface evidence ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
A. Groundwater Exploration :
1. The procedure for predicting the availability of groundwater is known
as groundwater prospecting or groundwater investigation or
groundwater exploration or groundwater targeting.
2. The objective of groundwater exploration is to locate aquifers capable
of yielding water of suitable quality, in economic quantities for various
purposes by using different techniques.
3. The techniques used to access occurrence and quality of groundwater
can be classified as :
i. Surface investigation.
ii. Sub-surface investigation.
4. Surface investigation methods include geologic, remote-sensing, and
geophysical methods (such as electrical resistivity, seismic, magnetic,
etc.), whereas subsurface investigation consist of well drilling and
logging methods.
B. Surface Evidence : Surface features identified on aerial photographs
that aid in evaluating groundwater conditions :
1. Phreatophytes and aquatic plants.
2. Geologic land forms likely to contain relatively permeable strata :
i. Modern alluvial terraces and floodplains.
ii. Stratified valley-fill deposits in abandoned meltwater and spillway
channels.
iii. Glacial outwash and glacial deltas.
iv. Kames and kame-moraine complexes.
v. Eskerine-kame complexes.
vi. Alluvial fans.
vii. Beach ridges.
viii. Sand dunes assumed to overlie sandy glaciofluvial sediments.
3. Lakes and streams :
i. Drainage density of stream network.
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ii. Localized gain or loss of streamflow.
iii. Nearby small perennial and intermittent lakes (e.g., lakes in outwash,
elongate saline lakes in inactive drainage systems).
iv. Perennial rivers and larger creeks in valleys having inactive floodplains.
v. Small intermittent drainages (including misfit creeks in abandoned
glacial spillways and meltwater channels).
vi. No defined drainage channel in former glacial spillways and meltwater
channels.
4. Moist depressions and seepages :
i. Moist depressions, marshy environments, and seepages (significance
depends on interpretation of associated phenomena).
ii. String of alkali flats or lakes (playas, salinas) along inactive drainage
systems.
5. Springs :
i. Depression springs (where land surface locally cuts the water table or
the upper surface of the zone of saturation).
ii. Contact springs (permeable water-bearing strata overlying relatively
impermeable strata).

Que 5.15. What are the surface geophysical techniques and explain

any one of them. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
Following are the various surface geophysical techniques :
1. Geophysical Exploration :
i. Geophysical exploration is the scientific measurement of physical
properties of the earth’s crust (subsurface formations and contained
fluids) by instruments located on the surface for investigation of
groundwater.
ii. Now a day, the application of geophysical exploration to groundwater
is becoming common.
iii. The success of these methods depends on how best the physical
parameters deduced are interpreted in term of aquifer parameters.
iv. As the geophysical characteristic or its range is not unique, the choice
from more alternatives is based on experience on hydrogeology of the
area.
v. Thus, these methods are frequently inexact and are most useful when
supplemented by other methods.
vi. Geophysical methods detect difference or anomalies of physical properties
such as density, magnetism, elasticity, and electric resistivity within
the earth crust.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–23 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2. Electric Resistivity Method :
i. Surface electrical resistivity surveying is based on the principle that
the distribution of electrical potential in the ground around a current-
carrying electrode depends on the electrical resistivities and distribution
of the surrounding soils and rocks.
ii. Electrical methods can be applied to describe the geologic setting and
patterns of groundwater existence and its quality.
iii. In these methods, generally electrical conductivity (the ability of a
material to conduct electricity) or electrical resistivity (the reciprocal
of electrical conductivity) is measured.
iv. The common rock-forming minerals have very high resistivity. Rocks
and sediments conduct electricity as a consequence of ions in solution
in the pore fluid and the charged layer present on clay minerals.
v. Electric resistivity of rock of formation limits the amount of current
passing through the formation when an electric potential is applied.
vi. The conductance of electricity is controlled by the content of Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS) in groundwater and the relative abundance of
clay minerals.
vii. The higher the TDS in the pore fluid in a formation, the lesser the
electric resistivity.
viii. Similarly, the higher the clay content in the formation with the same
pore water chemistry, the lesser the electric resistivity as the clay
offers very low resistivity.
ix. Resistivity is higher in igneous rocks than in metamorphic rocks, and
it is less in sedimentary rocks.
x. The metamorphic rocks contain hydrous minerals and fabric, whereas
the sedimentary rocks contain abundant pore space and fluids.
xi. In, general, the resistivity of rock formation depends on materials,
density, porosity (pore size and shape), water content and quality, and
temperature. Joints and fractures present in hard rocks, when saturated,
results in low resistivity than the adjoining massive rock.
3. Seismic Methods :
i. Seismic methods utilize both reflected and refracted energy waves to
measure how fast and what paths these waves travel through different
types of lithologic units.
ii. The seismic refraction method involves the creation of a small shock
at a depth of about 1 m or so (known as shot/shock point) either by the
impact of a heavy instrument or by a small explosive charge.
iii. The arrival of the shock waves at various distances is measured with
sound detectors called geophones placed on the ground surface.
iv. The change in the velocity of seismic waves is governed by changes in
the elastic properties of the formation.
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v. The travel time of seismic wave depends on the media through which
it passes.
vi. The velocity seismic/sound wave in subsurface material increases with
bulk density and water content.
vii. Porosity tends to decrease wave velocity, but water content increases
it.
viii. In coarse alluvial materials, seismic velocity increases markedly from
unsaturated to saturated zones. The velocities are greatest in solid
igneous rocks (about 5,000 m/s) and least in loose unconsolidated
unsaturated materials (about 250 m/s).

Que 5.16. The resistivity of sample of formation water reduced to

a standard temperature of 27 °C is 15.2 ohm-m. If the formation
resistivity read from the electric log is 131 ohm-m, determine the
effective porosity of the formation. Assume cementation factor of 2
in the Archie’s formula. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Resistivity of the rock, R0 = 131 ohm-m, Resistivity of the

saturating fluid, Rw = 15.2 ohm-m, Cementation factor, m = 2.
To Find : Effective porosity of formation.

R0 1
F= 
Rw m
Assuming R0 = Rt
131 1
= 2
15.2 
15.2
2 =   = 0.34063
131
Effective porosity,  = 34.063 %

PART-5
Artificial Discharge and Recharge of Ground Water, Rooftop
Rainwater Harvesting and Recharge.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.17. What is recharge ? Also, explain its classification.

Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–25 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer
A. Recharge :
i. Addition of surface water to zone of saturation is known as recharge.
ii. Recharge taking place naturally as a part of hydrologic cycle is called
natural recharge while the process of increasing infiltration of surface
water to groundwater systems by altering natural conditions is known
as artificial recharge.
B. Types : Following are the two types of recharge :
1. Natural Recharge :
i. The amount of precipitation that infiltrates into the soil and reaches
the zone of saturation is an important component of natural recharge.
ii. Seepage from irrigated lands is another important component of recharge
of groundwater.
iii. In this process, the infiltration phase is natural while the supply of
water to the irrigated lands is through artificial means and as such it
is sometimes called incidental recharge.
iv. Other means of natural recharge are seepage from reservoirs; rivers,
streams and canals, and other water bodies.
2. Artificial Recharge :
i. The process of artificially enhancing the amount of water recharging
the aquifer in a given location is known as artificial recharge.
ii. In the face of present-day large demands for groundwater, artificial
recharge is resorted to :
a. Conserve runoff.
b. Improve quantity of available groundwater.
c. Reduce or correct saltwater intrusion.

Que 5.18. What is meant by artificial recharge of ground water ?

Enumerate the various methods used for this purpose and explain
the recharge well method in detail. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
OR
What is the concept of artificial recharge of ground water ?
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
A. Artificial Groundwater Recharge : Refer Q. 5.17, Page 5–24C, Unit-5.
B. Methods of Artificial Recharge : Following are the various methods
of artificial recharge :
1. Basin method.
2. Stream-channel method.
3. Ditch-and-Furrow method.
4. Flooding method.
5. Irrigation method.
6. Pit method.
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–26 C (CE-Sem-8)
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7. Recharge well method.
Recharge Well Method :
i. A recharge well may be defined as a well that admits water from the
surface to freshwater aquifers.
ii. Its flow is the reverse of a pumping well, but its construction may or may
not be the same.
iii. Well recharging is practical where deep, confined aquifers must be
recharged, or where economy of space, such as in urban areas, is an
important consideration.
iv. If water is admitted into a well, a cone of recharge will be formed that is
similar in shape but is the reverse of a cone of depression surrounding
a pumping well.
v. The equation for the curve can be derived in a similar manner to that for
a pumping well.
vi. For a confined aquifer with water being recharged into a completely
penetrating well at a rate Qr, the approximate steady-state expression is
applicable as shown in Fig. 5.18.1(a).
2kb(hw  h0 )
Qr = ...(5.18.1)
ln(r0 / rw )
For a recharge well penetrating an unconfined aquifer
k(hw2  h 20)
Qr = ...(5.18.2)
ln (r0 / rw )
vii. By comparing the discharge equations for pumping and recharge wells,
it might be anticipated that the recharge capacity would equal the
pumping capacity of a well if the recharge cone has dimensions equivalent
to the cone of depression.
Qr
Qr Ground surface
Ground surface

2 rw 2rw
Piezometric surface Water table
r0

hw h0
hw
Unconfined h0
Confined b aquifer
aquifer

(a) C onfined aquifers (b) U nconfined aquifers

Fig. 5.18.1. Radial flow from recharge wells penetrating.
viii. Field measurements, however, rarely support this reasoning, recharge
rates seldom equal pumping rates. The difficulty lies in the fact that
pumping and recharging, differ by more than a simple change of flow
direction.

Que 5.19. What is Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) and how it works ?

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–27 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer
A. Soil Aquifer Treatment :
1. Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) is an artificial ground water aquifer
recharge.
2. Water is introduced into the groundwater through soil percolation
under controlled conditions.
3. Soil aquifer treatment is either used to artificially augment the
groundwater in order to withdraw freshwater again at alter stage or
as a barrier to prevent saltwater or contaminants from entering the
aquifer.
4. During percolation, natural soil filtration occurs and the water enters
the aquifer where mixing and possibly some other physical and chemical
reactions may occur.
5. This method can be used with reclaimed water (treated blackwater)
or relatively little polluted water.
B. Working of SAT :
1. SAT is the method used to recharge groundwater aquifers from the
surface or from below the surface.
2. Typically, SAT is used to enter either storm water or pre-treated
wastewater through a recharge basin or an injection well.
3. As the effluent moves through the soil and the aquifer, it can undergo
significant quality improvements through physical, chemical and biological
processes.
4. The water is stored in the underlying unconfined aquifer generally
for subsequent reuse, such as irrigation or even for drinking water
purposes (generally after a water purification step).
5. In short, SAT has benefits both in treatment in the dominant unsaturated
zone, which acts like a natural filter and storage within the saturated
zone depending on the wastewater quality, land availability and various
pre-treatment technologies such as horizontal, vertical and free-surface
constructed wet lands, waste stabilization ponds, UASB reactor or
advanced treatments such as activated sludge process, membrane
filtration etc.

Que 5.20. What is meant by artificial recharge and discharge of

groundwater ? Explain in detail. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
A. Artificial Recharge : Refer Q. 5.17, Page 5–24C, Unit-5.
B. Artificial Discharge :
1. Discharge represents the upward outflow of groundwater from the
subsurface that occurs naturally or as the result of human activity,
notably well pumping. Well pumping is artificial discharge of
groundwater.
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–28 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2. During water pumping, water is removed from the aquifer surrounding
the well and the piezometric surface decreases.
3. The groundwater within the influence of the pump flows toward the
well from every direction, instead of moving toward the natural discharge
area.
4. Drawdown is defined as the distance by which the piezometric surface
is lowered. Thus, one of the goals of groundwater resource study is to
predict hydraulic-head drawdowns in aquifers under proposed pumping
schemes.
5. The pumping well creates an artificial discharge area by drawing down
(lowering) the water table around the well. The cone of depression is
attributed to a conical-shaped depression of the water table around a
pumping well caused by the withdrawal of water, a valley in the water
table.
6. The initial discharge derived from casing storage and aquifer storage
immediately surrounding the well when water pumped from a well is
shown in Fig. 5.20.1.
Original water table Flow line
(a)

(b) Original water table Depressed flow line

(c) Original water table Cone of depression

Fig. 5.20.1. Development of flow distribution about a discharging well

in an unconfined aquifer : (a) Initial stage, (b) Intermediate stage,
and (c) Steady-state stage.

Que 5.21. Define SAR and give SAR based classification of

groundwater. Write about the catchment or watershed model
approach to the computation of recharge.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–29 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Answer
A. Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) :
1. It is a measure of the suitability of water for use in agricultural irrigation,
as determined by the concentrations of solids dissolved in the water.
2. The formula for calculating sodium adsorption ratio is :

Na
SAR =
1
(Ca2   Mg2 )
2
B. Classification : Based on SAR value, water is classified into four types :
S. No. Types of water Suitability

1. Low sodium water (S1) SAR : Suitable for all types of crops and
0 to 10 all types of soils, except for those
crops which are highly sensitive
to sodium.
2. Medium sodium water (S2) Suitable for coarse textured of
SAR : 10 to 18 o rganic soil with goo d
permeability. Relatively
unsuitable in fine texured soils.
3. High sodium water (S3) SAR : Harmful for almost all types of
18 to 26 soil. Requires good drainage, high
leaching, gypsum addition.
4. Very high sodium water (S4) Unsuitable for irrigation.
SAR : above 26.

C. Catchment Approach to the Computation of Recharge :

1. This method estimates the balance between the inflow and outflow of
water. Here, the volume of water required to saturate the soil is expressed
as an equivalent depth of water and is called soil water deficit.
2. The soil water balance can be represented by,
Ri = P – Ea + W – R0
where, Ri = Recharge.
P = Precipitation.
Ea = Actual evapotranspiration.
W = Change in soil water storage.
R0 = Runoff.
3. When applying this method to estimate the recharge for a catchment
area, the calculation is to be repeated for areas with different
precipitation, evapotranspiration, crop type and soil type.
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–30 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Que 5.22. Enumerate the components of groundwater discharge
and comment on the equations used for computing the ground water
discharge.

Answer
A. Components of Groundwater Discharge : Following are the various
components of groundwater discharge :
1. Seepage.
2. Spring.
3. Plant uptake.
4. Evaporation.
5. Oceans, etc.
B. Equations :
1. Discharge equation for unconfined aquifer is given by,
1.36 k( H 2  h2 )
Q=
log 10 ( R / r )
2. Discharge equation for confined aquifer is given by,
2.72 Ts
Q=
 R
log 10  
 r
where, T= Coefficient of transmissibility = bk.
s= Drawdown at the well.
r= Radius of the well.
k= Coefficient of permeability.
H= Thickness of unconfined aquifier.
R= Radius of zero drawdown curve.
b= Thickness of confined aquifier.

Que 5.23. Define water harvesting. Also classify it.

OR
Rain water harvesting : Need and methods.

Answer
A. Water Harvesting : Water harvesting is defined as the process of
collecting and concentrating runoff water from a runoff area into a run-
on-area, where the collected water is either directly applied to the cropping
area and stored in the soil profile for immediate use by the crop, i.e.,
runoff farming, or stored in an on-farm water reservoir for future
productive uses, i.e., domestic use, livestock watering, aquaculture and
irrigation.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–31 C (CE-Sem-8)
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B. Classification :
Water harvesting

Rain water harvesting Flood water harvesting

Roof water Harvesting of small With Without

harvesting ground area surface storage storage
Fig. 5.23.1.
C. Needs : Following are the needs of harvesting :
1. To arrest groundwater decline and augment groundwater table.
2. To beneficiate water quality in aquifers.
3. To conserve surface water runoff during monsoon.
4. To reduce soil erosion.
5. To inculcate a culture of water conservation.
D. Rain Water Harvesting Methods : Following are the methods of
harvesting :
1. In Urban Areas : From roof tops and terraces, water is brought down
in PVC pipes and directed to a sump, or an existing old well, or a baby
well, about 0.6 m in a diameter and 5 m deep.
2. In Rural Areas :
i. Community wells are constructed at a few places in a village. Within 3 to
6 m from this well, a bore well with a hand-operated pump is constructed.
The area around the well and the bore well must be kept clean : No
washing (human, cattle, clothes and vehicles).
ii. If there are existing water tanks in the village, they should be desilted
and dredged every three years.
iii. If there are any small rivers or stream, a series of check dams can be
built across them to store water so that this stored water can be later
used.

Que 5.24. Define roof top water harvesting.

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Roof Top Water Harvesting :
1. The productive utilization of rainwater falling on roof tops of structures
is known as roof top water harvesting (RTWH).
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–32 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2. In urban areas, the roof tops are usually impervious and occupy
considerable land area. Also, generally the municipal water supply is
likely to be inadequate, inefficient or unsuitable. In such situation,
collection of runoff from roof tops of individual structures and storing
than for later use has been found to be very attractive and economical
proposition in many cases.
3. In adequacy of water availability and cost of supply has made many
industries and large institutions in urban areas situations in arid and
semi-arid regions to adopt RTWH systems in a big way.
4. Factors like water quality, methods for efficient and economical collection
and storage are some factors that have to be worked out in designing an
efficient system to meet specific needs.
5. The cost of adequate size storage is, generally, a constraint in economical
RTWH design.
6. In many cases, water collected from roof top is used for recharging the
ground water characteristics of the rainfall at the place, such as intensity,
duration, nature of the rainfall season, average number of rainy days,
determine the design of the RTWH design.

Que 5.25. Explain various techniques us ed for rainwater

harvesting. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
Methods : Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater :
A. Surface Runoff Harvesting : In urban area rainwater flows away as
surface runoff. This runoff could be caught and used for recharging
aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.
B. Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting :
i. It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In roof top harvesting,
the roof becomes the catchments, and the rainwater is collected from
the roof of the house/building.
ii. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system.
iii. This method is less expensive and very effective and if implemented
properly helps in augmenting the ground water level of the area.
Methods of Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting : Various methods of
using roof top rainwater harvesting are given below :
1. Storage of Direct Use :
i. In this method rain water collected from the roof of the building is
diverted to a storage tank.
ii. The storage tank has to be designed according to the water requirements,
rainfall and catchment availability.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. 5–33 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iii. Each drain pipe should have mesh filter at mouth and first flush device
followed by filtration system before connecting to the storage tank. It is
advisable that each tank should have excess water over flow system.
iv. Excess water could be diverted to recharge system. Water from storage
tank can be used for secondary purposes such as washing and gardening
etc. This is the most cost effective way of rainwater harvesting.
v. The main advantage of collecting and using the rainwater during rainy
season is not only to save water from conventional sources, but also to
save energy incurred on transportation and distribution of water at the
doorstep.
vi. This also conserves groundwater, if it is being extracted to meet the
demand when rains are on.
2. Recharging Groundwater Aquifers :
i. Groundwater aquifers can be recharged by various kinds of structures
to ensure percolation of rainwater in the ground instead of draining
away from the surface.
ii. Commonly used recharging methods are :
a. Recharging of bore wells.
b. Recharging of dug wells.
c. Recharge pits.
d. Recharge trenches.
e. Soak ways or recharge shafts.
f. Percolation tanks.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1.Write short notes on :

i.Well construction.
ii.Well completion.
iii.Well disinfection.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.2, Unit-5.

Q. 2. What is the development of tube wells and also explain tube

well development methods ?
Ans. Refer Q. 5.3, Unit-5.
Groundwater Quality & Modals 5–34 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Q. 3. Explain the physical, chemical and biological water quality
standards for various purposes.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.7, Unit-5.

Q. 4. Discuss in detail about the remediation of contaminated

groundwater.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.8, Unit-5.

Q. 5. Describe fluoride removal techniques.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.9, Unit-5.

Q. 6. What do you mean by saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifer

? What is the method of locate it ? Explain the various
methods to limit saltwater intrusion.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.11, Unit-5.

Q. 7. The resistivity of sample of formation water reduced to a

standard temperature of 27 °C is 15.2 ohm-m. If the formation
resistivity read from the electric log is 131 ohm-m, determine
the effective porosity of the formation. Assume cementation
factor of 2 in the Archie’s formula.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.16, Unit-5.

Q. 8. What is meant by artificial recharge of ground water ?

Enumerate the various methods used for this purpose and
explain the recharge well method in detail.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.18, Unit-5.

Q. 9. Rain water harvesting : Need and methods.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.23, Unit-5.


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1 Introduction to
Hydrology
(2 Marks Questions)

1.1. Define hydrogeologist. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02

Ans. Hydrogeologist is the person who studies the location, nature and
movement of underground water. They use their knowledge to
find new groundwater resources and to maintain the quality and
quantity of existing one.

1.2. What is meant by hydrologic cycle ?

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Hydrologic cycle is the process of transfer of moisture from the
atmosphere to the earth in the form of precipitation, conveyance of
the precipitated water by streams and rivers to ocean and lakes
etc., and evaporation of water back to the atmosphere.
1.3. What are the components of hydrological cycle ?
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. The hydrological cycle consists of the following processes :
i. Evaporation (E) and transpiration (T).
ii. Precipitation (P). iii. Runoff (R).

1.4. Describe the evaporation and transpiration.

OR
Briefly explain evaporation process.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Evaporation : It is the process in which a liquid changes to the
gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling point through
the transfer of heat energy.
Transpiration : It is the process by which water leaves the body
of a living plant and reaches the atmosphere as water vapour.
1.5. Define evapotranspiration.
Ans. Evapotranspiration is a combined term of evaporation and
transpiration, defined as the total loss of water through evaporation
and transpiration from the plants.
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1.6. What is hygroscopic water ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Water absorbed from the atmosphere and held very tightly by the
soil particles, so that it is unavailable to plants in amounts sufficient
for them to survive.

1.7. Define precipitation. What is cyclonic precipitation ?

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
OR
What do you understand by precipitation ?
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Precipitation : Precipitation may be defined as the fall of moisture
from the atmosphere to the earth surface in any form.
Cyclonic Precipitation : In the cyclonic precipitation, the moist
warm air mass is stationary and the moving cold air mass meets it.
Thus, due to lightness of the warm air there is passive ascent of
warm air over cold air owing to the active under cutting. When the
lifted warm air cools down at higher altitude precipitation occurs.

1.8. Define probable maximum precipitation.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. The probable maximum precipitation (PMP) is defined as the
greatest or extreme rainfall for a given duration that is physically
possible over a station or basin.

1.9. Write the different forms of precipitation.

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Precipitation may be of two forms :
i. Liquid precipitation i.e., rainfall
ii. Frozen precipitation : This consists of Snow, Hail, Sleet, and Freezing
rain.

1.10. Explain the term runoff.

Ans. Runoff is that portion of precipitation that is not evaporated. When
moisture falls to the earth’s surface as precipitation, a part of it is
evaporated from the water surface, soil and vegetation and through
transpiration by plants, and the remainder precipitation is available
as runoff which ultimately runs to the oceans through surface or
sub-surface streams.

1.11. Classify the runoff.

Ans. Runoff may be classified as follows :
i. Surface runoff. ii. Sub-surface runoff. iii. Base flow.
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1.12. What do you understand by surface runoff ?
Ans. Water flows over the land and is first to reach the streams and
rivers, which ultimately discharge the water to the sea, is known as
surface runoff.

1.13. What is sub-surface runoff ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02

Ans. A portion of precipitation infiltrates into surface soil and depending
upon the geology of the basin, runs as sub-surface runoff and
reaches the streams and rivers.

1.14. Why is base flow separated from total runoff ?

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. To obtained surface flow hydrograph, base flow separated from
total runoff.

1.15. What are the advantages of recording type rain gauge ?

Ans. Following are the advantages of recording type rain gauge :
i. The rainfall is recorded automatically.
ii. Recording type rain gauge can be installed in far off places also.
iii. Possibility of human error is obviated.

1.16. Give the disadvantages of recording type rain gauge.

Ans. Disadvantages of recording type rain gauge are given below :
i. It is costly in comparison with non recording type gauge.
ii. Fault may develop in electrical or mechanical mechanism or
recording the rainfall.

1.17. Define catchment area.

Ans. The area of land draining into a stream or a water course at a given
location is known as the catchment area.

1.18. Discuss the rainfall.

Ans. The term rainfall is used to describe the precipitation in the form of
water drops of sizes larger than 0.5 mm. The maximum size of a
raindrop is about 6 mm.

1.19. Write down the factors which are responsible for the rate
of evaporation.
Ans. The rate of evaporation depends on :
i. The vapour pressures at the water surface and air above.
ii. Air and water temperatures. iii. Atmospheric pressure.
iv. Quality of water. v. Wind speed.
vi. Size of the water body.
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1.20. Define the term consumptive use.
Ans. The term consumptive use is also used to denote the loss by
evapotranspiration. For a given set of atmospheric conditions,
evapotranspiration depends on the availability of water.
1.21. Define field capacity.
Ans. Field capacity is defined as the maximum quantity of water that the
soil can retain against the force of gravity. Any higher moisture
input to a soil at field capacity simply drains away.

1.22. What do you mean by permanent wilting point ?

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Permanent wilting point is the moisture content of a soil at which
the moisture is no longer available in sufficient quantity to sustain
the plants. At this stage, even though the soil contains some
moisture, it will be so held by the soil grains that the roots of the
plants are not able to extract it in sufficient quantities to sustain the
plants and consequently the plants wilt.

1.23. Define depression storage.

AKTU 2016-17, 2018-19; Marks 02
Ans. When the precipitation of a storm reaches the ground it must fire
fill up all depressions before it can flow over the surface. The volume
of water trapped in these depressions is called depression storage.

1.24. Distinguish between infiltration capacity and infiltration

rate. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans.
Infiltration Capacity Infiltration Rate
The maximum rate at which a given Infiltration rate, at any instant is the
soil at a given time can absorb water rate at which water actually enters
is defined as the infiltration capacity. into the soil during a storm, and is
equal to the infiltration capacity fp
or the rainfall rate, whichever is
less.

1.25. Discuss the detrimental effects of infiltration.

Ans. Following are the effects of infiltration :
i. It reduces the magnitude of the flood.
ii. It delays the time of arrival of water to the channels.
iii. It recharges the ground water reservoir.
iv. It reduces soil erosion.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SQ–5 C (CE-Sem-8)
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1.26. Write down the factors affecting the infiltration capacity of
an area.
Ans. Following are the factors that affect the infiltration capacity :
i. Condition of entry surface.
ii. Permeability/percolation characteristics of soil formation.
iii. Temperature.
iv. Intensity and duration of rainfall.
v. Movement of man and animals.
vi. Quality of water.

1.27. Define -index.

Ans. The -index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall volume
is equal to the runoff volume. The -index is derived from the
rainfall hyetograph with the knowledge of the resulting runoff
volume. The initial loss is also considered as infiltration. The
-value is found by treating it as a constant infiltration capacity.

1.28. Describe the W-index.

Ans. In an attempt to refine the -index, the initial losses are separated
from the total abstractions and an average value of infiltration
rate, called W-index, is expressed as
P  R  Ia
W=
te
where, P= Total storm precipitation (cm).
R= Total storm runoff (cm).
Ia = Initial losses (cm).
te = Duration of rainfall excess.

1.29. What is infiltration ? State factors affecting it.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Infiltration : It is the flow of water into the ground through the
soil surface.
Factors affecting infiltration are :
i. Condition of entry surface.
ii. Permeability characteristics of soil formation.
iii. Temperature.
iv. Intensity and duration of rainfall.

1.30. Define duty, delta and base period.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Duty : Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit of water. It
is the relation between the area of a crop irrigated and the quantity
of irrigation water required during the entire period of the growth
of that crop.
2 Marks Questions SQ–6 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Delta : Delta is the total depth of water required by a crop during
the entire period the crop is in the field and is denoted by the
symbol .
Base period : Base period for a crop refers to the whole period of
cultivation from the time when irrigation water is first issued for
preparation of the ground for planting the crop, to its last watering
before harvesting.

1.31. What is the purpose of water budget equation in hydrology ?

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. A water balance equation can be used to describe the flow of water
in and out of a system.

1.32. Write short note on Global Water Budget.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans.
i. The total quantity of water in the world is estimated to be about
1386 million cubic kilometres (M km3).
ii. About 96.5 % of this water is contained in the oceans as saline water.
iii. Some of the water on the land amounting to about 1 % of the total
water is also saline.
iv. Thus, only about 35.0 M km3 of fresh water is available.
v. Out of this about 10.6 M km3 is both liquid and fresh and the
remaining 24.4 M km3 is contained in frozen state as ice in the
polar region and on mountain tops and glaciers.


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2 Runoff and
Hydrographs
(2 Marks Questions)

2.1. Classify the runoff on the basis of the time delay between
the precipitation and the runoff.
Ans. Based on the time delay between the precipitation and the runoff,
the runoff is classified into two categories as :
i. Direct runoff. ii. Base flow.

2.2. Describe direct runoff.

Ans. Direct runoff is that part of the runoff which enters the stream
immediately after the rainfall. It includes surface runoff, prompt
interflow and rainfall on the surface of the stream. In the case of
snow melt, the resulting flow entering the stream is also a direct
runoff.

2.3. Define runoff coefficients. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02

Ans. Runoff Coefficients : Runoff coefficient is defined as the ratio of
runoff (R) and rainfall (P).
R = kP  k = R/P

2.4. Define base flow.

Ans. The delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as ground water
flow is called base flow. Many times delayed inter flow is also induced
under this category.
2.5. What are the flow characteristics of a stream ?
Ans. Following are the flow characteristics of a stream :
i. The rainfall characteristics such as magnitude, intensity, distribution
according to time and space, and its variability.
ii. Catchment characteristics such as soil, land use/cover, slope, geology,
shape and drainage density.
iii. Climate factors which influence evapotranspiration.

2.6. Enumerate different methods of computing the runoff from

a catchment.
Ans. Following are the methods for computing the runoff :
i. By linear or exponential regression.
2 Marks Questions SQ–8 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. By empirical equations and tables. iii. By infiltration method.
iv. Unit hydrograph. v. By rational method.

2.7. Define a hydrograph.

Ans. A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted against time
chronologically is called a hydrograph.

2.8. What is a drought ?

Ans. Drought is a climatic anomaly characterized by deficit supply of
moisture. This may result from subnormal rainfall over large regions
causing below normal natural availability of water over long periods
of time. Drought phenomenon is a hydrological extreme like flood
and is a natural disaster.

2.9. Give the types of drought.

Ans. Following are the types of drought :
i. Meteorological drought. ii. Hydrological drought.
iii. Agricultural drought.

2.10. What do you mean by the term flood ? Mention two factors
affecting flood. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. A flood is an unusually high stage in a river, normally the level at
which the river overflows its banks and inundates the adjoining
area. The damages caused by floods in terms of loss of life, property
and economic loss due to disruption of economic activity are all the
well known. Following are the two factors affecting flood :
i. Physiographic factors. ii. Climatic factors.

2.11. Explain factor affecting runoff hydrograph.

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Following are the factors affecting runoff hydrograph :
i. Basin Characteristics :
a. Shape. b. Size. c. Slope.
d. Nature of the valley. e. Elevation. f. Drainage density.
ii. Infiltration Characteristics :
a. Land use and cover.
b. Soil type and geological conditions.
c. Lake, swamps and other storage.
iii. Channel Characteristics : Cross section, roughness, and storage
capacity.

2.12. Illustrate the climatic factors affecting flood hydrograph.

Ans. Following are the factors affecting flood hydrograph :
i. Storm Characteristics : Precipitation, intensity, duration,
magnitude, and movement of storm.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SQ–9 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. Initial loss.
iii. Evapotranspiration.

2.13. Enumerate the essential components of a hydrograph.

Ans. Following are the essential components of a hydrograph :
i. The rising limb.
ii. The crest segment.
iii. The recession limb.

2.14. What is a unit hydrograph ?

Ans. A unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff
resulting from one unit depth (1 cm) of rainfall excess occurring
uniformly over the basin and at a uniform rate for a specified
duration (D hours). The term unit here refers to a unit depth of
rainfall excess which is usually taken as 1 cm.

2.15. Enumerate the factors affecting the runoff.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Following are the various factors affecting the runoff :
i. Precipitation characteristics.
ii. Shape and size of the catchment.
iii. Topography.
iv. Geological characteristics.

2.16. Write down the ass umptions which constitute the

foundation for the unit hydrograph theory.
Ans. Following are two basic assumptions constitute the foundation for
the unit hydrograph theory :
i. The time invariance. ii. The linear response.

2.17. Write down the limitations of unit hydrographs.

Ans. Following are the limitations of unit hydrographs :
i. Precipitation must be from rainfall only.
ii. The catchment should not have unusually large storage in terms of
tanks, ponds, large flood bank storage etc., which affect the linear
relationship between storage and discharge.
iii. If the precipitation is decided by non-uniform, unit hydrograph can
not be expected to give good results.

2.18. Give the methods of derivation of unit hydrograph of

different duration.
Ans. Following are two methods of derivation of unit hydrograph of
different duration :
i. Method of superposition.
ii. The S-curve.
2 Marks Questions SQ–10 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2.19. What are the uses of a unit hydrograph ?
Ans. Following are the uses of unit hydrograph :
i. The development of flood hydrographs for extreme rainfall
magnitudes for use in the design of hydraulic structure.
ii. Extension of flood-flow records based on rainfall records.
iii. Development of flood forecasting and warning systems based on
rainfall.

2.20. Define synthetic unit hydrograph.

AKTU 2016-17, 2018-19; Marks 02
Ans. In the case of ungauged rivers, recorded data are not available. In
some other cases, the data available may be scanty. For such
catchments, unit hydrographs are derived by relating the selected
basin characteristics to the unit hydrograph shape. The resulting
hydrograph, derived from basin characteristic relationships is known
as synthetic unit hydrograph.


Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SQ–11 C (CE-Sem-8)
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3 Flood Analysis
(2 Marks Questions)

3.1. What are the factors on which the runoff coefficient depends ?
Ans. Following are the factors which affect the runoff coefficient :
i. Antecedent moisture conditions.
ii. Ground slope.
iii. Overland cover.
iv Depression storage.
v. Soil moisture.

3.2. Write down the limitations of rational formula.

Ans. Following are the limitations of rational formula :
i. The formula gives good results only for small (up 50 km 2 )
catchments.
ii. It is applicable only if the duration of rainfall is equal to or more
than time of concentration (tc).
iii. Rainfall intensity (i) should be constant over the entire catchment,
during the time of concentration.
iv. It assumes constant value of C for a given area, for all storms,
which is not reasonable etc.

3.3. What are the various empirical formulae for estimating

the flood discharge ?
OR
Write down Inglis formula. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Following are the emphirical formulae for estimating the flood
discharge :
i. Dicken’s Formula : q = C A3/4
ii. Ryve’s Formula : q = C A2/3
iii. Inglis Formula : Inglis formula is applicable for catchment of
former Bombay presidency.
123 A
q=  123 A1/2
A  10.4
iv. Fanning’s Formula : For American catchments, q = C A5/6
2 Marks Questions SQ–12 C (CE-Sem-8)
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3.4. What do you understand by flood frequency ?
Ans. Flood frequency denotes the likelihood of flood being equaled or
exceeded. A 10 % frequency means that the flood has 10 out of 100
chances of being equaled or exceeded.
3.5. Define recurrence interval of flood.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. It denotes the number of years in which a flood can be expected
once. It is the period of time between equaling or exceeding of a
specific flood. This is usually denoted by a symbol T.

3.6. What is a “Return period” ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02

Ans. It is the average recurrence interval for a certain event or flood.
3.7. Discuss the probability of occurrence (P).
Ans.
i. The probability of an event being equaled or exceeded in any one
year is the probability of its occurrence.
ii. The probability (P) of occurrence of a flood having a recurrence
interval of T years in any year or the probability of exceedance is,
P= 1/T
3.8. Define frequency (f).
Ans. The probability of occurrence of an event expressed as a percent is
known as frequency.
Thus, f = 100 P = 100 / T
3.9. Enlist the methods of computing the flood peak data.
Ans. Following are two methods of computing the flood peak data :
i. Annual duration series.
ii. Partial duration series.
3.10. What is annual flood series ?
Ans. It consists of the values of annual maximum flood from a given
catchment area, for large number of successive years.
3.11. Describe spillway design flood.
Ans. Design flood used for the specific purpose of designing the spillway
of a storage structure. This term is frequently used to denote the
maximum discharge that can be passed in a hydraulic structure
without any damage or serious threat to the stability of the
structure.
3.12. Explain standard project flood (SPF).
Ans. This is the flood that would result from a severe combination of
meteorological and hydrological factors that are reasonably
applicable to the region. Extremely rare combinations of factors
are excluded.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SQ–13 C (CE-Sem-8)
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3.13. What do you mean by probable maximum flood (PMF) ?
Ans. The extreme flood that is physically possible in a region as a result
of severe most combinations, including rare combinations of
meteorological and hydrological factors.

3.14. Define the risk.

Ans. The probability of occurrence of an event (x > xT) at least once over
a period of n successive years is called the risk, R.
n
 1
R = 1 – (1 – P)n = 1 – 1  
 T
3.15. Describe the reliability.
Ans. The reliability, Re is defined as,
n n
 1  1
Re = 1 – R = 1 – 1 + 1    1  
 T  T

3.16. Write short notes about flood routing.

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Flood routing is the technique of determining the flood hydrograph
at a section of a river by utilizing the data of flood flow at one or
more upstream sections. The hydrologic analysis of problems such
as flood forecasting, flood protection, reservoir design and spillway
design invariably include routing.

3.17. Enumerate the broad categories of routing.

Ans. Following are two broad categories of routing can be recognized :
i. Reservoir routing. ii. Channel routing.

3.18. What do you understand by flood control ?

Ans. The term flood control is commonly used to denote all the measures
adopted to reduce damages to life and property by floods.

3.19. Classify the flood control measures.

Ans. Following are the classification of flood control measures :
i. Structural Measures :
a. Storage and detention reservoirs.
b. Flood ways.
c. Watershed management.
d. Levees (flood embankments).
e. Channel improvement.
ii. Non-structural measures :
a. Flood plain zoning.
b. Evacuation and relocation.
c. Flood forecast/warning.
d. Flood insurance.
2 Marks Questions SQ–14 C (CE-Sem-8)
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3.20. What do you mean by flood forecasting and warning ?
Ans. Forecasting of floods sufficiently in advance enables a warning to
be given to the people likely to be affected and further enables civil
authorities to take appropriate precautionary measures. It thus
forms a very important and relatively inexpensive non-structural
flood management measure.

3.21. Write down the various flood forecasting techniques.

Ans. Following are the flood forecasting techniques :
i. Short range forecasts.
ii. Medium range forecasts.
iii. Long range forecasts.

3.22. What do you mean by hydrologic reservoir routing ?

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Flow routing is a procedure to determine the time and magnitude
of flow at a point on a water course from known or assumed
hydrograph at one or more points upstream. Routing by lumped
system method is called hydrologic reservoir routing. It is given by,
dS(t)
= I(t) – O(t).
dt
3.23. Discuss flood frequency analysis.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans.
i. Flood frequency analysis is a technique used by the hydrologists to
predict flow values corresponding to specific return periods or
probabilities along a river.
ii. Frequency analysis is most commonly applied to peak instantaneous
discharges, but may also be applied to daily mean flow or to a
volume over a specified duration.


Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SQ–15 C (CE-Sem-8)
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4 Groundwater
(2 Marks Questions)

4.1. What do you understand by groundwater ?

Ans. It is that part of the sub-surface water which occurs within the
saturated zone of the earth’s crust where all pores are filled with
water.

4.2. Write down the features of groundwater.

Ans. Following are the features of groundwater :
i. Groundwater is a huge water resource, but is exhaustible and is
unevenly available.
ii. Groundwater and surface water resources are interrelated and,
hence, should be considered together.

4.3. Enumerate the different zones of sub-surface water.

Ans. Water in the soil is called sub surface water and is considered in two
zones :
i. Saturated zone. ii. Aeration zone.

4.4. Describe the saturated zone.

Ans. Saturated zone, also known as groundwater zone, is the space in
which all the pores of the soil are filled with water.

4.5. Differentiate between aquitard and aquifuge.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. Aquitard Aquifuge

i. It is a formation through which It is a geological formation which

only seepage is possible and thus is neither porous nor permeable.
the yie ld is insignificant
compared to an aquifer.
ii. A sandy clay unit is an example Massive compact rock without
of aquitard. any fractures is an aquifuge.
2 Marks Questions SQ–16 C (CE-Sem-8)
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4.6. List the different types of aquifers.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Following are the types of aquifers :
i. Unconfined or non-artesian aquifers.
ii. Confined or artesian aquifers.

4.7. Differentiate between confined and unconfined aquifers.

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Difference between confined and unconfined aquifers :
S. No. Confined Aquifer Unconfined Aquifer

1. In confined aquifer water is In unconfined aquifer water is stored

stored below impermeable in the top pervious soil layers.
layer at pressure higher
than the atmo sphe ric
pressure.
2. It is also called artesian It is known as water table aquifer or
aquifer. phreatic aquifer or non artesian aquifer.

4.8. Define an aquifer.

Ans. An aquifer is a saturated formation of earth material which not
only stores water but yields it in sufficient quantity.

4.9. Describe the aquiclude.

Ans. Aquiclude is a geological formation which essentially impermeable
to the flow of water. It may be considered as closed to water
movement even though it may contain large amounts of water due
to its high porosity.

4.10. State the Darcy’s law and its limitations.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Darcy’s law : As per Darcy’s law for laminar flow in saturated soils
velocity of flow is directly proportional to hydraulic gradient. It can
be expressed as :
v i  v k.i
Limitations : It valid for laminar flow (Re < 1).

4.11. What do you mean by rain water harvesting ?

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. The concept of rainwater harvesting involves trapping the rainwater
where it falls. It is an outstanding method to conserve water and
enhance availability of water for drinking, industrial or groundwater
recharge.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SQ–17 C (CE-Sem-8)
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4.12. Give the advantages of rain water harvesting.
Ans. Following are the advantages of rain water harvesting :
i. The cost of recharge to sub-surface reservoirs is lower than surface
reservoirs.
ii. The aquifer serves as a distribution system also.
iii. It reduces flood hazards.
iv. It increases the productivity of aquifer.
v. Reduces soil erosion.

4.13. What is rooftop water harvesting ?

Ans. The productive utilization of rainwater falling on rooftops of
structures is known as rooftop water harvesting.
4.14. Discuss the needs of rainwater harvesting.
Ans. Following are the needs of rainwater harvesting :
i. To reduce soil erosion.
ii. To conserve surface water runoff during monsoon.
iii. To beneficiate water quality in aquifers, etc.

4.15. Describe the soil water zone.

Ans. Soil water zone lies close to the ground surface in the major root
band of the vegetation from which the water is transported to the
atmosphere by evapotranspiration.

4.16. Define the efficiency of well. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02

Ans. The well loss is a measure of the efficiency of the well that is
defined as well efficiency.
Well efficiency,
w= Formation loss / Total drawdown measured inside the well

4.17. Explain specific capacity in tube well.

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
OR
What do you mean by specific capacity ?
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
OR
What is specific capacity ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. The discharge per unit drawdown at the well (Q/sw) is known as
specific capacity of a well and is a measure of the performance of
the well.

4.18. What is the status and occurrence of ground water in India ?

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
2 Marks Questions SQ–18 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Ans. The groundwater resources have two components, static and
dynamic. Aquifer conditions vary between the deep alluvial aquifers
in northern India to the hard-rock aquifers in much of western,
central and southern India. The static reserves have been estimated
as 10,812 bcm. The dynamic component has been estimated as
432 bcm.
4.19. List out the types of water wells.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
OR
Write the types of tube well. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Wells may be classified into two types :
i. Open wells. ii. Tubewells.
The tube well may be of three types :
i. Strainer well. ii. Cavity well. iii. Slotted well.

4.20. What is the use of open wells ?

Ans. Open wells (also known as dug wells) are extensively used for
drinking water supply in rural communities and in small farming
operations. They are best suited for shallow and low yielding
aquifers.

4.21. Distinguish between water table and piezometric surface.

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. Water Table Piezometric Surface
i. The static level of water in wells It is the imaginary surface which
pe ne trating the zo ne o f represents the magnitude of
saturation is called water table. hydrostatic pressure available
along the artesian aquifer.
ii. At wate r table the wate r At piezometric surface water
pressure head is equal to the pressure head equal to gauge
atmospheric pressure. pressure.
iii. It is depicted on maps as a line It is depicted on maps as a line
across an aquifer. between the walls of a well.

4.22. What are the merits and demerits of partial penetration of

wells ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Merit : In case of partial penetration of wells, the drawdown near
the system can be significantly less, a factor that may reduce the
risk of damage of adjacent structures or facilities due to settlement.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SQ–19 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Demerit : Usually the number of wells required to accomplish the
result increases when the wells are partial penetrating. Due to this
the cost of this process will be high.

4.23. What is the well loss ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02

OR
Describe well losses. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. When water is pumped out of a well, the total drawdown caused
includes not only that of the logarithmic drawdown curve at the
well face, but also drawdown caused by flow through well screen
and axial movement within the well. The latter drawdown is called
well loss.

4.24. What is transmissibility ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02

Ans. It is defined as the rate of flow of water (m3/day) through vertical
strip of aquifer of unit width and extending the full saturation
height under unit hydraulic gradient.
4.25. Explain the terms specific yield and specific retention of an
aquifer. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Specific Retention : The volume of water retained by molecular
and surface tension forces, against the force of gravity, expressed
as a percentage of the total volume of the saturated aquifer is called
specific retention (Sr).
Volume of water retained
Sr = × 100
Total volume of the aquifer
Specific Yield : The actual volume of water that can be extracted
by the force of gravity from a unit volume of aquifer material is
known as the specific yield.
4.26. Write down the assumptions of steady flow condition for
the confined and unconfined aquifers.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Following are the assumptions of steady flow in aquifers :
i. The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, and of infinite and a real
extent, so that its coefficient of transmissibility or permeability is
constant everywhere.
ii. The well has been sunk through the full depth of the aquifer and it
receives water from the entire thickness of the aquifer.
iii. Flowlines are radial and horizontal, and flow is laminar.
4.27. What is the surface of seepage and free surface curve ?
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
2 Marks Questions SQ–20 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Ans. Surface of Seepage : Vertical surface of the ground, forming
outside of the well hole, which is exposed between the water surface
in the well and the free surface is known as the “surface of seepage”.
Free Surface Curve : The curve of the surface of groundwater
throughout which the pressure is atmospheric is known as free
surface curve.
4.28. State the water well. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Water well is a hole usually vertical, excavated through the earth
strata for lifting groundwater to the surface.
4.29. What are methods to assess the recharge of groundwater
in an area ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans.
Artificial recharge methods

Direct methods Indirect methods

Surface Subsurface Induced Aquifer Groundwater

spreading techniques recharge modifications conservation
techniques structures

e.g., Flooding, e.g., Injection well, e.g., e.g., Bore e.g., GW dams
Run off conservation, Recharge well Collector well, blasting, Hydro bhandaras
structures, Infiltration fracturing
Surface irrigation galleries
Fig. 1.

4.30. The water budget terms for a lake includes precipitation of

43 inch/yr, evaporation of 53 inch/yr, surface water inflow
of 1 inch/yr, surface outflow of 173 inch/yr and change in
lake volume of-2 inch/yr. Determine the net groundwater
flow. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
Given : P = 43 inch/yr, E = 53 inch/yr, I = 1 inch/yr
O = 173 inch/yr, S = – 2 inch/yr
To Find : Net groundwater flow, G.
Assume net ground water flow is inflow.
According to water budget equation,
Inflow – Outflow = Change in storage
P + I + G – E – O = S
43 + 1 + G – 53 – 173 = – 2
G = 180 inch/year

Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SQ–21 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5 Groundwater Quality
and Modals
(2 Marks Questions)

5.1. Define the term well completion.

Ans. After a well has been constructed, proper sanitary completion is
necessary to produce water that is safe by the public health
standards. The process of doing so is known as well completion.
5.2. What do you mean by well disinfection ?
Ans. Drilling operations may introduce bacteria into a well. After
development and well testing, a disinfectant should be added to
sterilize the well and to inhibit future biofouling problem e.g. chlorine
gas and sodium hypochlorite.
5.3. Write down the characteristics of irrigation water quality.
Ans. Following are the characteristics of irrigation water quality :
i. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).
ii. Relative proportion of sodium to other cations.
iii. Concentration of certain specific elements.
iv. Residual carbonates.
5.4. Enlist the ground water investigations techniques.
Ans. Following are the ground water investigation techniques :
i. Hydrometeorological study. ii. Hydrogeological study.
iii. Geophysical survey. iv. Aerial photographic survey.
v. Tracer techniques. vi. Geochemical and geothermal surveys.

5.5. What are the objectives of hydrogeological investigations ?

Ans. Following are the objectives of hydrogeological investigations :
i.Define recharge and discharge areas.
ii.Define major water bearing units.
iii.Define location, extent and inter-relationship of aquifers.
iv. Establish physical parameters of aquifers like transmissibility
storage coefficient and specific yield.
v. Estimate total sub-surface storage capacity.

5.6. Explain the artificial recharge.

Ans. The process of artificially enhancing the amount of water recharging
the aquifer in a given location is known as artificial recharge.
2 Marks Questions SQ–22 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5.7. Enumerate the methods of artificial recharge.
Ans. Following are the various methods of artificial recharge :
i. Spreading.
ii. Through injection wells.
iii. Induced recharge from surface water bodies.
iv. Sub-surface dykes.

5.8. What are the sources of contamination of groundwater ?

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Following are the sources of contamination of groundwater :
i. Municipal : Sewer leakage, liquid waste, solid waste, and landfill.
ii. Industrial : Liquid waste, leakage, mining activity, and oil field
brine.
iii. Agricultural : Return flows, fertilizers and pesticides, and animal waste.
iv. Miscellaneous : Salt water intrusion, acid rain, and deicing salts.

5.9. What are the mechanisms involved in the reduction of

pollutants in groundwater ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Following are the mechanisms involved in the reduction of pollutants
in groundwater :
i. Chemical Treatment Technologies :
a. Chemical precipitation. c. Ion exchange.
b. Carbon absorption. d. Chemical oxidation.
e. Surfactant enhanced recovery. f. Permeable reactive barriers.
ii. Physical Treatment Technologies :
a. Pump and treat. b. Air sparging.
c. Dual phase vacuum extraction. d. Monitoring-well oil skimming.

5.10. List out the types of groundwater models.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
OR
List the techniques adopted for groundwater modeling.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Following are the types of groundwater models :
i. Physical models.
ii. Analog models.
iii. Model based analytical formula coupled with experience.
iv. Numerical models.
5.11. If a water sample has a TDS of 1152 mg/l and EC of 1800
units, calculate the specific resistance in mhos of another
water sample which has a TDS of 6400 mg/l.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SQ–23 C (CE-Sem-8)
www.aktutor.in
Ans.
Given : For a water sample, TDS1 = 1152 mg/l, EC1 = 1800
units = 1800 mhos/cm = 1800 × 10– 6 mhos/cm, For another water
sample : TDS2 = 6400 mg/l
To Find : Specific Resistance, R
i. We know that, TDS  EC
TDS1 EC1
ii. So, =
TDS 2 EC2
1152 1800
=
6400 EC2
EC2 = 10000 unit = 10000 × 10 – 6 mhos/cm
iii. Specific resistance, R = 1/EC2 = (1/10000 × 10 – 6)
R = 100 cm/mhos

5.12. What is upconing effect in sea water intrusion ?

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. When an aquifer contains an underlying layer of saline water or
sea water and is pumped by a well penetrating only the upper fresh
water portion of the aquifer, a local rise of the interface below the
well occurs this phenomenon is known as upconing effect in sea
water intrusion.

5.13. Write the principle behind the transport of groundwater

contamination in aquifer. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Transport of contaminants in groundwater involves several
mechanics these includes advection, dispersion, adsorption and
ion-exchange, decay, chemical reaction and biological process.


Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–1 C (CE-Sem-8)
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B. Tech.
(SEM. VII) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2014-15
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100

Note : (1) Attempt all the questions.

(2) All question carry equal marks.
(3) If required any missing data, then choose suitably.
1. Attempt any four parts of the following : (5 × 4 = 20)
a. What is meant by Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)
over a basin ? Also explain how PMP is estimated ?

b. Discuss the current practice and status of the rainfall

recording in India.

c. Discuss briefly the various abstractions that take place

from the precipitation.

d. Consider the statement : The 50 year - 24 hour maximum

rainfall at Bangalore is 160 mm. What do you understand
by this statement ?

e. The isohyets for annual rainfall over a catchment basin

were drawn. The areas of strips between isohyets are
indicated below. Find the average depth of annual
precipitation over the basin.
Isohyets (cm) Areas (sq. km) Isohyets (cm) Areas (sq. km)
75 – 85 580 105 – 115 1000
85 – 95 2960 115 – 135 610
95 – 105 2850 135 – 155 160

f. Write the short notes on any two of the following :

i. Flow measuring structures.
ii. Mass curve of rainfall.
iii. Depth area duration curves.

2. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)

Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–2 C (CE-Sem-8)
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a. Find the mean precipitation for the area sketched below by
Thiessen’s polygon method. The area composed of a square
plus an equilateral triangle plot of side 5 km. Rainfall
readings in cm at the various stations are given in Fig. 3.
8.0 cm 5.4 cm
1 2
6
3
2.2 cm 8.3 cm
4 5
13.0 cm 4.8 cm

Fig. 1.

b. The rates of rainfall for successive 20 minutes period of a

140 minutes storm are 3.0, 3.0, 9.0, 6.6, 1.2, 1.2 and 6.0 mm/hr.
Assuming the Value of indexas 3.2 mm/hr and initial loss of
0.8 mm. Find out the net runoff, the total rainfall and value
of Windex for the storm.

c. Briefly distinguish between :

i. Actual and Potential evapotranspiration.
ii. Field capacity and permanent wilting point.
iii. Depression storage and interception.
iv. Infiltration capacity and infiltration rate.

3. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)

a. Sketch a typical flow duration curve. Also explain, how it
can be used in water resources planning and development
activities ?

b. The ordinates of a 4-h unit hydrograph are given. Determine

the ordinates of an S-curve hydrograph and using this,
determine the ordinates of 2-h unit hydrograph.
Time (hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
4-h UH 0 20 80 130 150 130 90 52 27 15 5 0
 m3 
Ordinate 
 sec 

c. i. Describe the analysis of the recession limb of a flood

hydrograph.

ii. Write the short notes on synthetic unit hydrograph and

IUH.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–3 C (CE-Sem-8)
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4. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)
a. Explain the rational method of computing the peak
discharge of a small catchment. Where it is commonly used
and what are its merits and demerits ? Also discuss the
runoff coefficient C of the rational formula.

b. Explain the terms risk, reliability and safety factor. A factory

is proposed to be located on the edge of the 40 year flood
plain of a river. If design life of factory is 20 years, what is
the reliability that is will not be flooded during its design
life ?

c. For a river, the estimated flood peaks for two return period
by using Gumbel’s method, are as follows :
Return Period, T (years) Peak Flood (m3/sec)
100 435
50 395
Estimate the flood magnitude in this river with a return
period of 1000 years.

5. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)

a. A 30 cm well completely penetrates an artesian aquifer. The
length of the strainer is 25 m. Determine the discharge from
the well when the drawdown at pumping well is 4.0 m. The
coefficient of permeability of the aquifer is 45 m/day. Assume
the radius of influence of the well as 350 m.

b. Describe the various structural methods adopted for control

of floods. Also discuss the problems of floods and their
control with special reference to the Indian scene.

c. Develop an equation relating the steady state discharge

from a well in an unconfined aquifer and depth of water
table at two known positions from the well. State clearly all
the assumption involved in your derivation.


Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–4 C (CE-Sem-8)
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2014-15)

Note : (1) Attempt all the questions.

(2) All question carry equal marks.
(3) If required any missing data, then choose suitably.
1. Attempt any four parts of the following : (5 × 4 = 20)
a. What is meant by Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)
over a basin ? Also explain how PMP is estimated ?
Ans.
A. Probable Maximum Precipitation :
1. The probable maximum precipitation, commonly known as PMP,
for a region is the precipitation resulting from the most critical
meteorological combinations that are considered probable of
occurrence.
2. It can be defined as that rainfall over a basin which would produce
the flood flow with virtually no risk of being exceeded.
3. From the statistical studies, PMP can also be estimated from the
following equation :
PMP = P  K 
where, P = Mean of annual maximum rainfall series.
 = Standard deviation of the series.
K = Frequency factor, which is usually in the
neighbourhood of 15.
B. Maximum and Minimum Rainfall : The magnitudes of
maximum rainfall and minimum rainfall within specified time
period can be determined by the use of frequency formula given
by Hazen :
2N N
T= 
2m  1 m  0.5
where, T = Recurrence interval within which the event
is either equal to or greater than the specified
amount.
Procedure for Determination of Maximum Rainfall :
1. Arrange the rainfall data in descending order and assign rank
number (m) to each rainfall event, the total number of event
being equal to N.
2. Compute recurrence interval (T) for each event.
3. Plot a graph between recurrence interval (T) as abscissa and
corresponding rainfall as ordinate.
4. Determine the expected maximum rainfall magnitude for any
desired value of T from this graph.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–5 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Procedure for Determination of Minimum Rainfall :
1. Arrange the rainfall data in ascending order and assign rank
number (m) to each rainfall event, the total number of events
being equal to N.
2. Compute recurrence interval (T) for each event.
3. Plot a graph between recurrence interval (T) as abscissa and
corresponding rainfall as ordinate.
4. Determine the expected minimum rainfall magnitude for any
desired value of T from this graph.

b. Discuss the current practice and status of the rainfall

recording in India.
Ans. Rain-gauge : The amount of precipitation is expressed as the
depth in centimetres (or inches) which falls on a level surface, and
is measured by rain-gauge.
Types of Rain-gauge : Following are the types of rain-gauges
used for measurement of rainfall :
A. Non-automatic Rain-gauge : This is also known as non-
recording rain-gauge. Symon’s rain-gauge is the instrument
prescribed by use at all Government rain-gauge stations
throughout India.
Symon’s Rain-gauge :
i. Symon’s rain-gauge is most common type of non-automatic rain-
gauge, and is used by Meteorological Department of Government
of India.
ii. As shown in Fig. 1, it consists of cylindrical vessel 127 mm in
diameter with a base enlarged to 210 mm diameter.
iii. The top section is a funnel provided with circular brass rim
exactly 127 mm internal diameter.
iv. The funnel shank is inserted in the neck of a receiving bottle
which is 75 to 100 mm diameter.
v. A receiving bottle of rain-gauge has a capacity of about 75 to 100
mm of rainfall and as during a heavy rainfall this quantity is
frequently exceeded, the rain should be measured 3 or 4 times
in a day on day of heavy rainfall left the receiver fill should
overflow.
vi. A cylindrical graduated measuring glass is furnished with each
instrument, which reads to 0.2 mm.
vii. The rainfall should be estimated to the nearest of 0.1 mm.
Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–6 C (CE-Sem-8)
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127 mm

25.4
25.4

305 mm 203

50.8 GL
25.4
60 cm 25.4
210 mm

60 cm
Fig. 1.
viii. The rain-gauge is set up in a concrete block 60 cm × 60 cm ×
60 cm, as shown in Fig. 1. The rim should be 305 mm (12) above
the surface of the ground.
B. Automatic Rain-gauge : These are integrating type recording
rain-gauges and are of following types :
1. Weighing Bucket Type Rain-gauge :
i. Self recording gauges are used to determine rates of rainfall
over short periods of time. The most common type of self-
recording gauge is the weighing bucket type as shown in Fig. 2.
Receiver

Funnel
Metal
casing
Bucket

Weighing mechanism
by spring mechanism
Graph
paper

Clock mounted
rotating drum

Fig. 2.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–7 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. The weighing bucket rain-gauge essentially consists of a receiver
bucket supported by a spring or lever balance or any other
weighing mechanism.
iii. The movement of the bucket due to its increasing weight is
transmitted to a pen which traces the record on a clock-drive
chart.
2. Tipping Bucket Type Rain-gauge :
i. A Steven’s tipping bucket type rain-gauge consists of 300 mm
diameter sharp edge receiver.
ii. At the end of the receiver a funnel is provided. A pair of buckets
are pivoted under the funnel in such a way that when one bucket
receives 0.25 mm of precipitation, it tips, discharging its contents
into a container bringing the other bucket under the funnel.
iii. Tipping of the bucket completes an electric circuit causing the
movement of pen to mark on clock driven revolving drum which
carries a record sheet.
iv. The electric pulses generated due to the tipping of the buckets
are recorded at the control room far away from the rain gauge
station.
Rain
water
Circular collector

Funnel

Two compartment
tipping bucket connected to
1 2 recording device

Recording device

Measuring Tripod stand

jar
Fig. 3.

c. Discuss briefly the various abstractions that take place

from the precipitation.
Ans. Abstractions from Precipitation : When precipitation takes
place on land surface whole of it is not available as runoff because
of losses that take place during or after the precipitation. Important
losses consist of :
i. Interception. ii. Evaporation.
iii. Transpiration. iv. Infiltration.
v. Depression storage. vi. Watershed leakage.
Out of this evaporation transpiration and infiltration are the major
losses.
Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–8 C (CE-Sem-8)
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1. Interception :
i. It may be defined as that amount of precipitation water which is
intercepted by vegetative foliage, buildings and other objects lying
over the land surface.
ii. Interception does not reach the land surface but is returned back to
the atmosphere by evaporation.
iii. The intercepted precipitation may follow one of the three possible
routes :
a. It may be retained by the vegetation as surface storage and
returned to the atmosphere by evaporation; this is known as
interception loss.
b. It can drip off the plant leaves to join the ground surface or the
surface flow; this is known as throughfall.
c. The rainwater may run along the leaves and branches and down
the stem to reach the ground surface. This part is called stemflow.
2. Depression Storage :
i. A catchment area generally has many depressions of shallow depth
and of varying size and shape.
ii. When precipitation take place, water runs towards these
depressions and fill them before actual overland flow or runoff
towards a stream takes place.
iii. Depression storage depends on a vast number of factors. The
major factors are :
a. The type of soil.
b. The condition of the surface reflecting the amount and nature
of depression.
c. The slope of the catchment.
d. The antecedent precipitation as a measure of the soil moisture.
iv. The following relationship may be used for computing the depression
storage,
P
  e 
Vds = K 1  e k 
where, Vds = Volume of water stored in surface depression.
Pe = Rainfall excess.
k = Depression storage capacity of the basin.
3. Watershed Leakage :
i. Adjacent basins are separated by ridge lines, so that rainfall falling
over a basin flows towards the drainage lines (i.e., streams) of the
basin.
ii. Watershed leakage may be defined as flow of water from one basin
to another basin, or from one basin to the sea through major faults,
fissures or other geographical features.
iii. Due to these faults, fissures, underground hydraulic conduits so
formed convey the discharge falling over a part of the catchment.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–9 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Basin-2
Fault
Basin-1
line

Fault
line

Ridge Ridge
line line

Fig. 4.

d. Consider the statement : The 50 year - 24 hour maximum

rainfall at Bangalore is 160 mm. What do you understand
by this statement ?
Ans. It implies that on an average rainfall magnitude equal to or greater
than 160 mm in 24 hr occur once in 50 years at Bangalore.

e. The isohyets for annual rainfall over a catchment basin

were drawn. The areas of strips between isohyets are
indicated below. Find the average depth of annual
precipitation over the basin.
Isohyets (cm) Areas (sq. km) Isohyets (cm) Areas (sq. km)
75 – 85 580 105 – 115 1000
85 – 95 2960 115 – 135 610
95 – 105 2850 135 – 155 160

Ans.
Given : Area of strips between isohyets are given in above table
To Find : Average depth of annual precipitation.

Isohyets Average Precipitation Areas A × (P1 + P2)/2

(cm) (1/2) (P1 + P2) (A)
75 – 85 80 580 46400
85 – 95 90 2960 266400
95 – 105 100 2850 285000
105 – 115 110 1000 110000
115 – 135 125 610 76250
135 – 155 145 160 23200
 8160 807250
Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–10 C (CE-Sem-8)
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A( P1  P2 ) / 2 807250
Average precipitation, Pav = = = 98.92 cm
A 8160

f. Write the short notes on any two of the following :

i. Flow measuring structures.
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from sessions 2020-21.

ii. Mass curve of rainfall.

Ans. Mass Curve :
1. The flow-mass curve is a plot of the cumulative discharge volume
against time plotted in chronological order.
2. The ordinate of the mass curve, V at any time t is thus,
t

V=  Qdt
t0

where, to = Time at the beginning of the curve.

Q = Discharge rate.
3. Calculation of Storage Volume :
i. Consider a reservoir on the stream whose mass curve is plotted
in Fig. 5.

B
3
Accumulated flow volume, V in Mm

D

S2

E
C
N Rates of flow
D
Volume

F Qav
S1 Qd
E
C
M
Unit time
A
tc tm tn
Time (months)
Fig. 5.
ii. If it is assumed that the reservoir is full at the beginning of a dry
period, i.e., when the inflow rate is less than the withdrawal
(demand) rate, the maximum amount of water drawn from the
storage is the cumulative difference between supply and demand
volumes from the beginning of the dry season. Thus the storage
required S is,
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–11 C (CE-Sem-8)
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S = Maximum of (VD – Vs)
where, VD = Demand volume, Vs = Supply volume.
iii. The storage, S which is the maximum cumulative deficiency in
any dry season is obtained as the maximum difference in the
ordinate between mass curves of supply and demand.

iii. Depth area duration curves.

Ans. Depth Area Duration Curves :
1. Rainfall rarely occurs uniformly over the whole of the catchment.
2. Variations in total depth of rainfall and intensity occur from the
centres to the peripheries of storms.
3. The knowledge of maximum depth of rainfall occurring on areas
of various sizes for storms of different durations is of great
importance in many hydrological design problems.
4. The development of relationship between maximum depth, area
and duration for a region is known as DAD analysis.
5. DAD analysis is performed to determine the maximum amounts
of precipitation of various durations over areas of various sizes.

50
Average depth (cm)

40
3 -D
30 ay
st o r
2- D m
ay s
20 tor
m
1 -D
ay s
10 tor m

0 20 40 60 80
Fig. 6.

2. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)

a. Find the mean precipitation for the area sketched below by
Thiessen’s polygon method. The area composed of a square
plus an equilateral triangle plot of side 5 km. Rainfall
readings in cm at the various stations are given in Fig. 7.
8.0 cm 5.4 cm
1 2
6
3
2.2 cm 8.3 cm
4 5
13.0 cm 4.8 cm

Fig. 7.
Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–12 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Ans.
Given : Rainfall readings of various stations given in Fig. 7. Side of
square and equilateral triangle = 5 cm.
To Find : Mean precipitation for the area.
1. Let the stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in Fig. 8, be named as station A, B,
C, D, E and F, respectively.
2. Let the length of the side of ABCD be a (= 5 km).
3. Then the length of each side of the equilateral triangular plot will be
also a.
4. Now for the triangular plot, draw perpendicular bisectors Aa, Dd
and Ee, so that they meet in point g.
5. Similarly, draw the perpendicular bisector eb, bc, cf and fe of the
line FA, FB, FC and FD respectively.
A (1) b B (2)

E P
(5) F c
g e
(6)
a

C
D (4) f (3)
Fig. 8.
6. Evidently, station F(6) will be fed by the rectangular area, bcfe,
where le ngth o f its side , say bc will be e qual to
1 1 a
AC = 2 a=
2 2 2
a a2 52 25
a
7. Hence area bcfe = Ac =    km2
2 2 2 2 2
8. Then each of the corner stations, say station A will be fed by
triangular area Abe and sectorial area Adge.
9. Triangular Area
1 a  2 a  a2
Abe =   
2 2  4  8
1
10. Sectorial Area Adge = × Area of triangle ADE
3
1 1 3 a2
=  a a
3 2 2 4 3
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–13 C (CE-Sem-8)
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11. Hence A will be fed by area = Area Abe + Area Adge
a2 a2 52 52
 =  = 6.733 km2
8 4 3 8 4 3
Hence, A1 = A4 = 6.733 km2
a2
12. Also station E will be fed by section area Edga = Area Adge =
4 3
a2 52
Hence, A5 =  = 3.61 km2
4 3 4 3
13. Station B will be fed by area bcB = Area Abe
a 2 52
=  = 3.125 km2
8 8
 A2 = A3 = 3.125 km2
2
14. Station F will be fed by area ebcf =  a 
 2
25
A6 = = 12.5 km2
2
P A P A  ..............  P6 A6
15. Hence, Pav = 1 1 2 2
A1  .............  A6
8  6.733  5.4  3.125  4.8  3.125  13.0  6.733  2.2  3.61  8.3  12.5
=
6.733  3.125  3.125  6.733  3.61  12.5
Pav = 7.954 cm

b. The rates of rainfall for successive 20 minutes period of a

140 minutes storm are 3.0, 3.0, 9.0, 6.6, 1.2, 1.2 and 6.0 mm/hr.
Assuming the Value of indexas 3.2 mm/hr and initial loss of
0.8 mm. Find out the net runoff, the total rainfall and value
of Windex for the storm.
Ans.
Given : Rate of rainfall for successive 20 min period = 3, 3, 9, 6.6,
1.2, 1.2, 6 mm/hr, Value of index = 3.2 mm/hr, Initial loss, Ia =
0.8 mm.
To Find : Net runoff, total rainfall value of Windex.
1. Total rainfall,
20
P = [3.0 + 3.0 + 9.0 + 6.6 + 1.2 + 1.2 + 6.0] × = 10 mm
60
2. Runoff, R = (i – ) t
20
R = [(9.0 – 3.2) + (6.6 – 3.2) + (6.0 – 3.2)] × = 4 mm
60
P  R  I a 10  4  0.8
3. Windex =  = 2.23 mm/hr
tr 140 / 60
Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–14 C (CE-Sem-8)
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c. Briefly distinguish between :
i. Actual and Potential evapotranspiration.
ii. Field capacity and permanent wilting point.
iii. Depression storage and interception.
iv. Infiltration capacity and infiltration rate.
Ans.
1. Potential Evapotranspiration :
i. If sufficient moisture is always available completely to meet the
needs of vegetation fully covering the area, the resulting
evapotranspiration is called potential evapotranspiration (PET).
ii. Potential evapotranspiration no longer critically depends on the
soil and plant factors but depends essentially on the climatic
factors.
2. Actual Evapotranspiration : The real evapotranspiration
occurring in a specific situation is called actual evapotranspiration
(AET).
3. Field Capacity : It is defined as the maximum quantity of water
that the soil can retain against the force of gravity. Any higher
moisture input to a soil at field capacity simply drains away.
4. Permanent Wilting Point :
i. It is the moisture content of a soil at which the moisture is no
longer available in sufficient quantity to sustain the plants.
ii. At this stage, even though the soil contains some moisture, it
will be so held by the soil grains that the roots of the plants are
not able to extract it in sufficient quantities to sustain the plants
and consequently the plants wilt.
5. Depression Storage :
i. A catchment area generally has many depressions of shallow depth
and of varying size and shape.
ii. When precipitation take place, water runs towards these
depressions and fill them before actual overland flow or runoff
towards a stream takes place.
iii. Depression storage depends on a vast number of factors. The
major factors are :
a. The type of soil.
b. The condition of the surface reflecting the amount and nature
of depression.
c. The slope of the catchment.
d. The antecedent precipitation as a measure of the soil moisture.
iv. The following relationship may be used for computing the depression
storage,
P
  e 
Vds = K 1  e k 
where, Vds = Volume of water stored in surface depression.
Pe = Rainfall excess.
k = Depression storage capacity of the basin.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–15 C (CE-Sem-8)
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6. Interception :
i. It may be defined as that amount of precipitation water which is
intercepted by vegetative foliage, buildings and other objects lying
over the land surface.
ii. Interception does not reach the land surface but is returned back to
the atmosphere by evaporation.
iii. The intercepted precipitation may follow one of the three possible
routes :
a. It may be retained by the vegetation as surface storage and
returned to the atmosphere by evaporation; this is known as
interception loss.
b. It can drip off the plant leaves to join the ground surface or the
surface flow; this is known as throughfall.
c. The rainwater may run along the leaves and branches and down
the stem to reach the ground surface. This part is called stemflow.
7. Infiltration Capacity : The maximum rate at which a given soil
at a given time can absorb water is defined as the infiltration
capacity. It is designated as fp and is expressed in units of cm/h.
The actual rate of infiltration can be expressed as
f = fp when i  fp, f = i when i < fp
The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at the beginning of a storm
and has an exponential decay as the time elapses.
8. Infiltration Rate : Infiltration rate, at any instant is the rate at
which water actually enters into the soil during a storm, and is
equal to the infiltration capacity fp or the rainfall rate, whichever is
less.

3. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)

a. Sketch a typical flow duration curve. Also explain, how it
can be used in water resources planning and development
activities ?
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from sessions 2020-21.

b. The ordinates of a 4-h unit hydrograph are given. Determine

the ordinates of an S-curve hydrograph and using this,
determine the ordinates of 2-h unit hydrograph.
Time (hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
4-h UH 0 20 80 130 150 130 90 52 27 15 5 0
 m3 
Ordinate 
 sec 

Ans.
Given : Ordinates of a 4-h unit hydrograph are given in table.
To Find : The ordinates of S-curve hydrograph and the ordinates
of 2-h unit hydrograph.
 Ordinate Col. (4) 2-h UH
of 4-h S-curve S-curve S-curve – Col. (5) Ordinates
Time UH Addition Ordinate Lagged by DRH of Col.(6) / (2/4)
(hr) (m3/sec) (m3/sec) (m3/sec) 2h (2/4) = 0.5 cm (m3/sec)
Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 = Col. (2) + (3) Col. 5 Col. 6 Col. 7
0 0 – 0 – 0 0
2 8 – 8 0 8 16
4 20 0 20 8 12 24

hydrograph.
Solved Paper (2014-15)

6 43 8 51 20 31 62
8 80 20 100 51 49 98
10 110 51 161 100 61 122
12 130 100 230 161 69 138
14 146 161 307 230 77 154
16 150 230 380 307 73 146
18 142 307 449 380 69 138
20 130 380 510 449 61 122
22 112 449 561 510 51 102
24 90 510 600 561 39 78
Final adjusted values are given in col 7.
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26 70 561 631 600 31 62

28 52 600 652 631 21 42
Unadjusted values are given in parentheses.

30 38 631 669 652 17 34

32 27 652 679 669 10 20
34 20 669 689 679 10 (20)15
36 15 679 694 689 5 (10)10
38 10 689 699 694 5 (10)6
40 5 694 699 699 (0) (0)3
42 2 699 701 699 (2) (4)0
44 0 699 699 701 (– 2) (– 4)0

c. i. Describe the analysis of the recession limb of a flood

SP–16 C (CE-Sem-8)
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–17 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Ans. Recession Limb :
1. The recession limb, which extends from the point of inflection at
the end of the crest segment (point C in Fig. 9) to the commencement
of the natural groundwater flow (point D in Fig. 9) represents the
withdrawal of water from the storage built up in the basin during
the earlier phases of the hydrograph.
D hour
Hydrograph components
MA = Base flow recession
Rainfall
AB = Rising limb
BC = Crest segment
P CD = Falling limb
DN = Base flow recession
Discharge (m 3/s)

B C Points B and C = Inflection points

Direct runoff
Peak
flood
M
A D
N
Base flow

Time (hours)
Fig. 9.
2. The starting point of the recession limb, i.e., the point of inflection
represents the condition of maximum storage.
3. Since the depletion of storage takes place after the stopping of
rainfall, the shape of this part of the hydrograph is independent
of storm characteristics and depends entirely on the basin
characteristics.
4. The storage of water in the basin exists as (i) surface storage,
which includes both surface detention and channel storage, (ii)
interflow storage, and (iii) groundwater storage, i.e., base-flow
storage.

ii. Write the short notes on synthetic unit hydrograph and

IUH.
Ans.
A. Synthetic Unit Hydrograph :
1. We have seen that if the rainfall and runoff records are available,
unit hydrographs can be derived.
2. However, in the case of ungauged rivers, these data are not
available. In some other cases, the data available may be scanty.
3. For such catchments, unit hydrographs are derived by relating
the selected basin characteristics to the unit hydrograph shape.
4. The resulting hydrograph, derived from basin characteristics
relationship is known as a synthetic unit hydrograph.
Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–18 C (CE-Sem-8)
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B. IUH :
1. For a given catchment a number of unit hydrographs of different
durations are possible.
2. The shape of these different unit hydrographs depend upon the
value of D.
3. Fig. 10 shows a typical variation of the shape of unit hydrographs
for different values of D. As D is reduced, the intensity of rainfall
excess being equal to 1/D increases and the unit hydrograph
becomes more skewed. A finite unit hydrograph is indicated as
the duration D  0.
4. The limiting case of a unit hydrograph of zero duration is known
as instantaneous unit hydrograph (IUH). Thus IUH is a fictitious,
conceptual unit hydrograph which represents the surface runoff
from the catchment due to an instantaneous precipitation of the
rainfall excess volume of 1 cm. IUH is designated as u(t) or sometimes
as u(0, t).
5. It is a single-peaked hydrograph with a finite base width and its
important properties can be listed as below :
i. 0  u(t)  a positive value, for t > 0;
ii. u(t) = 0 for t  0;
iii. u(t) = 0 as t  ;

iv.  u(t) dt = Unit depth over the catchment; and
0

A ERH

D C C

Unit hydrographs
Discharge

D
A

Time
Fig. 10.
v. Time to the peak time to the centroid of the curve.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–19 C (CE-Sem-8)
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t0

I( ) I( )

0

d

u( t –  )
u (t –  )

t–
t–

Q( )

Q( )
t
t
Time
Fig. 11.
6. Consider an effective rainfall I() of duration t0 applied to a
catchment as in Fig. 11. Each infinitesimal element of this ERH
will operate on the IUH to produce a DRH whose discharge at
time t is given by
t

Q(t) =  u(t – ) I () d

0
...(1)

where t = t when t < t0 and t = t0 when t  t0

Eq. (1) is called te convolution integral or Duhamel integral.
7. The main advantage of IUH is that it is independent of the duration
of ERH and thus has one parameter less than a D-h unit hydrograph.

4. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)

a. Explain the rational method of computing the peak
discharge of a small catchment. Where it is commonly used
and what are its merits and demerits ? Also discuss the
runoff coefficient C of the rational formula.
Ans.
A. Rational Methods :
1. Amongst various types of empirical relations, rational formula
is the most rational method of calculating peak discharge for
small catchments.
2. In this method, it is assumed that the maximum flood flow is
produced by a certain rainfall intensity which lasts for a time
equal to or greater than the period of concentration time (tc).
Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–20 C (CE-Sem-8)
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3. The maximum rate of runoff from the watershed appears when
the entire area contributes at the basin outlet.
4. The runoff gradually increases from zero to peak when the
rainfall duration reaches the time of concentration (tc). If the
rainfall continues beyond tc, the runoff will be constant and at
the peak value.
5. The peak value of runoff is given by,
Qp = FuCiA
where, C = Runoff co-efficient representing a ratio of
runoff to rainfall.
A = Catchment area in km 2 .
i = Rainfall intensity in cm/hour.
Fu = A factor which permits the expression of terms
Qp, A and i in consistent units.
Qp = Discharge in cubic meters per second (cumecs).
i. In order to find corresponding value of factor Fu, we have
 i  CiA
Qp = (106 A)(C)  = = 2.778 CiA
 100  3600  0.36
Hence, factor Fu = 2.778
ii. If, however, i is expressed in mm/hour, we have
 i  CiA
Qp = (106 A)(C)  = = 0.2778 CiA
 1000  3600  3.6
B. Runoff Co-efficient, C :
1. It is a highly critical element that serves the purpose of converting
the average rainfall rate of a particular recurrence interval to
the peak runoff intensity of the same frequency. Its magnitude
depends upon the following factors :
i. Antecedent moisture conditions.
ii. Ground slope.
iii. Ground cover.
iv. Depression storage.
v. Soil moisture.
vi. Shape of drainage area.
vii. Overland flow velocity.
viii. Intensity of rainfall.
ix. Geology of catchment, etc.
2. If a watershed of total area A is non-homogeneous, having
component sub-areas having different values of C, a weighted
runoff co-efficient (Cw) is computed from the following equation :
jn

C1 A1  C2 A2  ........Cn A n
C A
j 1
j j

Cw = =
A1  A2  ...... An A
where,
A1, A 2, A 3 ....... A n = Areas of sub-zones.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–21 C (CE-Sem-8)
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C1, C2, C3,......Cn = Runoff co-efficient for the corresponding sub-
zones.
C. Merit and Demerits of Rational Methods :
1. Merits :
i. The rational method is the simplest method of calculating peak
discharge.
ii. It enables a quick mass balance to be made, i.e., comparison of
rainfall and runoff.
2. Demerits :
i. Rational Method provides the peak discharge only and it cannot
produce a hydrograph.
ii. The accuracy of rational method depends very much on correct
selection of runoff coefficient and delineation of catchment area.
D. Uses of Rational Method : Rational formula is generally used
to estimate the peak flood (Qp) in the design of urban drainage
system, storm sewers, design of small culverts, and bridges etc.

b. Explain the terms risk, reliability and safety factor. A factory

is proposed to be located on the edge of the 40 year flood
plain of a river. If design life of factory is 20 years, what is
the reliability that is will not be flooded during its design
life ?
Ans.
A. Risk : The probability of occurrence of an event (x  xT) at least
once over a period of n successive years is called the risk, R.
Thus, the risk is given by,
R = 1 – (Probability of non-occurrence of the event
x  xT in n years)
n
 1
R = 1 – (1 – P)n = 1   1  
 T 
1
where, P = Probability P (x  xT) = , T = Return period.
T
B. Reliability :
1. The reliability R e, is defined as :
n
 1
Re = 1 – R =  1  
 T 
2. It can be seen that the return period for which a structure should
be designed depends upon the acceptable level of risk. In practice,
the acceptable risk is gove rne d by eco nomic and policy
considerations.
C. Safety Factor :
1. In addition to the hydrological uncertainty, as mentioned above,
a water resource development project will have many other
uncertainties.
Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–22 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2. These may arise out of structural, constructional, operational
and environmental causes as well as from non-technological
considerations such as economic, sociological and political causes.
3. As such, any water resource development project will have a
safety factor for a given hydrological parameter M as defined
below.
4. Safety factor (for the parameter M), (SF) m
Actual value of the parameter M adopted in the design of the project
=
Value of the parameter M obtained from hydrolgical considerations only

Cam
=
Chm
5. The parameter M includes such items as flood discharge magnitude,
maximum river stage, reservoir capacity and free board. The
difference (Cam – Chm) is known as safety margin.
D. Numerical :
Given : Return period of flood, T = 40 yr
Design life of factory, n = 20 yr
To Find : Reliability.
n 20
1 1 
Reliability, Re =  1   =  1   = 0.6026 = 60.26 %
 T  40 

c. For a river, the estimated flood peaks for two return period
by using Gumbel’s method, are as follows :
Return Period, T (years) Peak Flood (m3/sec)
100 435
50 395
Estimate the flood magnitude in this river with a return
period of 1000 years.
Ans.
Given : Flood discharge for 100 yr = 435 m3/sec
Flood discharge for 50 yr = 395 m3/sec
To Find : Flood discharge for 1000 yr
1. From Gumbel’s equation, xT = x + KT n–1
2. For first return period, x100 = x + K100 n–1
435 = x + K100 n–1 ...(1)
3 For second return period, x50 = x + K50 n–1

395 = x + K50 n–1 ...(2)

4. Solve the eq. (1) and eq. (2), we get
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–23 C (CE-Sem-8)
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(K100 – K50) n–1 = x100 – x50 = 435 – 395 = 40
yT yn
But we know, KT = 
Sn Sn
 n 1
(y100 – y50) × = 40
Sn

 T 
5. We know that, yT = –  ln ln
 T  1 

  100  
y100 = –  ln ln  = 4.60015
  100  1 

 50 
y50 = –  ln ln = 3.90194
 50  1 

 n 1 40
= = 57.289
Sn 4.60015  3.90194
6. For return period, T = 1000

  1000  
y1000 = –  ln ln  = 6.90725
  1000  1 

  n 1 
(y1000 – y100)  = x1000 – x100
 Sn 
(6.90725 – 4.60015) × 57.289 = x1000 – 435
x1000 = 567.17 m3/sec

5. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)

a. A 30 cm well completely penetrates an artesian aquifer. The
length of the strainer is 25 m. Determine the discharge from
the well when the drawdown at pumping well is 4.0 m. The
coefficient of permeability of the aquifer is 45 m/day. Assume
the radius of influence of the well as 350 m.
Ans.
Given : Diameter of well, d = 30 cm, Length of strainer, L = 25 m,
Drawdown, s = 4.0 m, Coefficient of permeability, k = 45 m/day
= 5.208 × 10 –4 m/sec, Radius of influence of the well, R = 350 m
To Find : Discharge from a well.

30
1. Radius of well, r = = 15 cm = 0.15 m
2
2. Discharge from the well,
Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–24 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2 kBs 2    5.208  10 – 4  25  4
Q= =
ln ( R / r ) 350 
ln  
 0.15 
3
= 0.042195 m /sec = 42.195 l/sec.

b. Describe the various structural methods adopted for control

of floods. Also discuss the problems of floods and their
control with special reference to the Indian scene.
Ans.
A. Structural Methods : Following are the structural method :
1. Storage Reservoir :
i. Storage reservoirs offer one of the most reliable and effective
methods of flood control.
ii. Ideally, in this method, a part of the storage in the reservoir is
kept apart to absorb the incoming flood.
iii. Further, the stored water is released in a controlled way over an
extended time so that downstream channels do not get flooded.
iv. Fig. 12 shows an ideal operating plan of a flood control reservoir.
v. To achieve complete flood control in the entire length of the
river, a large number of reservoirs at strategic locations in the
catchment will be necessary.
vi. The Hirakud and Damodar valley corporate (DVC) reservoirs
are example of major reservoirs in the country which have specific
volumes earmarked for flood absorption.

Flood Inflow hydrograph

Discharge

volume Safe discharge channel

stored capacity
B C
A Reservoir
Controlled release release (ABCD)
D
Time
Fig. 12.
2. Levees :
i. Levees, also known as dikes or flood embankments are earthen
banks constructed parallel to the course of the river to confine it
to a fixed course and limited cross-sectional width.
ii. Masonry structures used to confine the river in a manner similar
to levees are known as flood walls. These are used to protect
important structures against floods, especially where the land is
at a premium.
iii. The heights of levees will be higher than the design flood level
with sufficient free board.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–25 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iv. The confinement of the river to a fixed path frees large tracts of
land from inundation and consequent damage.
v. Levees are one of the oldest and most common methods of flood-
protection works adopted in the world. Also, they are probably
the cheapest of structural flood-control measures.
vi. While the protection offered by a levee against flood damage is
obvious, what is not often appreciated is the potential damage in
the event of a levee failure.
vii. The design of a levee is a major task in which costs and economic
benefits have to be considered.
viii. The cross-section of a levee will have to be designed like an
earth dam for complete safety against all kinds of saturation
and drawdown possibilities.
3. Floodways :
i. Floodways are natural channels into which a part of the flood
will be diverted during high stages.
ii. A floodway can be a natural or manmade channel and its location
is controlled essentially by the topography.
iii. Generally, wherever they are feasible, floodways offer an
economical alternative to other structural flood-control measures.
iv. To reduce the level of the river Jhelum at Srinagar, a supplementary
channel has been constructed to act as a floodway with a capacity
of 300 m3 /s. This channel is located 5 km upstream of Srinagar
city and has its outfall in Lake Wullar.
v. In Andhra Pradesh, a floodway has been constructed to transfer
a part of the flood waters of the river Budamaru to river Krishna
to prevent flood damages to the urban areas lying on the
downstream reaches of the river Budamaru.
4. Channel Improvement : The works under this category involve :
i. Widening or deepening of the channel to increase the cross-
sectional area.
ii. Reduction of the channel roughness, by clearing of vegetation
from the channel perimeter.
iii. Short circuiting of meander loops by cutoff channels, leading to
increased slopes.
5. Watershed Management :
i. Watershed management and land treatment in the catchment
aims at cutting down and delaying the runoff before it gets into
the river.
ii. Watershed management measures include developing the
vegetative and soil cover in conjunction with land treatment
words like Nalabunds, check dams, contour bunding, zing terraces
etc.
iii. These measures are towards improvement of water infiltration
capacity of the soil and reduction of soil erosion.
iv. Watershed treatment is now a day’s an integral part of flood
management.
Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–26 C (CE-Sem-8)
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v. It is believed that while small and medium floods are reduced by
watershed management measures, the magnitude of extreme
floods are unlikely to be affected by these measures.
B. Flood Control in India :
i. In India, the Himalayan rivers account for nearly 60 % of the flood
damage in the country.
ii. Floods in these rivers occur during monsoon months and usually in
the months of August or September. The damages caused by floods
are difficult to estimate.
iii. During 1953-2004, the average number of human lives and cattle
lost due to floods in the country were 1597 and 94,000 respectively.
iv. It is estimated that annually, on an average about 40 Mha of land is
liable to flooding and of this about 14 Mha have some kind of flood
control measures.
v. At the beginning of the current millennium, in the country, as per
flood control measures, there were about 15800 km of levees and
about 32000 km of drainage channel affording protection from
floods.
vi. On an average, about 7.5 Mha land is affected by flood annually.
Out of this, about 3.56 Mha are lands under crops.
vii. Similarly, annually about 3.345 lakhs people are affected and about
12.15 lakhs houses are damaged by flood. On an average, about 60-
80 % of flood damages occur in the state U.P., Bihar, West Bengal,
Assam and Odisha.
viii. Flood forecasting is handled by CWC. The CWC has 157 flood
forecasting stations, of which 132 stations are for river stage forecast
and 25 for inflow forecast.
ix. A National programme for flood management was launched in
1954 and an amount of 3165 crores was spent till 1992. The tenth
plan (2002-2007) had an expenditure of 4468 crores for flood
management.

c. Develop an equation relating the steady state discharge

from a well in an unconfined aquifer and depth of water
table at two known positions from the well. State clearly all
the assumption involved in your derivation.
Ans.
1. Assumptions of Dupuit’s Theory : Dupuit’s theory of flow
for unconfined aquifer is based on the following assumptions :
i. The velocity of flow is proportional to the tangent of the hydraulic
gradient instead of sine.
ii. The flow is horizontal and uniform everywhere in the vertical
section.
iii. Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of infinite areal extent.
iv. The well penetrates and receives water from the entire thickness
of the aquifer.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–27 C (CE-Sem-8)
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v. The coefficient of transmissibility is constant at all places and at
all time.
vi. Natural ground water regime affecting an aquifer remains
constant with time.
vii. Flow is laminar and Darcy’s law is applicable.
2. Equation Relating the Steady State Discharge from a Well
in an Unconfined Aquifer :
i. Fig. 13 shows a well penetrating an unconfined or free aquifer
to its full depth.
Let, r = Radius of the well.
H = Thickness of the aquifer, measured from the
impermeable layer to the initial level of watertable.
s = Drawdown at the well.
h = Depth of water in the well measured above
impermeable layer.
ii. Considering the origin of co-ordinates at a point O at the centre
of the well at its bottom, let the co-ordinates of any point P on
the drawdown curve be (x, y).
Then, from Darcy’s law, Q = k A x i x
where, A x = Area of cross-section of the saturated part of
aquifer at P
= (2 x) × (y) = 2  x y
dy
ix = Hydraulic gradient at P =
dx
dy
iii. Discharge, Q = k(2  x y)
dx
dx
 Q = 2  k y dy
x
iv. Integrating between the limits (R, r) for x and (H, h) for y, we get
R H
dx
Q = 2 k  y dy
r x h
H
 2
Q  log xr = 2 k  y 
R

 2 h
k( H 2 – h 2 ) 1.36 k( H 2 – h2 )
Q= 
R R
log e log10
r r
Solved Paper (2014-15) SP–28 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Q
Ground level
r r
r2 R
r1 Initial water table
s2
s1 P
2 s Cone of
(x , y )
depression
1
Observation wells

H
h2
h1
h

y
x

Impervious layer O
Fig. 13.


Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–1 C (CE-Sem-8)
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B. Tech.
(SEM. VII) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2015-16
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100

SECTION-A

1. Attempt all questions from this section. (10 × 2 = 20)

a. Define precipitation. What is cyclonic precipitation ?

b. Briefly explain “Evaporation process”.

c. What is unit hydrograph ? Discuss its use and limitations.

d. What do you mean by the term flood ? Mention two factors

affecting flood.

e. Define duty, delta and base period.

f. Define runoff coefficient.

g. What is infiltration ? State factors affecting it.

h. What is the status and occurrence of groundwater in India ?

i. Enumerate factors affecting the runoff.

j. Differentiate between aquitard and aquifuge.

SECTION-B

2. Attempt any five questions from this section. (10 × 5 = 50)

a. In a field test, a time of 6 h was required for a tracer to
travel between two observations well 42 m a part. If the
difference in water table elevations in these wells were 0.85
m and the porosity of the aquifer is 20 %. Calculate the
coefficient of permeability of aquifer.

b. Draw a typical curve of infiltration rate with time and

discuss the crucially the features.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–2 C (CE-Sem-8)
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c. A lake had water surface elevation of 103.200 m above datum
at the beginning of certain month. In that month, the lake
reserved an average inflow of 6.0 cumecs from surface runoff
sources. If the same period outflow from the lake have an
average value of 6.5 cumecs. Further in that month, the
lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and evaporation from
lake surface was estimated at 6.10 cm. Write the water budget
equation for lake and calculate the water surface elevation
of the lake at end of month. The average lake surface area
may be taken as 5000 hectares. Assume that there is no
contribution to or from ground water storage.

d. With a neat sketch, explain the various components of a

flood hydrograph. Also, explain any one method of base
flow separation.

e. What do you mean by flood control ? Explain any two

methods of flood control and also mention any two empirical
formulate for estimating flood.

f. Discuss the several assumptions underlying the UH method

in hydrological analysis.

g. Define :
i. Evaporation.
ii. Potential evapotranspiration.
iii. Actual evapotranspiration.
iv. Pan coefficient.

h. Explain the following with the help of simple sketches :

i. Partial duration series.
ii. Extreme values series.

SECTION-C

3. Attempt any two questions from this section : (15 × 2 = 30)

a. During a month, rain gauge went out of order while the
other four gauges in the base in reported rainfalls of 110, 90,
120 and 115 mm. If the normal annual rainfalls for these
gauges are 115, 95, 125 and 120 mm respectively and the
rainfall for the broken gauge is 98 mm, estimate the monthly
rainfall at the broken gauge.

b. Given below are the ordinates of 6 h unit hydrograph for a

catchment. Calculate the ordinates of direct runoff
hydrograph due to a rainfall excess of 3.5 cm occurring in
6 h.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–3 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Time (hr) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66
Unit
ordinate 0 25 50 85 125 160 185 160 110 60 36 25 116 8 0
(m3/sec)

c. For the given data below, determine the evapotranspiration.

The crop factor may be taken as 0.8.

Month Mean Monthly Temp °C Monthly % of Sunshine

Nov 18.0 7.20
Dec 15.0 7.15
Jan 13.5 7.30
Feb 14.5 7.10


Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–4 C (CE-Sem-8)
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2015-16)

SECTION-A

1. Attempt all questions from this section. (10 × 2 = 20)

a. Define precipitation. What is cyclonic precipitation ?
Ans. Precipitation : Precipitation may be defined as the fall of moisture
from the atmosphere to the earth surface in any form.
Cyclonic Precipitation : In the cyclonic precipitation, the moist
warm air mass is stationary and the moving cold air mass meets it.
Thus, due to lightness of the warm air there is passive ascent of
warm air over cold air owing to the active under cutting. When the
lifted warm air cools down at higher altitude precipitation occurs.

b. Briefly explain “Evaporation process”.

Ans. Evaporation : It is the process in which a liquid changes to the
gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling point through
the transfer of heat energy.
Transpiration : It is the process by which water leaves the body
of a living plant and reaches the atmosphere as water vapour.

c. What is unit hydrograph ? Discuss its use and limitations.

Ans.
A. Unit Hydrograph : A unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph
of direct runoff resulting from one unit depth (1 cm) of rainfall
excess occurring uniformly over the basin and at a uniform rate for
a specified duration (D hours). The term unit here refers to a unit
depth of rainfall excess which is usually taken as 1 cm.
B. Use : Following are the uses of unit hydrograph :
i. The development of flood hydrographs for extreme rainfall
magnitudes for use in the design of hydraulic structure.
ii. Extension of flood-flow records based on rainfall records.
iii. Development of flood forecasting and warning systems based on
rainfall.
C. Limitations : Following are the limitations of unit hydrographs :
i. Precipitation must be from rainfall only.
ii. The catchment should not have unusually large storage in terms of
tanks, ponds, large flood bank storage etc., which affect the linear
relationship between storage and discharge.
iii. If the precipitation is decided by non-uniform, unit hydrograph can
not be expected to give good results.

d. What do you mean by the term flood ? Mention two factors

affecting flood.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–5 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Ans. A flood is an unusually high stage in a river, normally the level at
which the river overflows its banks and inundates the adjoining
area. The damages caused by floods in terms of loss of life, property
and economic loss due to disruption of economic activity are all the
well known. Following are the two factors affecting flood :
i. Physiographic factors. ii. Climatic factors.

e. Define duty, delta and base period.

Ans. Duty : Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit of water. It
is the relation between the area of a crop irrigated and the quantity
of irrigation water required during the entire period of the growth
of that crop.
Delta : Delta is the total depth of water required by a crop during
the entire period the crop is in the field and is denoted by the
symbol .
Base Period : Base period for a crop refers to the whole period of
cultivation from the time when irrigation water is first issued for
preparation of the ground for planting the crop, to its last watering
before harvesting.

f. Define runoff coefficient.

Ans. Runoff Coefficients : Runoff coefficient is defined as the ratio of
runoff (R) and rainfall (P).
R = kP  k = R/P

g. What is infiltration ? State factors affecting it.

Ans. Infiltration : It is the flow of water into the ground through the
soil surface.
Factor : Factors affecting infiltration are :
i. Condition of entry surface.
ii. Permeability characteristics of soil formation.
iii. Temperature.
iv. Intensity and duration of rainfall.

h. What is the status and occurrence of groundwater in India ?

Ans. The groundwater resources have two components, static and
dynamic. Aquifer conditions vary between the deep alluvial aquifers
in northern India to the hard-rock aquifers in much of western,
central and southern India. The static reserves have been estimated
as 10,812 bcm. The dynamic component has been estimated as
432 bcm.

i. Enumerate factors affecting the runoff.

Ans. Following are the various factors affecting the runoff :
i. Precipitation characteristics.
ii. Shape and size of the catchment.
iii. Topography.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–6 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iv. Geological characteristics.

j. Differentiate between aquitard and aquifuge.

Ans.

S. No. Aquitard Aquifuge

i. It is a formation through which It is a geological formation which

only seepage is possible and thus is neither porous nor permeable.
the yie ld is insignificant
compared to an aquifer.
ii. A sandy clay unit is an example Massive compact rock without
of aquitard. any fractures is an aquifuge.

SECTION-B

2. Attempt any five questions from this section. (10 × 5 = 50)

a. In a field test, a time of 6 h was required for a tracer to
travel between two observations well 42 m a part. If the
difference in water table elevations in these wells were 0.85
m and the porosity of the aquifer is 20 %. Calculate the
coefficient of permeability of aquifer.
Ans.
Given : Time taken by tracer = 6 h, Travelling distance by tracer =
42 m, Porosity, n = 20 %, Difference in water level = 0.86 m
To Find : Coefficient of permeability.

42
1. Actual velocity of water = = 1.94 × 10–3 m/sec
6  3600
2. Discharge velocity, v = n va
= 0.20 × 1.94 × 10–3 = 3.89 × 10–4 m/sec
0.86
3. Hydraulic gradient, i = = 0.0205
42
4. Coefficient of permeability,
3.89  10 4
k= = 0.019 m/sec
0.0205

b. Draw a typical curve of infiltration rate with time and

discuss the crucially the features.
Ans.
A. Features : The main features that influence the infiltration are :
1. The soil type (texture, structure, hydrodynamic characteristics).
The soil characteristics influence capillary forces and adsorption.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–7 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2. The soil coverage. Vegetation has positive influence on infiltration
by increasing the time of water penetration in soil.
3. The topography and morphology of slopes.
4. The flow supply (rain intensity, irrigation flow).
5. The initial condition of soil humidity. Soil humidity is an important
factor of infiltration regime. The infiltration regime evolves
differently in time for dry or wet soils.
6. Soil compaction due to rain drop impact and other effects. The
use of hard agricultural equipment can have consequences on
the surface layer of soil.
Soil without crust and very porous
i( t )

Uniform soil
Soil covered by a crust

Time
Fig. 1.

c. A lake had water surface elevation of 103.200 m above datum

at the beginning of certain month. In that month, the lake
reserved an average inflow of 6.0 cumecs from surface runoff
sources. If the same period outflow from the lake have an
average value of 6.5 cumecs. Further in that month, the
lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and evaporation from
lake surface was estimated at 6.10 cm. Write the water budget
equation for lake and calculate the water surface elevation
of the lake at end of month. The average lake surface area
may be taken as 5000 hectares. Assume that there is no
contribution to or from ground water storage.
Ans.
Given : Elevation, H = 103.2 m, Average inflow = 6 cumecs,
Average outflow = 6.5 cumecs, Received rainfall, P = 145 mm,
Evaporation, E = 6.1 cm, Time interval, t = 1 month. Average
surface area, A = 5000 hectares.
To Find : Water surface elevation of the lake at end of month.
1. In a time interval t the water budget for the lake can be written
as
Input volume – Output volume = Change in storage of the lake
( I t  PA)  (Qt  EA) = S
2. t = 1 month = 30 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 2.592 × 10 6 s = 2.592 Ms
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–8 C (CE-Sem-8)
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In flow volume = I t  6.0  2.592  15.552 M
Mmm3

Outflow volume = Qt  6.5  2.592  16.848 M

Mmm3
3. Input due to precipitation
145  5000  100  100
PA = Mm3 = 7.25 Mm3
1000  106
4. Outflow due to evaporation,
6.10 5000  100  100
EA =  Mm3 = 3.05 Mm3
100 106
5. Hence, S = (15.552 + 7.25) – (16.848 + 3.05) = 2.904 Mm 3
Change in elevations,
S 2.904  106
z =  0.058 m
A 5000  100  100
6. New water surface elevation at the end of the month
= 103.200 + 0.058
= 103.258 m above the datum.

d. With a neat sketch, explain the various components of a

flood hydrograph. Also, explain any one method of base
flow separation.
Ans. Components : The essential components of a hydrograph are
described below :
1. Rising Limb :
i. The rising limb of a hydrograph, also known as concentration
curve represents the increase in discharge due to the gradual
building up of storage in channels and over the catchment surface.
ii. The initial losses and high infiltration losses during the early
period of a storm cause the discharge to rise rather slowly in the
initial periods.
iii. As the storm continues, more and more flow from distant parts
reach the basin outlet.
iv. Simultaneously the infiltration losses also decrease with time.
Thus, under a uniform storm over the catchment, the runoff
increases rapidly with time.
v. As indicated earlier, the basin and storm characteristics control
the shape of the rising limb of a hydrograph.
2. Crest Segment :
i. The crest segment is one of the most important parts of a hydrograph
as it contains the peak flow.
ii. The peak flow occurs when the runoff from various parts of the
catchment simultaneously contribute amounts to achieve the
maximum amount of flow at the basin outlet.
iii. Generally, for large catchments, the peak flow occurs after the
stopping of rainfall, the time interval from the centre of mass of
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–9 C (CE-Sem-8)
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rainfall to the peak being essentially controlled by basin and storm
characteristics.
D hour
Hydrograph components
MA = Base flow recession
Rainfall
AB = Rising limb
BC = Crest segment
P CD = Falling limb
DN = Base flow recession
Discharge (m 3/s)

B C Points B and C = Inflection points

Direct runoff
Peak
flood
M
A D
N
Base flow

Time (hours)
Fig. 2.
3. Recession Limb :
i. The recession limb, which extends from the point of inflection at
the end of the crest segment (point C in Fig. 2) to the commencement
of the natural groundwater flow (point D in Fig. 2) represents the
withdrawal of water from the storage built up in the basin during
the earlier phases of the hydrograph.
ii. The starting point of the recession limb, i.e., the point of inflection
represents the condition of maximum storage.
iii. Since the depletion of storage takes place after the stopping of
rainfall, the shape of this part of the hydrograph is independent
of storm characteristics and depends entirely on the basin
characteristics.
iv. The storage of water in the basin exists as (i) surface storage,
which includes both surface detention and channel storage, (ii)
interflow storage, and (iii) groundwater storage, i.e., base-flow
storage.
Method : Following are the methods of base flow separation :
1. Straight line method.
2. Two lines method.
3. Curves extension method.
1. Straight Line Method :
i. In this method, the separation of the base flow is achieved by joining
with a straight line the beginning of the surface runoff to a point on
the recession limb representing the end of the direct runoff.
ii. In Fig. 3, point A represents the beginning of the direct runoff and
it is usually easy to identify in view of the sharp change in the
runoff rate at that point.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–10 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Peak N days

Pi

Discharge

A B E

Time
Fig. 3.
iii. Point B, marking the end of the direct runoff is rather difficult to
locate exactly. An empirical equation for the time interval N (days)
from the peak to the point B is
N = 0.83 A0.2
where, A = Drainage area in km2
iv. Points A and B are joined by a straight line to demarcate to the base
flow and surface runoff.
v. It should be realized that the value of N obtained as above is only
approximate and the position of B should be decided by considering
a number of hydrographs for the catchment.

e. What do you mean by flood control ? Explain any two

methods of flood control and also mention any two empirical
formulate for estimating flood.
Ans.
A. Flood Control : The term flood control is commonly used to
denote all the measures adopted to reduce damages to life and
property by floods.
Structural Methods : Following are the structural method :
1. Storage Reservoir :
i. Storage reservoirs offer one of the most reliable and effective
methods of flood control.
ii. Ideally, in this method, a part of the storage in the reservoir is
kept apart to absorb the incoming flood.
iii. Further, the stored water is released in a controlled way over an
extended time so that downstream channels do not get flooded.
iv. Fig. 4 shows an ideal operating plan of a flood control reservoir.
v. To achieve complete flood control in the entire length of the
river, a large number of reservoirs at strategic locations in the
catchment will be necessary.
vi. The Hirakud and Damodar valley corporate (DVC) reservoirs
are example of major reservoirs in the country which have specific
volumes earmarked for flood absorption.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–11 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Flood Inflow hydrograph

Discharge
volume Safe discharge channel
stored capacity
B C
A Reservoir
Controlled release release (ABCD)
D
Time
Fig. 4.
2. Levees :
i. Levees, also known as dikes or flood embankments are earthen
banks constructed parallel to the course of the river to confine it
to a fixed course and limited cross-sectional width.
ii. Masonry structures used to confine the river in a manner similar
to levees are known as flood walls. These are used to protect
important structures against floods, especially where the land is
at a premium.
iii. The heights of levees will be higher than the design flood level
with sufficient free board.
iv. The confinement of the river to a fixed path frees large tracts of
land from inundation and consequent damage.
v. Levees are one of the oldest and most common methods of flood-
protection works adopted in the world. Also, they are probably
the cheapest of structural flood-control measures.
vi. While the protection offered by a levee against flood damage is
obvious, what is not often appreciated is the potential damage in
the event of a levee failure.
vii. The design of a levee is a major task in which costs and economic
benefits have to be considered.
viii. The cross-section of a levee will have to be designed like an
earth dam for complete safety against all kinds of saturation
and drawdown possibilities.
B.Empirical Formulae : Some of the empirical formulae for
estimating the flood discharge are given below. Most of these
are in the form :
Q = CA n
where, Q = Flood discharge.
A = Catchment area.
n = Flood index.
C = Flood co-efficient.
Both C and n depend upon various factors, such as :
i. Size, shape and location of catchment.
ii. Topography of the catchment.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–12 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iii. Intensity and duration of rainfall, and distribution pattern of the
storm over the basin.
1. Dicken’s Formula : Q = CA 3/4
The constant C depends upon the catchment and may be obtained
from Table. 1.
Table 1.

Region C
Northern India 11.4
Central India 13.9 – 19.5
Western India 22.2 – 25
2. Ryve’s Formula : For Madras catchments,
Q = CA2/3
Values of C may be obtained from Table. 2.
Table 2.

S. No. Location of the Catchment C

1. Areas within 24 km from the coast 6.75
2. Areas within 24 km to 161 km from the coast 8.45
3. Limited areas near hills 10.1

f. Discuss the several assumptions underlying the UH method

in hydrological analysis.
Ans. Assumptions : Following are the basic assumptions in the unit
hydrograph theory :
1. The excess rainfall has a constant intensity (1/D cm/hr) within
effective storm duration of D-hours.
2. The excess rainfall (giving rise to 1 cm depth of runoff) is uniformly
distributed throughout the entire catchment basin.
3. The base time of direct runoff hydrograph (i.e., the duration of
the direct runoff resulting from an excess rainfall of given duration)
is constant.
4. The ordinates of all direct runoff hydrographs of a common base
time are directly proportional to the total amount of direct runoff
represented by each hydrograph.
5. For a given catchment basin, the hydrograph, resulting from a
given excess rainfall, reflects the unchanging characteristics of
the catchment basin.

g. Define :
i. Evaporation.
ii. Potential evapotranspiration.
iii. Actual evapotranspiration.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–13 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iv. Pan coefficient.
Ans.
1. Evaporation : It is the process in which a liquid changes to the
gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling point through
the transfer of heat energy.
2. Potential Evapotranspiration :
i. If sufficient moisture is always available completely to meet the
needs of vegetation fully covering the area, the resulting
evapotranspiration is called potential evapotranspiration (PET).
ii. Potential evapotranspiration no longer critically depends on the
soil and plant factors but depends essentially on the climatic
factors.
3. Actual Evapotranspiration : The real evapotranspiration
occurring in a specific situation is called actual evapotranspiration
(AET).
4. Pan Coefficient : The evaporation observed from a pan has to be
corrected to get the evaporation from a lake under similar climatic
and exposure condition thus a co-efficient is introduced as,
Lake evaporation =Cp × pan evaporation.
where, Cp = Pan co-efficient.
The values of Cp in use for different pans are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Values of pan coefficient Cp
S. No. Types of Pan Average Value Range
1. Class A land pan 0.70 0.60–0.80
2. ISI pan (modified class A) 0.80 0.65–1.10
3. Colorado sunken pan 0.78 0.75–0.86
4. USGS floating pan 0.80 0.70–0.82

h. Explain the following with the help of simple sketches :

i. Partial duration series.
ii. Extreme values series.
Ans.
1. Partial Duration Series :
i. In the annual hydrologic data series of floods, only one maximum
value of flood per year is selected.
ii. It is likely that in some catchments there are more than one
independent flood in a year and many of these may be of appreciably
high magnitude.
iii. To enable all the large flood peaks to be considered for analysis, a
flood magnitude larger than an arbitrary selected base value are
included in the analysis. Such a data series is called partial duration
series.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–14 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iv. In using the partial duration series, it is necessary to establish that
all events considered are independent.
v. Hence, the partial duration series is adopted mostly for rainfall
analysis where the conditions of independency of events are easy
to establish.
vi. Its use in flood studies is rather rare.
vii. The recurrence interval of an event obtained by annual series (TA)
and by the partial duration series (TP) are related by,
1
Tp =
ln TA  ln (TA  1)
From this, it can be seen that the difference between TA and TP is
significant for TA < 10 years and that for TA > 20, the difference is
negligibly small.
2. Extreme Values Series : It includes largest or smallest values in
equal intervals :
i. Annual series : interval = 1 year.
ii. Annual maximum series : largest values.
iii. Annual minimum series : smallest values.
100

80
Magnitude

60

40

20

0
Annual maxima Time
Fig. 5.

SECTION-C

3. Attempt any two questions from this section : (15 × 2 = 30)

a. During a month, rain gauge went out of order while the
other four gauges in the base in reported rainfalls of 110, 90,
120 and 115 mm. If the normal annual rainfalls for these
gauges are 115, 95, 125 and 120 mm respectively and the
rainfall for the broken gauge is 98 mm, estimate the monthly
rainfall at the broken gauge.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–15 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Ans.
Given : Rainfall at stations : P1= 110 mm, P2 = 90 mm, P3 = 120 mm,
P4 = 115 mm, Normal annual rainfall at stations : N1 = 115 mm,
N2 = 95 mm, N3 = 125 mm, N4 = 120 mm, At broken station, Nx = 98
mm
To Find : Monthly rainfall at broken gauge.
1. Rainfall at broken station,
N x  P1 P P P 
Px =  2  3  4
n  N1 N 2 N 3 N 4 
98  110 90 120 115 
Px =    = 93.64 mm.
4  115 95 125 120 

b. Given below are the ordinates of 6 h unit hydrograph for a

catchment. Calculate the ordinates of direct runoff
hydrograph due to a rainfall excess of 3.5 cm occurring in
6 h.

Time (hr) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66
Unit
ordinate 0 25 50 85 125 160 185 160 110 60 36 25 116 8 0
(m3/sec)

Ans.
Given : The ordinates of 6-h unit hydrograph, Rainfall excess
= 3.5 cm
To Find : The ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph.
[Note : In the above data value 116 is wrong. We solve here the
question by taking the value only 16. As the time passes, runoff
decreases practically, also the intensity of rain decreases.]
1. The desired ordinates of the DRH are obtained by multiplying the
ordinates of the unit hydrograph by a factor of 3.5 as in Table 1.
2. The resulting DRH as also the unit hydrograph are shown in
Fig. 6.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–16 C (CE-Sem-8)
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6-h

3.5 cm
Discharge (m 3/sec) 700
600

500
400 3.5 cm DRH
300
200

100 6-h UH

0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 77
Time (hours)
Fig. 6.
Table 1 : Calculating of DRH due to 3.5 cm excess rainfall.
Time (hr) Ordinate of 6-h Ordinate of 3.5 cm
Unit Hydrograph (m3/sec) DRH (m3/sec)
0 0 0
3 25 87.5
6 50 175.0
9 85 297.5
12 125 437.5
15 160 560.0
18 185 647.5
24 160 560.0
30 110 385.0
36 60 210.0
42 36 126.0
48 25 87.5
54 16 56.0
60 8 28.0
66 0 0

3. Note that the time base of DRH is not changed and remains the
same as that of the unit hydrograph. The intervals of coordinates of
the unit hydrograph are not in any way related to the duration of
the rainfall excess.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–17 C (CE-Sem-8)
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c. For the given data below, determine the evapotranspiration.
The crop factor may be taken as 0.8.

Month Mean Monthly Temp °C Monthly % of Sunshine

Nov 18.0 7.20
Dec 15.0 7.15
Jan 13.5 7.30
Feb 14.5 7.10

Ans.
Given : Data table given in question, Crop factor, K = 0.8
To Find : Evapotranspiration.

9
1. We know that, °F = °C + 32
5
Month Tf (°F) Ph Ph × Tf / 100

Nov. 64.4 7.2 4.64

Dec. 59 7.15 4.22
Jan 56.3 7.3 4.11
Feb 58.1 7.1 4.13

 Ph × Tf / 100 = 17.1

2. From Blaney-Criddle formula, evapotranspiration, ET = 2.54 KF

F =  Ph  Tf / 100
ET = 2.54 × 0.8 × 17.1 = 34.75 cm


Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–1 C (CE-Sem-8)
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B. Tech.
(SEM. VII) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2016-17
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100

Note : Attempt all section. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.

Section-A

1. Attempt all question in brief. (10 × 2 = 20)

a. Define depression storage.

b. What do you mean by permanent wilting point ?

c. What is subsurface runoff ?

d. Write the different forms of precipitation.

e. What is specific capacity ?

f. Write down Inglis formula.

g. Define synthetic unit hydrograph.

h. Distinguish between water table and piezometric surface.

i. What do you mean by rain water harvesting ?

j. What is the well loss ?

Section-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (3 × 10 = 30)

a. Define the hydrology and discuss critically the statement
“Knowledge of hydrology is must for any water resource
planning”.

b. The following are the rates of rainfall for successive 20

minutes period of a 140 minutes storm : 2.5, 2.5, 10.0, 7.5, 1.25,
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–2 C (CE-Sem-8)
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1.25, 5.0 cm/hr. Taking the value of  index as 3.2 cm/hr, find
out the net runoff in cm, the total rainfall and value of
Windex.

c. Explain with the help of neat sketches, the flow duration

curve method and mass curve method to measure the
runoff.

d. What do you mean by design flood ? What are the factor

affecting the flood hydrograph ? Explain the procedure of
using a unit hydrograph to develop the flood hydrograph
due to a storm in a catchment.

e. Write short notes on any four of the following :

i. Well losses.

ii. Specific capacity and specific yield of an aquifer.

iii. Rain water harvesting.

iv. Aquifer and aquiclude.

v. Radius of influence and cone of depression.

Section-C

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (1 × 10 = 10)

a. What is meant by hydrological cycle ? How can the
parameters of the cycle be written in an equation form ?
Draw a neat diagram to illustrate your answer.

b. Explain briefly the types of rain gauges.

A one-day rainfall of 100 mm at a station was found to have
a return period of 50 years. Determine the probability that
a one-day rainfall of this or larger magnitude will occur at
least once in 20 successive years.

4. Attempt any one part of the following : (1 × 10 = 10)

a. Define evaporation. Discuss the factors that affect the
evaporation from a water body.

b. Distinguish between :
i. Infiltration capacity and infiltration rate.
ii. Actual and potential evapotranspiration.
iii. Field capacity and permanent wilting point.
iv. Depression storage and interception.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–3 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5. Attempt any one part of the following : (1 × 10 = 10)
a. Write in brief the SCS-CN method for estimating the runoff
volume. The peak of flood hydrograph due to a 3-h duration
isolated storm in a catchment is 270 m3/sec. The total depth
of rainfall is 5.9 cm. Assuming an average infiltration loss
of 0.3 cm/h and a constant base flow of 20 m3/sec, estimate
the peak of the 3-h hydrograph (UH) of this catchment. If
the area of the catchment is 567 km2; determine the base
width of the 3-h unit hydrograph by assuming it to be
triangular in shape.

b. What is hydrograph ? Draw a single peaked hydrograph

and explain its components.

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (1 × 10 = 10)

a. What do you mean by hydrologic reservoir routing ?
Describe any two methods of hydrologic reservoir routing.

b. Explain the term risk, reliability and safety factor. A factory

is proposed to be located on the edge of the 50 year flood
plain of river. If design life of factory is 25 years, what is the
reliability that it will not be flooded during its design life ?

7. Attempt any one part of the following : (1 × 10 = 10)

a. Describe various types of tube wells.

b. What are the differences between confined and unconfined

aquifers for the determination of discharge with steady
flow condition ? A well penetrates into an unconfined
aquifer having a saturated depth of 100 m. The discharge is
250 litres per minute at 12 m drawdown. Assuming
equilibrium flow conditions and a homogeneous aquifer,
estimate the discharge at 18 m drawdown. The distance
from the well where the drawdown influences are not
appreciable may be taken equal for both cases.


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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2016-17)

Note : Attempt all section. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.

Section-A

1. Attempt all question in brief. (10 × 2 = 20)

a. Define depression storage.
Ans. When the precipitation of a storm reaches the ground it must fire
fill up all depressions before it can flow over the surface. The volume
of water trapped in these depressions is called depression storage..

b. What do you mean by permanent wilting point ?

Ans. Permanent wilting point is the moisture content of a soil at which
the moisture is no longer available in sufficient quantity to sustain
the plants. At this stage, even though the soil contains some
moisture, it will be so held by the soil grains that the roots of the
plants are not able to extract it in sufficient quantities to sustain the
plants and consequently the plants wilt.

c. What is subsurface runoff ?

Ans. A portion of precipitation infiltrates into surface soil and depending
upon the geology of the basin, runs as sub-surface runoff and
reaches the streams and rivers.

d. Write the different forms of precipitation.

Ans. Precipitation may be of two forms :
i. Liquid precipitation i.e., rainfall
ii. Frozen precipitation : This consists of Snow, Hail, Sleet, and
Freezing rain.

e. What is specific capacity ?

Ans. The discharge per unit drawdown at the well (Q/sw) is known as
specific capacity of a well and is a measure of the performance of
the well.

f. Write down Inglis formula.

Ans. Inglis formula is applicable for catchment of former Bombay
presidency.
123 A
q=  123 A1/2
A  10.4
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–5 C (CE-Sem-8)
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g. Define synthetic unit hydrograph.
Ans. In the case of ungauged rivers, recorded data are not available. In
some other cases, the data available may be scanty. For such
catchments, unit hydrographs are derived by relating the selected
basin characteristics to the unit hydrograph shape. The resulting
hydrograph, derived from basin characteristic relationships is known
as synthetic unit hydrograph.

h. Distinguish between water table and piezometric surface.

Ans.
S. No. Water Table Piezometric Surface
i. The static level of water in wells It is the imaginary surface which
pe ne trating the zo ne o f represents the magnitude of
saturation is called water table. hydrostatic pressure available
along the artesian aquifer.
ii. At wate r table the wate r At piezometric surface water
pressure head is equal to the pressure head equal to gauge
atmospheric pressure. pressure.
iii. It is depicted on maps as a line It is depicted on maps as a line
across an aquifer. between the walls of a well.

i. What do you mean by rain water harvesting ?

Ans. The concept of rainwater harvesting involves trapping the rainwater
where it falls. It is an outstanding method to conserve water and
enhance availability of water for drinking, industrial or groundwater
recharge.
j. What is the well loss ?
Ans. When water is pumped out of a well, the total drawdown caused
includes not only that of the logarithmic drawdown curve at the
well face, but also drawdown caused by flow through well screen
and axial movement within the well. The latter drawdown is called
well loss.

Section-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (3 × 10 = 30)

a. Define the hydrology and discuss critically the statement
“Knowledge of hydrology is must for any water resource
planning”.
Ans.
A. Hydrology :
1. It is the science that deals with the occurrence, circulation and
distribution and movement of water on the earth, including that
in the atmosphere and below the surface of the earth.
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–6 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2. As a branch of earth science, it is concerned with the water in
streams and lakes, rainfall and snowfall, snow and ice on the land
and water occurring below the earth’s surface in the pores of the
soil and rocks.
B. Knowledge of Hydrology :
The basic knowledge of this science is a must for every civil
engineer, particularly the one who is engaged in the design,
planning or construction of irrigation structures, bridges, and
highway culverts, or flood control works, etc.
1. Maximum flows, after different years, are expected at a spillway
or a highway culvert in a city drainage system.
2. Minimum reservoir capacity will be sufficient to assure adequate
water for irrigation or municipal water supply, during droughts.

b. The following are the rates of rainfall for successive 20

minutes period of a 140 minutes storm : 2.5, 2.5, 10.0, 7.5, 1.25,
1.25, 5.0 cm/hr. Taking the value of  index as 3.2 cm/hr, find
out the net runoff in cm, the total rainfall and value of
Windex.
Ans.
Given : Rate of rainfall = 2.5, 2.5, 1.0, 7.5, 1.25, 1.25, 5 cm/hr, Time
interval = 20 min, Total time = 140 min, index = 3.2 cm/hr.
To Find : Net runoff, Total rainfall and value of Windex.
10 Rainfall excess
Rainfall Intensity (cm/hr)

7.5
5

2.5 2.5
1.25

 = 3.2 cm/hr

20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Fig. 1.
1. Total rainfall,
20
P = (2.5 + 2.5 + 10.0 + 7.5 + 1.25 + 1.25 + 5.0) × = 10 cm
60
2. Total Runoff (hatched area),
20
R = [(10 – 3.2) + (7.5 – 3.2) + (5 – 3.2)] × = 4.3 cm
60
P  R 10  4.3
3. Windex = 
tr 2.33

= 2.44 cm/hr tr   140

60
hr  2.33 hr 
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–7 C (CE-Sem-8)
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c. Explain with the help of neat sketches, the flow duration
curve method and mass curve method to measure the
runoff.
Ans.
A. Flow Duration Curve : This question is out of syllabus from
session 2019-20.
B. Mass Curve :
1. The flow-mass curve is a plot of the cumulative discharge volume
against time plotted in chronological order.
2. The ordinate of the mass curve, V at any time t is thus,
t

V=  Qdt
t0

where, to = Time at the beginning of the curve.

Q = Discharge rate.
3. Calculation of Storage Volume :
i. Consider a reservoir on the stream whose mass curve is plotted
in Fig. 2.
ii. If it is assumed that the reservoir is full at the beginning of a dry
period, i.e., when the inflow rate is less than the withdrawal
(demand) rate, the maximum amount of water drawn from the
storage is the cumulative difference between supply and demand
volumes from the beginning of the dry season. Thus the storage
required S is,
S = Maximum of (VD – Vs)
where, VD = Demand volume, Vs = Supply volume.

B
3
Accumulated flow volume, V in Mm

D

S2

E
C
N Rates of flow
D
Volume

F Qav
S1 Qd
E
C
M
Unit time
A
tc tm tn
Time (months)
Fig. 2.
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–8 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iii. The storage, S which is the maximum cumulative deficiency in
any dry season is obtained as the maximum difference in the
ordinate between mass curves of supply and demand.

d. What do you mean by design flood ? What are the factor

affecting the flood hydrograph ? Explain the procedure of
using a unit hydrograph to develop the flood hydrograph
due to a storm in a catchment.
Ans.
A. Design Flood : It is the value of the instantaneous peak discharge
adopted for the design of a particular project or any of its structure.
The term design flood is used to denote the maximum flood flow
that could be passed without damage or serious threat to the stability
of engineering structure.
B. Factors : Following are the factors affecting the flood hydrograph :
1. Physiographic Factors :
i. Basin characteristics :
a. Shape. b. Size.
c. Slope. d. Nature of the valley.
e. Elevation. f. Drainage density.
ii. Infiltration characteristics :
a. Land use and cover.
b. Soil type and geological conditions.
c. Lakes, swamps and other storage.
iii. Channel characteristics : Cross-section, roughness, and storage
capacity.
2. Climatic Factors :
i. Storm characteristics : Precipitation, intensity, duration, magnitude,
and movement of storm.
ii. Initial loss.
iii. Evapotranspiration.
3. Shape of the Basin :
i. The shape of the basin influences the time taken for water from
the remote parts of the catchment to arrive at the outlet. Thus,
the occurrence of the peak and hence the shape of the hydrograph
are affected by the basin shape.
ii. Fan-shaped, i.e., nearly semi circular shaped catchments give
high peak and narrow hydrographs while elongated catchments
give broad and low-peaked hydrographs.
4. Size :
i. Small basins behave different from the large ones in terms of the
relative importance of various phases of the runoff phenomenon.
ii. In small catchments, the overland flow phase is predominant
over the channel flow.
iii. Hence the land use and intensity of rainfall have important role
on the peak flood. On large basins these effects are suppressed as
the channel flow phase is more predominant.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–9 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5. Slope :
i. The slope of the main stream controls the velocity of flow in the
channel.
ii. As the recession limb of the hydrograph represents the depletion
of storage, the stream channel slope will have a pronounced effect
on this part of the hydrograph.
iii. Large stream slopes give rise to quicker depletion of storage and
hence result in steeper recession limbs of hydrographs.
iv. The basin slope is important in small catchments where the
overland flow is relatively more important. In such cases the
steeper slope of the catchment results in larger peak discharges.
6. Drainage Density :
i. The drainage density is defined as the ratio of the total channel
length to the total drainage area.
ii. A large drainage density creates situation conducive for quick
disposal of runoff down the channels.
iii. This fast response is reflected in a pronounced peaked discharge.
iv. In basins with smaller drainage densities, the overland flow is
predominant and the resulting hydrograph is squat with a slowly
rising limb.
7. Climatic Factors :
i. Among climatic factors the intensity, duration, and direction of
storm movement are the three important ones affecting the shape
of a flood hydrograph.
ii. For a given duration, the peak and volume of the surface runoff
are essentially proportional to the intensity of rainfall.
iii. This aspect is made use of in the unit hydrograph theory of
estimating peak-flow hydrographs.
C. Procedure : The unit hydrograph is known and the design storm
is assumed, we proceed as follows :
1. Plot the assumed design storm as a bar diagram with the unit
hydrograph duration as the time interval. For example, storm of
16-hour duration will be represented as four rainfall intervals of
four hours each, if a 4-hour unit hydrograph is given.
2. Subtract the infiltration losses to obtain effective precipitation.
3. Applying linearity and superposition principles, obtain hydrographs
corresponding to each storm interval by multiplying the unit
hydrograph ordinates by the precipitation depths during the interval.
4. Add the ordinates of the hydrographs corresponding to each time
interval to obtain the direct runoff hydrograph for the composite
storm.
5. Add the estimated base flow to get the anticipated flood hydrograph.

e. Write short notes on any four of the following :

i. Well losses.
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Ans.
1. When water is pumped out of a well, the total drawdown caused
includes not only that of the logarithmic drawdown curve at the
well face, but also drawdown caused by flow through well screen
and axial movement within the well. The latter drawdown is called
well loss.
2. Since, turbulent flow generally occurs near the well face, this loss
may be taken to be proportional to Qn.

 k (h22 – h12 ) 
Rewriting equation Q  and adding well loss CQn to
r2 
 log e 
 r1 
it,
For confined aquifer, s = (H – h) = (Q/2kB) loge (R/r) + CQn ...(1)
where the constant C is governed by several factors such as well
radius, construction and condition of the well.
3. Rewriting the above, we get, s = C1Q + CQn ...(2)
log e ( R / r)
where, C1 = ; C1Q = Aquifer loss and CQn = Well loss.
2kB
4. Fig. 3(a) illustrates that the total drawdown consists of the sum of
the aquifer loss (C1Q) and the well loss (CQn).
5. Fig. 3(b) shows the variations of drawdown and well loss with the
discharge.
Q
Ground surface

Initial piezometric surface

C1Q
Drawdown (s)

Drawdown curve
H
CQn Well loss
n
w
do

C1Q
aw

r s
h D
Confined aquifier l lo s s
W el
CQn

(a) (b) Discharge ( Q)

Fig. 3.
6. For a screen which is not clogged or encrusted and whose size is
compatible to the surrounding porous media, the portion of the
well loss caused by water entering the well is small in comparison
with the portion resulting from axial movement inside the well to
the pump intake.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–11 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. Specific capacity and specific yield of an aquifer.
Ans.
1. Specific Capacity : The specific capacity of a well is defined as the
well yield per unit of drawdown.
Discharge of well Q  1 
Specific capacity = = =
Drawdown C1Q  C2Q 2  C1  C2Q 
The equation clearly shows that the specific capacity of the well is
not constant but decreases as the discharge increases.
2. Specific Yield :
i. While porosity gives a measure of the water storage capability of a
formation, not all the water held in the pores is available for
extraction by pumping or draining by gravity.
ii. The pores hold back some water by molecular attraction and surface
tension.
iii. The actual volume of water that can be extracted by the force of
gravity from a unit volume of aquifer material is known as the
specific yield (Sy).

iii. Rain water harvesting.

Ans. Rain water harvesting is defined as the process of collecting and
concentrating runoff water from a runoff area into a run-on-area,
where the collected water is either directly applied to the cropping
area and stored in the soil profile for immediate use by the crop, i.e.,
runoff farming, or stored in an on-farm water reservoir for future
productive uses, i.e., domestic use, livestock watering, aquaculture
and irrigation.

iv. Aquifer and aquiclude.

Ans.
1. Aquifer :
i. It is a saturated formation of earth material which not only
stores water but yields it in sufficient quantity. Thus an aquifer
transmits water relatively easily due to its high permeability.
ii. Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifers.
2. Aquiclude :
i. It is a geological formation which essentially impermeable to the
flow of water.
ii. It may be considered as closed to water movement even though
it may contain large amounts of water due to its high porosity.
Clay is an example of an aquiclude.

v. Radius of influence and cone of depression.

Ans.
1. Radius of Influence : The areal extent of the cone of depression
is called area of influence and its radial extent radius of influence.
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–12 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2. Cone of Depression : If the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic
and the water table assumes a conical shape called cone of
depression.

Section-C

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (1 × 10 = 10)

a. What is meant by hydrological cycle ? How can the
parameters of the cycle be written in an equation form ?
Draw a neat diagram to illustrate your answer.
Ans. Hydrologic Cycle :
Hydrologic cycle is the process of transfer of moisture from the
atmosphere to the earth in the form of precipitation, conveyance
of the precipitated water by streams and rivers to ocean and
lakes etc., and evaporation of water back to the atmosphere as
shown in Fig. 4.
This cycle consists of the following processes :
1. Evaporation and Transpiration (E) : The water from the
surfaces of ocean, rivers, lakes and also from the moist soil
evaporates. The vapours are carried over the land by air in the
form of clouds. Transpiration is the process of water being lost
from the leaves of the plants from their pores. Thus, the total
evaporation (E), inclusive of the transpiration consists of :

Clouds

Condensation

Precipitation

Snow Infiltration Evaporation

Spring Transpiration
Percolation
Evaporation
Ground water flow Evaporation
Lake River
Ocean
Fig. 4.
i. Surface evaporation.
ii. Water surface evaporation.
a. From river surface.
b. From oceans.
iii. Evaporation from plants and leaves (transpiration).
iv. Atmospheric evaporation.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–13 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2. Precipitation (P) : Precipitation may be defined as the fall of
moisture from the atmosphere to the earth surface in any form.
Precipitation may be of two forms :
i. Liquid precipitation : i.e., rainfall.
ii. Frozen precipitation : This consists of :
a. Snow. b. Hail.
c. Sleet. d. Freezing rain.
3. Runoff (R) : Runoff is that portion of precipitation that is not
evaporated. When moisture falls to the earth’s surface as
precipitation, a part of it is evaporated from the water surface, soil
and vegetation and through transpiration by plants, and the
remainder precipitation is available as runoff which ultimately
runs to the ocean through surface or sub-surface streams. Thus
runoff may be classified as follows :
i. Surface Runoff : Water flows over the land and is first to reach
the streams and rivers, which ultimately discharge the water to
the sea.
ii. Inter-flow or Sub-Surface Runoff : A portion of precipitation
infiltrates into surface soil and depending upon the geology of
the basins, runs as sub-surface runoff and reaches the streams
and rivers.
iii. Groundwater Flow or Base Flow : It is that portion of
precipitation, which after infiltration, percolates down and joins
the groundwater reservoir which is ultimately connected to the
ocean.
Thus, the hydrologic cycle may be expressed by the following
simplified equation :
Precipitation (P) = Evaporation (E) + Runoff (R)

b. Explain briefly the types of rain gauges.

A one-day rainfall of 100 mm at a station was found to have
a return period of 50 years. Determine the probability that
a one-day rainfall of this or larger magnitude will occur at
least once in 20 successive years.
Ans. Types of Rain-gauge : Following are the types of rain-gauges
used for measurement of rainfall :
A. Non-automatic Rain-gauge : This is also known as non-
recording rain-gauge. Symon’s rain-gauge is the instrument
prescribed by use at all Government rain-gauge stations
throughout India.
Symon’s Rain-gauge :
i. Symon’s rain-gauge is most common type of non-automatic rain-
gauge, and is used by Meteorological Department of Government
of India.
ii. As shown in Fig. 5, it consists of cylindrical vessel 127 mm in
diameter with a base enlarged to 210 mm diameter.
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–14 C (CE-Sem-8)
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127 mm

25.4
25.4

305 mm 203

50.8 GL
25.4
60 cm 25.4
210 mm

60 cm

Fig. 5.
iii. The top section is a funnel provided with circular brass rim
exactly 127 mm internal diameter.
iv. The funnel shank is inserted in the neck of a receiving bottle
which is 75 to 100 mm diameter.
v. A receiving bottle of rain-gauge has a capacity of about 75 to 100
mm of rainfall and as during a heavy rainfall this quantity is
frequently exceeded, the rain should be measured 3 or 4 times
in a day on day of heavy rainfall left the receiver fill should
overflow.
vi. A cylindrical graduated measuring glass is furnished with each
instrument, which reads to 0.2 mm.
vii. The rainfall should be estimated to the nearest of 0.1 mm.
viii. The rain-gauge is set up in a concrete block 60 cm × 60 cm × 60
cm, as shown in Fig. 5. The rim should be 305 mm (12) above
the surface of the ground.
B. Automatic Rain-gauge : These are integrating type recording
rain-gauges and are of following types :
1. Weighing Bucket Type Rain-gauge :
i. Self recording gauges are used to determine rates of rainfall
over short periods of time. The most common type of self-
recording gauge is the weighing bucket type as shown in Fig. 6.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–15 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Receiver

Funnel
Metal
casing
Bucket

Weighing mechanism
by spring mechanism
Graph
paper

Clock mounted
rotating drum

Fig. 6.
ii. The weighing bucket rain-gauge essentially consists of a receiver
bucket supported by a spring or lever balance or any other
weighing mechanism.
iii. The movement of the bucket due to its increasing weight is
transmitted to a pen which traces the record on a clock-drive
chart.
2. Tipping Bucket Type Rain-gauge :
i. A Steven’s tipping bucket type rain-gauge consists of 300 mm
diameter sharp edge receiver.
ii. At the end of the receiver a funnel is provided. A pair of buckets
are pivoted under the funnel in such a way that when one bucket
receives 0.25 mm of precipitation, it tips, discharging its contents
into a container bringing the other bucket under the funnel.
iii. Tipping of the bucket completes an electric circuit causing the
movement of pen to mark on clock driven revolving drum which
carries a record sheet.
Rain
water
Circular collector

Funnel

Two compartment
tipping bucket connected to
1 2 recording device

Recording device

Measuring Tripod stand

jar
Fig. 7.
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–16 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iv. The electric pulses generated due to the tipping of the buckets
are recorded at the control room far away from the rain gauge
station.
Numerical :
Given : One-day rainfall depth = 100 mm, Return period, T = 50
years, Design period, n = 20 years
To Find : The probability that a one-day rainfall

1
1. Probability, p=  0.02 ,
50
2. q = 1 – p = 1 – 0.02 = 0.98
n!
3. Pr,n = pr qn r
( n  r)! r !
20!
P1, 20 =  0.02(0.98)19 = 0.272
19! 1!

4. Attempt any one part of the following : (1 × 10 = 10)

a. Define evaporation. Discuss the factors that affect the
evaporation from a water body.
Ans.
A. Evaporation : It is the process in which a liquid changes to the
gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling point through
the transfer of heat energy.
B. Factors : Following are the factors that affect the evaporation
from the water body :
1. Vapour Pressure : The rate of evaporation is proportional to
the difference between the saturation vapour pressure at the
water temperature, e w and the actual pressure in the air, ea.
Thus,
EL = C(e w – e a) ...(1)
where, EL = Rate of evaporation (mm/day).
C = Constant.
ew and e a are in mm of mercury.
2. Temperature : Other factors remaining the same, the rate of
evaporation increases with an increase in the water temperature.
3. Wind : Wind aids in removing the evaporated water vapour
from the zone of evaporation and consequently creates greater
scope for evaporation.
4. Atmospheric Pressure : Other factors remaining same, a
decrease in the barometric pressure, as in high altitudes, increases
evaporation.
5. Soluble Salts :
i. When a solute is dissolved in water, the vapour pressure of the
solution is less than that of pure water and hence causes reduction
in the rate of evaporation.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–17 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. The percent reduction in evaporation approximately corresponds
to the percentage increase in the specific gravity.
6. Heat Storage in Water Bodies :
i. Deep water bodies have more heat storage than shallow ones.
ii. A deep lake may store radiation energy received in summer and
release it in winter causing less evaporation in summer and
more evaporation in winter compared to a shallow lake exposed
to a similar situation.
iii. However, the effect of heat storage is essentially to change the
seasonal evaporation rates and the annual evaporation rate is
seldom affected.

b. Distinguish between :
i. Infiltration capacity and infiltration rate.
ii. Actual and potential evapotranspiration.
iii. Field capacity and permanent wilting point.
iv. Depression storage and interception.
Ans.
1. Infiltration Capacity : The maximum rate at which a given soil
at a given time can absorb water is defined as the infiltration
capacity. It is designated as fp and is expressed in units of cm/h.
The actual rate of infiltration can be expressed as
f = fp when i  fp
f = i when i < fp
The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at the beginning of a storm
and has an exponential decay as the time elapses.
2. Infiltration Rate : Infiltration rate, at any instant is the rate at
which water actually enters into the soil during a storm, and is
equal to the infiltration capacity fp or the rainfall rate, whichever is
less.
3. Actual Evapotranspiration : The real evapotranspiration
occurring in a specific situation is called actual evapotranspiration
(AET).
4. Potential Evapotranspiration :
i. If sufficient moisture is always available completely to meet the
needs of vegetation fully covering the area, the resulting
evapotranspiration is called potential evapotranspiration (PET).
ii. Potential evapotranspiration no longer critically depends on the
soil and plant factors but depends essentially on the climatic
factors.
5. Field Capacity : It is defined as the maximum quantity of water
that the soil can retain against the force of gravity. Any higher
moisture input to a soil at field capacity simply drains away.
6. Permanent Wilting Point :
i. It is the moisture content of a soil at which the moisture is no
longer available in sufficient quantity to sustain the plants.
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–18 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. At this stage, even though the soil contains some moisture, it
will be so held by the soil grains that the roots of the plants are
not able to extract it in sufficient quantities to sustain the plants
and consequently the plants wilt.
7. Depression Storage :
i. A catchment area generally has many depressions of shallow depth
and of varying size and shape.
ii. When precipitation take place, water runs towards these
depressions and fill them before actual overland flow or runoff
towards a stream takes place.
iii. Depression storage depends on a vast number of factors. The
major factors are :
a. The type of soil.
b. The condition of the surface reflecting the amount and nature
of depression.
c. The slope of the catchment.
d. The antecedent precipitation as a measure of the soil moisture.
iv. The following relationship may be used for computing the depression
storage,
P
  e 
Vds = K 1  e k 
where, Vds = Volume of water stored in surface depression.
Pe = Rainfall excess.
k = Depression storage capacity of the basin.
8. Interception :
i. It may be defined as that amount of precipitation water which is
intercepted by vegetative foliage, buildings and other objects lying
over the land surface.
ii. Interception does not reach the land surface but is returned back to
the atmosphere by evaporation.
iii. The intercepted precipitation may follow one of the three possible
routes :
a. It may be retained by the vegetation as surface storage and
returned to the atmosphere by evaporation; this is known as
interception loss.
b. It can drip off the plant leaves to join the ground surface or
the surface flow; this is known as throughfall.
c. The rainwater may run along the leaves and branches and
down the stem to reach the ground surface. This part is called
stemflow.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–19 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5. Attempt any one part of the following : (1 × 10 = 10)
a. Write in brief the SCS-CN method for estimating the runoff
volume. The peak of flood hydrograph due to a 3-h duration
isolated storm in a catchment is 270 m3/sec. The total depth
of rainfall is 5.9 cm. Assuming an average infiltration loss
of 0.3 cm/h and a constant base flow of 20 m3/sec, estimate
the peak of the 3-h hydrograph (UH) of this catchment. If
the area of the catchment is 567 km2; determine the base
width of the 3-h unit hydrograph by assuming it to be
triangular in shape.
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2020-21.

b. What is hydrograph ? Draw a single peaked hydrograph

and explain its components.
Ans.
A. Hydrograph : A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted against
time chronologically is called a hydrograph.
B. Components of Hydrograph : The essential components of a
hydrograph are described below :
1. Rising Limb :
i. The rising limb of a hydrograph, also known as concentration
curve represents the increase in discharge due to the gradual
building up of storage in channels and over the catchment surface.
ii. The initial losses and high infiltration losses during the early
period of a storm cause the discharge to rise rather slowly in the
initial periods.
iii. As the storm continues, more and more flow from distant parts
reach the basin outlet.
iv. Simultaneously the infiltration losses also decrease with time.
Thus, under a uniform storm over the catchment, the runoff
increases rapidly with time.
v. As indicated earlier, the basin and storm characteristics control
the shape of the rising limb of a hydrograph.
2. Crest Segment :
i. The crest segment is one of the most important parts of a hydrograph
as it contains the peak flow.
ii. The peak flow occurs when the runoff from various parts of the
catchment simultaneously contribute amounts to achieve the
maximum amount of flow at the basin outlet.
iii. Generally, for large catchments, the peak flow occurs after the
stopping of rainfall, the time interval from the centre of mass of
rainfall to the peak being essentially controlled by basin and storm
characteristics.
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–20 C (CE-Sem-8)
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D hour
Hydrograph components
MA = Base flow recession
Rainfall
AB = Rising limb
BC = Crest segment
P CD = Falling limb
DN = Base flow recession
Discharge (m 3/s)

B C Points B and C = Inflection points

Direct runoff
Peak
flood
M
A D
N
Base flow

Time (hours)
Fig. 8.
3. Recession Limb :
i. The recession limb, which extends from the point of inflection at
the end of the crest segment (point C in Fig. 8) to the commencement
of the natural groundwater flow (point D in Fig. 8) represents the
withdrawal of water from the storage built up in the basin during
the earlier phases of the hydrograph.
ii. The starting point of the recession limb, i.e., the point of inflection
represents the condition of maximum storage.
iii. Since the depletion of storage takes place after the stopping of
rainfall, the shape of this part of the hydrograph is independent
of storm characteristics and depends entirely on the basin
characteristics.
iv. The storage of water in the basin exists as (i) surface storage,
which includes both surface detention and channel storage, (ii)
interflow storage, and (iii) groundwater storage, i.e., base-flow
storage.

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (1 × 10 = 10)

a. What do you mean by hydrologic reservoir routing ?
Describe any two methods of hydrologic reservoir routing.
Ans.
A. Hydrologic Reservoir Routing : Reservoir routing is a
mathematical procedure by which the hydrograph immediately
below the reservoir is determined for the given inflow hydrograph
(s) of the river (s) contributing to the storage of the reservoir.
B. Methods of Hydrologic Reservoir Routing : Following are
the two methods used in hydrologic reservoir routing :
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–21 C (CE-Sem-8)
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1. Modified Puls Method :
 I  I2   Q  Q2 
i. Equation  1 t   1  t = S2 – S1 is rearranged as
 2   2 
 I1  I2   Q t   Q t 
t   S1  1  =  S2  2  ...(1)
 2   2   2 
ii. At the starting of flood routing, the initial storage and outflow
discharges are known.
iii. In eq. (1) all the terms in the left-hand side are known at the
beginning of a time step t. Hence the value of the function
 Q2 t 
 S2   at the end of the time step is calculated by eq. (1).
 2 
 Qt 
iv. Since the relation S = S(h) and Q = Q(h) are known,  S  
 2 2
will enable one to determine the reservoir elevation and hence
the discharge at the end of the time step. The procedure is repeated
to cover the full inflow hydrograph.
v. For practical use in hand computation, the following semi-graphical
method is very convenient :
a. From the known storage-elevation and discharge-elevation data,
 Qt 
prepare a curve of  S   vs. elevation. Here, t is any chosen
 2 
interval, approximately 20 to 40 % of the time of rise of the
inflow hydrograph.

Outflow Q(m 3/sec)

010 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

103.0

102.50 Q vs elevation
Eleva tion (m)

102.00

101.50
Q
S+ t vs elevation
101.00 2

t = 6 h
100.50 initial elevation = 100.50

100.00
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
Q
S+ t in Mm3
2
Fig. 9.
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–22 C (CE-Sem-8)
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b. On the same plot prepare a curve of outflow discharge vs. elevation.
c. The storage, elevation and outflow discharge at the starting of
routing are known.

 I  I2   Q1t 
For the first time interval t,  1  t and  S1   are
 2   2 
 Q t 
known and hence by eq. (1) the term  S2  2  is determined.
 2 
 Q t 
d. The water surface elevation corresponding to  S2  2  is
 2 
found by using the plot of step (a). The outflow discharge Q2 at
the end of the time step t is found from plot of step (b).

 Q t   Q t 
e. Deducting Q2 t from  S2  2  gives  S   for the
 2   2 1
beginning of the next time step.
f. The procedure is repeated till the entire inflow hydrograph is
routed.
2. Goodrich Method :
i. Another popular method of hydrologic reservoir routing, known
I  I2   Q  Q2  t = S –
as Goodrich method utilizes eq.  1 t   1
 2   2
 2

S1
rearranged as :
2S2 2S1
I1 + I2 – Q1 – Q2 =  ...(2)
t t
where, suffixes 1 and 2 stand for the values at the beginning
and end of a time step t respectively. Collecting the known and
initial value together,
 2S 
(I1  I2 )   1  Q1  =  2S2  Q2  ...(3)
  t   t 
ii. For a given time step, the left hand side of eq. (3) is known and
 2S 
the term   Q is determined by using eq. (3). From the
 t 2

 2S 
known storage-elevation-discharging data, the function   Q
 t 2
is established as a function of elevation. Hence, the discharge,
elevation and storage at the end of the time step are obtained.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–23 C (CE-Sem-8)
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 2S  
iii. For the next time step,   Q   2Q2  of the previous time
 t 2 

 2S 
step =   Q  for use as the initial values.
 t 1

b. Explain the term risk, reliability and safety factor. A factory

is proposed to be located on the edge of the 50 year flood
plain of river. If design life of factory is 25 years, what is the
reliability that it will not be flooded during its design life ?
Ans.
A. Risk : The probability of occurrence of an event (x  xT) at least
once over a period of n successive years is called the risk, R.
Thus, the risk is given by,
R = 1 – (Probability of non-occurrence of the event x  x T in n
years)
n
 1
R = 1 – (1 – P)n = 1   1  
 T 
1
where, P = Probability P (x  x T) =, T = Return period.
T
B. Reliability : The reliability R e, is defined as
n
 1
Re = 1 – R =  1  
 T
5. It can be seen that the return period for which a structure should
be designed depends upon the acceptable level of risk. In practice,
the acceptable risk is gove rne d by eco nomic and policy
considerations.
C. Safety Factor :
1. In addition to the hydrological uncertainty, as mentioned above,
a water resource development project will have many other
uncertainties.
2. These may arise out of structural, constructional, operational
and environmental causes as well as from non-technological
considerations such as economic, sociological and political causes.
3. As such, any water resource development project will have a
safety factor for a given hydrological parameter M as defined
below.
4. Safety factor (for the parameter M), (SF) m
Actual value of the parameter M adopted in the design of the project
=
Value of the parameter M obtained from hydrolgical considerations only

Cam
=
Chm
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–24 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5. The parameter M includes such items as flood discharge magnitude,
maximum river stage, reservoir capacity and free board. The
difference (Cam – Chm) is known as safety margin.
D. Numerical :
Given : Return period, T = 50 years, Design life, n = 25 year
To Find : Reliability.
n
 1
Reliability, Re = 1  R   1  
 T
25
 1
Re =  1   = 0.6035 = 60.35 %
 50 

7. Attempt any one part of the following : (1 × 10 = 10)

a. Describe various types of tube wells.
Ans. Types of Tubewells : Following are the various types of tubewells :
1. Strainer Type Tubewell :
i. The strainer well is the most common and widely used well. In
common term, the word “tube well” refers to the strainer type of
tube well.
ii. In this type of well, a strainer, which is a special type of wire mesh,
is wrapped round the main tube of the well.
iii. The main pipe contains bigger holes or slots than the openings of
the strainer.
iv. The total area of the openings of the tube is kept equal to the
openings of the strainer so that the velocity of flow does not change.
v. Due to fineness of the openings of the strainer, a higher operational
velocity of water can be permitted.
vi. Little annular space is left between the strainer and the pipe so that
the open area of pipe perforations is not reduced.
Ground surface
Water table
Blind pipe

Impervious layer

Confined aquifer Strainer

Impervious layer Blind pipe

Confined aquifer
Strainer

Impervious layer Plug

Fig. 10.
vii. A strainer well may draw water either from an unconfined aquifer
of unlimited extent, or from one or more confined aquifer layers.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–25 C (CE-Sem-8)
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viii. The strainers are provided only in that length of the pipe where it
crosses the aquifer.
ix. The pipe in the aquifer portion is kept perforated. In the rest of the
portion, plain or blind pipe is provided.
2. Cavity Type Tubewell :
i. This is a special type of tube well in which water is not drawn
through the strainer, but it is drawn through the bottom of the well
where a cavity is formed.
ii. The tube well pipe penetrates a strong clay layer which acts as a
strong roof. Thus, a cavity tube well is similar to a deep well.

Mota layer

Aquifer

Aquiclude

Strong Aquiclude
Cavity
Aquifer Sand free
from fine
material
Critical velocity surface
Fig. 11.
iii. However, a deep well draws from the first aquifer below the mota
layer while a cavity well need not do so.
iv. The essential condition for a cavity tube well to function efficiently
is to have confined aquifer of good specific yield, and the aquifer
should have a strong impervious material above it.
v. In the initial stage of pumping with the help of a centrifugal pump
or an air lift pump, fine sand comes with water and consequently a
hollow cavity is formed.
vi. As the spherical surface area of cavity increases outwards, the
radial critical velocity decreases, and the sand particles stop entering
the well.
vii. At this stage, equilibrium in the cavity formation is established and
clean water continues to enter the well on further pumping at the
same constant discharge.
viii. After the formation of the cavity, the velocity of entry of water at
the bottom of the pipe is lesser than the critical.
3. Slotted Type Tube Well :
i. A slotted tube well is resorted under two circumstances :
a. Sufficient depth of water bearing stratum is not available even upto a
depth of 75 to 100 m, so that strainer type tube well cannot be used.
b. Suitable strong roof is not available so that a cavity well cannot be
formed.
Solved Paper (2016-17) SP–26 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Compressed air

Casing pipe Main pipe

(Removed later) Top soil

Gravel Slots
shrouding
Water bearing strata

Fig. 12.
ii. In such a circumstance, a slotted well is used and it is made to
penetrate to some depth in the water bearing strata.
iii. A slotted tube well essentially consists of a slotted tube penetrating
the confined aquifer.
iv. The size of slots may be 25 mm × 3 mm at 10 to 12 mm spacing. In
order to prevent the fine particles entering the pipe, it is shrouded
with a mixture of gravel and bajri (coarse sand).

b. What are the differences between confined and unconfined

aquifers for the determination of discharge with steady
flow condition ? A well penetrates into an unconfined
aquifer having a saturated depth of 100 m. The discharge is
250 litres per minute at 12 m drawdown. Assuming
equilibrium flow conditions and a homogeneous aquifer,
estimate the discharge at 18 m drawdown. The distance
from the well where the drawdown influences are not
appreciable may be taken equal for both cases.
Ans.
A. Difference between Confined and Unconfined Aquifers :
S. No. Confined Aquifers Unconfined Aquifers

1. Confined aquifer is the one Unconfined aquifer, or watertable

in which ground water is aquifer is the one in which a
confined under pressure watertable serves as the upper
greater than atmospheric by surface of the zone of saturation.
overlying, relatively
impermeable strata.
2. Confined aquifers are also It is also sometimes known as the
known as artesian aquifers. free, phreatic or non-artesian
aquifer.
3. In confined aquifer, the water In such an aquifer, the water
table varies in static form and table varies in undulating form
in slope. and in slope.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–27 C (CE-Sem-8)
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4. In a well penetrating aquifer, Rises and falls in the watertable
the water level will rise to the corresponds to changes in the
le ve l of the local static volume of water in storage within
pressure or artesian head. unconfined aquifer.
5. Artesian aquifers usually Unconfined aquifer usually has
have relatively small relatively large recharge areas as
recharge areas as compared compared to confined aquifers.
to unconfined aquifers.

B. Numerical :
Given : Saturated depth, H = 100 m, Discharge, Q1 = 250 litres/min
Drawdown, s1 = 12 m, s2 = 18 m
To Find : Discharge at 18 m drawdown

2Ts
1. Discharge, Q=
R
ln
rw
2. Qs
Q1 s
3. = 1
Q2 s2
s2 18
Q2 = Q1  = 250 × = 375 litres/min
s1 12


Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–1 C (CE-Sem-8)
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B. Tech.
(SEM. VII) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2017-18
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100

Note : Attempt all section. Assume missing data, if any.

SECTION-A

1. Attempt all parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)

a. What do you understand by precipitation ?

b. What is meant by hydrological cycle ?

c. Explain Thiessen polygon method of determining of average

rainfall over a basin catchment area.

d. What is the purpose of water budget equation in hydrology ?

e. What do you mean by hydrologic reservoir routing ?

f. Distinguish between infiltration capacity and infiltration

rate.

g. Write short notes about flood routing.

h. Explain factor affecting runoff hydrograph.

i. Describe well losses.

j. Explain specific capacity in tube well.

SECTION-B

2. Attempt any three parts of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)

a. Analysis of a 30 year data at a point on a river of gives mean
discharge as 1200 cumec and standard deviation 650 cumec.
For what value of discharge would you design a structure
at the point so as to provide 95 % assurance that the
structural would not fail in the next 50 years. Assume Yn =
0.53625, Sn = 1.11238.
Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–2 C (CE-Sem-8)
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b. A catchment has five rain-gauge stations. In a year, the
annual rainfall recorded by the gauges is 78.8 cm, 90.2 cm,
98.6 cm, 102.4 cm and 70.4 cm. For a 6 % error in the estimation
of the mean rainfall, determine the additional number of
gauges needed.

c. What is meant by hydrological cycle ? How can the

parameters of the cycle be written in an equation form ?
Draw a neat diagram to illustrate your answer.

d. What do you mean by design flood ? What are the factors

affecting the flood hydrograph ? Explain the procedure of
using a unit hydrograph to develop the flood hydrograph
due to a storm in a catchment.

e. Write down in details selection of suitable site for a tube

well. And also explain advantages and disadvantages of
well irrigation over canal irrigation.

SECTION-C

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Explain both type of rain gauge :
A : Automatic rain-gauge.
B: Non-automatic rain-gauge.

b. What is an intensity-duration curve and how will you

proceed to derive such a curve for a given frequency at a
rain gauge station from the available data of worst storms
of different durations kept for a sufficient number of cycles ?

4. Attempt any one part of the following : 10 × 1 = 10

a. Explain the factors that affect the runoff from a catchment
area. How will you estimate the amount of runoff ? A 4-
hour storm in a basin producing 10 cm of runoff results the
following flows in the stream :
Time (hour) 0 2 4 6 8 12 16 20
Flow (cumec) 0.0 2.44 8.10 13.50 11.34 6.75 2.70 0.0
Calculate the peak flow and the time of its occurrence of
the flood created by an 8-hour storm in the basin which
produces 5 cm of runoff during first 4-hours and 7.5 cm
runoff during the second 4-hours. Assume base flow is
negligible.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–3 C (CE-Sem-8)
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b. What is meant by evapotranspiration ? Also explain
measurement of evapotranspiration.

5. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Explain in details of hydrograph with neat sketch. Also
explain theory of unit hydrograph and limitation of unit
hydrograph.

b. What is run-off ? What are the factors that affect the run-
off from a catchment area ? Describe the methods of
computing run-off from a catchment area.

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. From the analysis of available data on annual flood peaks
of a stream for a period of 40 years, the 50 year and 100 year
floods have been estimated to be 878 cumec and 970 cumec.
Using Gumbel’s method, estimate the 200 year flood for the
stream.

b. A one-day rainfall of 100 mm at a station was found to have

a return period of 50 years. Determine the probability. That
a one-day rainfall of this or larger magnitude will occur at
least once in 20 successive years.

7. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. What are the differences between confined and unconfined
aquifers for the determination of discharge with steady
flow condition ? A well penetrates into an unconfined
aquifer having a saturated depth of 100 m. The discharge is
250 liters per minute at 12 m draw down. Assuming
equilibrium flow conditions and a homogeneous aquifer,
estimate the discharge at 18 m draw down. The distance
from the well where the draw down influences are not
appreciable may be taken equal for both cases.

b. Write short notes on any four of the following :

i. Well losses.

ii. Specific capacity and specific yield of an aquifer.

iii. Rain water harvesting.

iv. Aquifer and aquiclude.

v. Radius of influence and cone of depression.


Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–4 C (CE-Sem-8)
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2017-18)

Note : Attempt all section. Assume missing data, if any.

SECTION-A

1. Attempt all parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)

a. What do you understand by precipitation ?
Ans. Precipitation may be defined as the fall of moisture from the
atmosphere to the earth surface in any form.

b. What is meant by hydrological cycle ?

Ans. Hydrologic cycle is the process of transfer of moisture from the
atmosphere to the earth in the form of precipitation, conveyance of
the precipitated water by streams and rivers to ocean and lakes
etc., and evaporation of water back to the atmosphere.

c. Explain Thiessen polygon method of determining of average

rainfall over a basin catchment area.
Ans. A portion of precipitation infiltrates into surface soil and depending
upon the geology of the basin, runs as sub-surface runoff and
reaches the streams and rivers.

d. What is the purpose of water budget equation in hydrology ?

Ans. A water balance equation can be used to describe the flow of water
in and out of a system.

e. What do you mean by hydrologic reservoir routing ?

Ans. Flow routing is a procedure to determine the time and magnitude
of flow at a point on a water course from known or assumed
hydrograph at one or more points upstream. Routing by lumped
system method is called hydrologic reservoir routing. It is given by,
dS(t)
= I(t) – O(t).
dt

f. Distinguish between infiltration capacity and infiltration

rate.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–5 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Ans.

Infiltration Capacity Infiltration Rate

The maximum rate at which a given Infiltration rate, at any instant is the
soil at a given time can absorb water rate at which water actually enters
is defined as the infiltration capacity. into the soil during a storm, and is
equal to the infiltration capacity fp
or the rainfall rate, whichever is
less.

g. Write short notes about flood routing.

Ans. Flood routing is the technique of determining the flood hydrograph
at a section of a river by utilizing the data of flood flow at one or
more upstream sections. The hydrologic analysis of problems such
as flood forecasting, flood protection, reservoir design and spillway
design invariably include routing.

h. Explain factor affecting runoff hydrograph.

Ans. Following are the factors affecting runoff hydrograph :
i. Basin Characteristics :
a. Shape. b. Size. c. Slope.
d. Nature of the valley. e. Elevation. f. Drainage density.
ii. Infiltration Characteristics :
a. Land use and cover.
b. Soil type and geological conditions.
c. Lake, swamps and other storage.
iii. Channel Characteristics : Cross section, roughness, and storage
capacity.

i. Describe well losses.

Ans. When water is pumped out of a well, the total drawdown caused
includes not only that of the logarithmic drawdown curve at the
well face, but also drawdown caused by flow through well screen
and axial movement within the well. The latter drawdown is called
well loss.

j. Explain specific capacity in tube well.

Ans. The discharge per unit drawdown at the well (Q/sw) is known as
specific capacity of a well and is a measure of the performance of
the well.

SECTION-B

2. Attempt any three parts of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)

a. Analysis of a 30 year data at a point on a river of gives mean
discharge as 1200 cumec and standard deviation 650 cumec.
Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–6 C (CE-Sem-8)
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For what value of discharge would you design a structure
at the point so as to provide 95 % assurance that the
structural would not fail in the next 50 years. Assume Yn =
0.53625, Sn = 1.11238.
Ans.
Given : Mean discharge, x = 1200 m3/sec, Standard deviation,
n – 1 = 650 m3/sec, Reliability, Re = 95 %, Design period, n = 50 yr,
yn = 0.53625, Sn = 1.11238
To Find : Safe discharge.
n 50
1 1
1. Reliability is given by, R e =  1    0.95 =  1  
 T  T
Return period, T = 975.3 years
2. We know that,
  T   975.3 
yT = –  ln ln       ln ln (975.3  1)  = 6.882
  T  1    
yT  yn
3. Frequency factor, K =
Sn
6.882  0.53625
K= = 5.705
1.11238
4. Discharge at return period is given by,
xT = x + Kn – 1
xT = 1200 + (5.705) × 650
= 4908.25 m3/sec

b. A catchment has five rain-gauge stations. In a year, the

annual rainfall recorded by the gauges is 78.8 cm, 90.2 cm,
98.6 cm, 102.4 cm and 70.4 cm. For a 6 % error in the estimation
of the mean rainfall, determine the additional number of
gauges needed.
Ans.
Given : Annual rainfalls recorded, 78.8 cm, 90.2 cm, 98.6 cm,
102.4, 70.4 cm, Error = 6 %
To Find : Required additional number of gauges.
1
1. Average rainfall, x =  xi
n
78.8  90.2  98.6  102.4  70.4
=
5
= 88.08 cm.
2. The standard deviation of the rainfall,
 ( xi  x )2
 2x =
n 1
= [(78.8 – 88.08) 2 + (90.2 – 88.08) 2 + (98.6 – 88.08) 2
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–7 C (CE-Sem-8)
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+ (102.4 – 88.08) 2 + (70.4–88.08) 2 ]  (5–1)
 2x = 179.732
 x = 13.41 cm
3. Coefficient of variation,
 13.41
Cv = x  100   100  15.22
x 88.08
4. Required number of gauge,
2 2
C   15.22 
N =  v    6.43  7
 p  6 
5. Additional number of gauge = 7 – 5 = 2

c. What is meant by hydrological cycle ? How can the

parameters of the cycle be written in an equation form ?
Draw a neat diagram to illustrate your answer.
Ans. Hydrologic Cycle :

Clouds

Condensation

Precipitation

Snow Infiltration Evaporation

Spring Transpiration
Percolation
Evaporation
Ground water flow Evaporation
Lake River
Ocean
Fig. 1.
Hydrologic cycle is the process of transfer of moisture from the
atmosphere to the earth in the form of precipitation, conveyance
of the precipitated water by streams and rivers to ocean and
lakes etc., and evaporation of water back to the atmosphere as
shown in Fig. 1.
This cycle consists of the following processes :
1. Evaporation and Transpiration (E) : The water from the
surfaces of ocean, rivers, lakes and also from the moist soil
evaporates. The vapours are carried over the land by air in the
form of clouds. Transpiration is the process of water being lost
from the leaves of the plants from their pores. Thus, the total
evaporation (E), inclusive of the transpiration consists of :
Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–8 C (CE-Sem-8)
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i. Surface evaporation.
ii. Water surface evaporation.
a. From river surface.
b. From oceans.
iii. Evaporation from plants and leaves (transpiration).
iv. Atmospheric evaporation.
2. Precipitation (P) : Precipitation may be defined as the fall of
moisture from the atmosphere to the earth surface in any form.
Precipitation may be of two forms :
i. Liquid precipitation : i.e., rainfall.
ii. Frozen precipitation : This consists of :
a. Snow. b. Hail.
c. Sleet. d. Freezing rain.
3. Runoff (R) : Runoff is that portion of precipitation that is not
evaporated. When moisture falls to the earth’s surface as
precipitation, a part of it is evaporated from the water surface, soil
and vegetation and through transpiration by plants, and the
remainder precipitation is available as runoff which ultimately
runs to the ocean through surface or sub-surface streams. Thus
runoff may be classified as follows :
i. Surface Runoff : Water flows over the land and is first to reach
the streams and rivers, which ultimately discharge the water to
the sea.
ii. Inter-flow or Sub-Surface Runoff : A portion of precipitation
infiltrates into surface soil and depending upon the geology of
the basins, runs as sub-surface runoff and reaches the streams
and rivers.
iii. Groundwater Flow or Base Flow : It is that portion of
precipitation, which after infiltration, percolates down and joins
the groundwater reservoir which is ultimately connected to the
ocean.
Thus, the hydrologic cycle may be expressed by the following
simplified equation :
Precipitation (P) = Evaporation (E) + Runoff (R)

d. What do you mean by design flood ? What are the factors

affecting the flood hydrograph ? Explain the procedure of
using a unit hydrograph to develop the flood hydrograph
due to a storm in a catchment.
Ans.
A. Design Flood : It is the value of the instantaneous peak discharge
adopted for the design of a particular project or any of its structure.
The term design flood is used to denote the maximum flood flow
that could be passed without damage or serious threat to the stability
of engineering structure.
B. Factors : Following are the factors affecting the flood hydrograph :
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–9 C (CE-Sem-8)
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1. Physiographic Factors :
i. Basin characteristics :
a. Shape. b. Size.
c. Slope. d. Nature of the valley.
e. Elevation. f. Drainage density.
ii. Infiltration characteristics :
a. Land use and cover.
b. Soil type and geological conditions.
c. Lakes, swamps and other storage.
iii. Channel characteristics : Cross-section, roughness, and storage
capacity.
2. Climatic Factors :
i. Storm characteristics : Precipitation, intensity, duration, magnitude,
and movement of storm.
ii. Initial loss.
iii. Evapotranspiration.
3. Shape of the Basin :
i. The shape of the basin influences the time taken for water from
the remote parts of the catchment to arrive at the outlet. Thus,
the occurrence of the peak and hence the shape of the hydrograph
are affected by the basin shape.
ii. Fan-shaped, i.e., nearly semi circular shaped catchments give
high peak and narrow hydrographs while elongated catchments
give broad and low-peaked hydrographs.
4. Size :
i. Small basins behave different from the large ones in terms of the
relative importance of various phases of the runoff phenomenon.
ii. In small catchments, the overland flow phase is predominant
over the channel flow.
iii. Hence the land use and intensity of rainfall have important role
on the peak flood. On large basins these effects are suppressed as
the channel flow phase is more predominant.
5. Slope :
i. The slope of the main stream controls the velocity of flow in the
channel.
ii. As the recession limb of the hydrograph represents the depletion
of storage, the stream channel slope will have a pronounced effect
on this part of the hydrograph.
iii. Large stream slopes give rise to quicker depletion of storage and
hence result in steeper recession limbs of hydrographs.
iv. The basin slope is important in small catchments where the
overland flow is relatively more important. In such cases the
steeper slope of the catchment results in larger peak discharges.
6. Drainage Density :
i. The drainage density is defined as the ratio of the total channel
length to the total drainage area.
Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–10 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. A large drainage density creates situation conducive for quick
disposal of runoff down the channels.
iii. This fast response is reflected in a pronounced peaked discharge.
iv. In basins with smaller drainage densities, the overland flow is
predominant and the resulting hydrograph is squat with a slowly
rising limb.
7. Climatic Factors :
i. Among climatic factors the intensity, duration, and direction of
storm movement are the three important ones affecting the shape
of a flood hydrograph.
ii. For a given duration, the peak and volume of the surface runoff
are essentially proportional to the intensity of rainfall.
iii. This aspect is made use of in the unit hydrograph theory of
estimating peak-flow hydrographs.
C. Procedure : The unit hydrograph is known and the design storm
is assumed, we proceed as follows :
1. Plot the assumed design storm as a bar diagram with the unit
hydrograph duration as the time interval. For example, storm of
16-hour duration will be represented as four rainfall intervals of
four hours each, if a 4-hour unit hydrograph is given.
2. Subtract the infiltration losses to obtain effective precipitation.
3. Applying linearity and superposition principles, obtain hydrographs
corresponding to each storm interval by multiplying the unit
hydrograph ordinates by the precipitation depths during the interval.
4. Add the ordinates of the hydrographs corresponding to each time
interval to obtain the direct runoff hydrograph for the composite
storm.
5. Add the estimated base flow to get the anticipated flood hydrograph.

e. Write down in details selection of suitable site for a tube

well. And also explain advantages and disadvantages of
well irrigation over canal irrigation.
Ans.
A. Site Selection : The following points should be considered for the
selection of the site :
1. Tube well should be selected at a site where large underground
reservoir exists.
2. If the geological explorations indicate ridges and depressions of
impermeable strata inside the ground, the tube well should be
located where there is the valley.
3. The area should have an access for the availability of a cheap electric
supply so that motor driven pumps can be fitted with tube wells
without an exorbitant cost.
4. The area should have a well distributed and uniform demand for
irrigation throughout the year. If the demand is not uniform, tube
well will be idling for some time or has to work inefficiently and
thus the cost for overall irrigation will increase.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–11 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5. The area around the tube well should have an intensive cultivation
and the tube well should be located centrally so as to reduce the
length of gulf and thereby transient losses.
6. The water available from the tube well should be tested to find out
the irrigation quality of water. If the water is found to have harmful
salts, the site may have to be changed in spite of various advantages.
B. Advantages and Disadvantages : This question is out of syllabus
from sessions 2020-21.

SECTION-C

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Explain both type of rain gauge :
A : Automatic rain-gauge.
B: Non-automatic rain-gauge.
Ans.
A. Automatic Rain-gauge : These are integrating type recording
rain-gauges and are of following types :
1. Weighing Bucket Type Rain-gauge :
i. Self recording gauges are used to determine rates of rainfall
over short periods of time. The most common type of self-
recording gauge is the weighing bucket type as shown in Fig. 2.
Receiver

Funnel
Metal
casing
Bucket

Weighing mechanism
by spring mechanism
Graph
paper

Clock mounted
rotating drum

Fig. 2.
ii. The weighing bucket rain-gauge essentially consists of a receiver
bucket supported by a spring or lever balance or any other
weighing mechanism.
iii. The movement of the bucket due to its increasing weight is
transmitted to a pen which traces the record on a clock-drive
chart.
2. Tipping Bucket Type Rain-gauge :
i. A Steven’s tipping bucket type rain-gauge consists of 300 mm
diameter sharp edge receiver.
Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–12 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. At the end of the receiver a funnel is provided. A pair of buckets
are pivoted under the funnel in such a way that when one bucket
receives 0.25 mm of precipitation, it tips, discharging its contents
into a container bringing the other bucket under the funnel.
iii. Tipping of the bucket completes an electric circuit causing the
movement of pen to mark on clock driven revolving drum which
carries a record sheet.
iv. The electric pulses generated due to the tipping of the buckets
are recorded at the control room far away from the rain gauge
station.
Rain
water
Circular collector

Funnel

Two compartment
tipping bucket connected to
1 2 recording device

Recording device

Measuring Tripod stand

jar
Fig. 3.
B. Non-automatic Rain-gauge : This is also known as non-
recording rain-gauge. Symon’s rain-gauge is the instrument
prescribed by use at all Government rain-gauge stations
throughout India.
Symon’s Rain-gauge :
i. Symon’s rain-gauge is most common type of non-automatic rain-
gauge, and is used by Meteorological Department of Government
of India.
ii. As shown in Fig. 4, it consists of cylindrical vessel 127 mm in
diameter with a base enlarged to 210 mm diameter.
iii. The top section is a funnel provided with circular brass rim
exactly 127 mm internal diameter.
iv. The funnel shank is inserted in the neck of a receiving bottle
which is 75 to 100 mm diameter.
v. A receiving bottle of rain-gauge has a capacity of about 75 to 100
mm of rainfall and as during a heavy rainfall this quantity is
frequently exceeded, the rain should be measured 3 or 4 times
in a day on day of heavy rainfall left the receiver fill should
overflow.
vi. A cylindrical graduated measuring glass is furnished with each
instrument, which reads to 0.2 mm.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–13 C (CE-Sem-8)
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vii. The rainfall should be estimated to the nearest of 0.1 mm.
127 mm

25.4
25.4

305 mm 203

50.8 GL
25.4
60 cm 25.4
210 mm

60 cm
Fig. 4.
viii. The rain-gauge is set up in a concrete block 60 cm × 60 cm × 60
cm, as shown in Fig. 4. The rim should be 305 mm (12) above
the surface of the ground.

b. What is an intensity-duration curve and how will you

proceed to derive such a curve for a given frequency at a
rain gauge station from the available data of worst storms
of different durations kept for a sufficient number of cycles ?
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from sessions 2020-21.

4. Attempt any one part of the following : 10 × 1 = 10

a. Explain the factors that affect the runoff from a catchment
area. How will you estimate the amount of runoff ? A 4-
hour storm in a basin producing 10 cm of runoff results the
following flows in the stream :
Time (hour) 0 2 4 6 8 12 16 20
Flow (cumec) 0.0 2.44 8.10 13.50 11.34 6.75 2.70 0.0
Calculate the peak flow and the time of its occurrence of
the flood created by an 8-hour storm in the basin which
produces 5 cm of runoff during first 4-hours and 7.5 cm
runoff during the second 4-hours. Assume base flow is
negligible.
Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–14 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Ans.
A. Factors : Following are the factors that affect the runoff from a
catchment area :
1. Precipitation Characteristics :
i. This is the most important factor on which runoff depends.
Important precipitation characteristics are :
a. Intensity. b. Duration.
c. Aerial distribution. d. Direction of storm movement.
e. Form of precipitation. f. Evapo-transpiration.
ii. More the rainfall more will be the runoff. Runoff depends on the
type of the storm causing precipitation, and also upon its duration.
iii. Runoff also increases with the intensity of rainfall. Runoff also
increases with the extent of the storm over the catchment.
iv. If the rainfall intensity is very less, and it rains as light showers,
much of the water will be lost in infiltration and evaporation etc.,
and the runoff will be less. Greater evapo-transpiration will result
in lesser runoff.
v. Similarly, if the precipitation is in the form of snow, or if water
freezes as it falls, it will be retained in the catchment till temperature
increases. Thus runoff will be less.
2. Shape and Size of the Catchment :
i. The runoff from a catchment also depends upon the size, shape and
location of the catchment.
ii. More intense rainfalls are generally distributed over a relatively
smaller area. A stream collecting water from a small catchment
area is likely to give greater runoff intensity per unit area.
iii. In the case of a very big catchment, uniform rain seldom falls over
the entire area, with the result that only very few tributaries of the
stream feed water to main stream during a particular storm.
iv. Thus runoff intensity of larger stream, per unit catchment area is
lesser.
v. In the case of a fan or sector shaped catchment Fig. 5(a) all the
tributaries are approximately of the same size.
vi. Such catchment gives greater runoff since the peak flood from the
tributaries is likely to reach the main stream approximately at the
same time.
vii. In the case of a fern leaf catchment Fig. 5(b), the tributaries are
generally of different lengths, and meet the main stream at the
regular intervals.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–15 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Watershed

Watershed

Main
stream
Watershed Main stream
(a) Fan shaped catchment (b) Fern left catchment
Fig. 5.
3. Topography of Catchment :
i. The runoff depends upon whether the surface of the catchment is
smooth or rugged.
ii. If the surface slope is steep, water will flow quickly, and absorption
and evaporation losses will be less, resulting in greater runoff.
iii. If the catchment is mountainous, and is on the windward side of
the mountains, the intensity of rainfall will be more, and hence
runoff will also be more.
4. Orientation of Watershed :
i. The orientation of watershed affects the evaporation and
transpiration loss by influencing the amount of heat received from
the sun.
ii. The north and south orientation of watershed affects the melting
time of collected snow and hence the runoff.
iii. Similarly, in mountainous watershed, the windward side of the
mountain receives comparatively higher intense rainfall than the
leeward side.
B. Numerical and Method : This question is out of syllabus from
sessions 2020-21.

b. What is meant by evapotranspiration ? Also explain

measurement of evapotranspiration.
Ans.
A. Evapotranspiration :
1. Transpiration is the process by which water leaves the body of a
living plant and reaches the atmosphere as water vapour.
2. While transpiration takes place, the land area in which plants
stand also lose moisture by the evaporation of water from soil
and water bodies.
3. In hydrology and irrigation practice, it is found that evaporation
and transpiration processes can be considered advantageously
under one head as evapotranspiration.
B. Measurement :
1. Lysimeters :
i. It is a special watertight tank containing a block of soil and set in
a field of growing plants.
Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–16 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. The plants grown in the lysimeter are the same as in the
surrounding field.
iii. Evapotranspiration is estimated in terms of the amount of water
required to maintain constant moisture conditions within the
tank measured either volumetrically or gravimetrically through
an arrangement made in the lysimeter.
iv. Lysimeters should be designed accurately to reproduce the soil
conditions, moisture content, type and size of the vegetation of
the surrounding area.
v. They should be so buried that the soil is at the same level inside
and outside the container.
vi. Lysimeter studies are time consuming and expensive.
2. Field Plots :
i. In special plots all the elements of the water-budget in a known
interval of time are measured and the evapotranspiration determined
as,
Evapotranspiration = Precipitation + Irrigation input – Runoff –
Increase in soil storage – Groundwater loss
ii. Measurements are usually confined to precipitation, irrigation
input, surface runoff and soil moisture.
iii. Groundwater loss due to deep percolation is difficult to measure
and can be minimized by keeping the moisture condition of the
plot at the field capacity.
iv. This method provides fairly reliable results.

5. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Explain in details of hydrograph with neat sketch. Also
explain theory of unit hydrograph and limitation of unit
hydrograph.
Ans.
A. Hydrograph : A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted against
time chronologically is called a hydrograph (Fig. 6).
B. Theory of Unit Hydrography:
1. A unit hydrograph (or unit-graph) is the direct runoff hydrograph
resulting from one centimeter (or one millimeter or one inch) of
excess rainfall generated uniformly over a catchment area at a
constant rate for an effective duration.
2. The unit hydrograph for a catchment basin is the direct runoff
hydrograph produced by a unit (usually 1 cm) rainfall excess from
a storm of D-hour duration and therefore, is the lumped response
of the basin to the storm.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–17 C (CE-Sem-8)
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D hour
Hydrograph components
MA = Base flow recession
Rainfall
AB = Rising limb
BC = Crest segment
P CD = Falling limb
DN = Base flow recession
Discharge (m 3/s)

B C Points B and C = Inflection points

Direct runoff
Peak
flood
M
A D
N
Base flow

Time (hours)
Fig. 6. Elements of a flood hydrograph.
C. Limitation : Following are the limitations to the use of unit
hydrographs :
1. Precipitation must be from rainfall only. Snow-melt runoff cannot
be satisfactory represented by unit hydrograph.
2. The catchment should not have unusually large storages in terms
of tanks, ponds, large flood-bank storages, etc., which affect the
linear relationship between storage and discharge.
3. If the precipitation is decidedly non-uniform, unit hydrographs
can not be expected to give good results.
4. In the use of unit hydrographs very accurate results should not
be expected. Variations in the hydrograph base of as much as ±
20 % and in the peak discharge by ± 10 % are normally considered
acceptable.

b. What is run-off ? What are the factors that affect the run-
off from a catchment area ? Describe the methods of
computing run-off from a catchment area.
Ans.
A. Run-off : Runoff is that portion of precipitation that is not
evaporated. When moisture falls to the earth’s surface as
precipitation, a part of it is evaporated from the water surface, soil
and vegetation and through transpiration by plants, and the
remainder precipitation is available as runoff which ultimately runs
to the oceans through surface or sub-surface streams.
B. Factors : Following are the factors that affect the runoff from a
catchment area :
1. Precipitation Characteristics :
i. This is the most important factor on which runoff depends.
Important precipitation characteristics are :
Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–18 C (CE-Sem-8)
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a. Intensity. b. Duration.
c. Aerial distribution. d. Direction of storm movement.
e. Form of precipitation. f. Evapo-transpiration.
ii. More the rainfall more will be the runoff. Runoff depends on the
type of the storm causing precipitation, and also upon its duration.
iii. Runoff also increases with the intensity of rainfall. Runoff also
increases with the extent of the storm over the catchment.
iv. If the rainfall intensity is very less, and it rains as light showers,
much of the water will be lost in infiltration and evaporation etc.,
and the runoff will be less. Greater evapo-transpiration will result
in lesser runoff.
v. Similarly, if the precipitation is in the form of snow, or if water
freezes as it falls, it will be retained in the catchment till temperature
increases. Thus runoff will be less.
2. Shape and Size of the Catchment :
i. The runoff from a catchment also depends upon the size, shape and
location of the catchment.
ii. More intense rainfalls are generally distributed over a relatively
smaller area. A stream collecting water from a small catchment
area is likely to give greater runoff intensity per unit area.
iii. In the case of a very big catchment, uniform rain seldom falls over
the entire area, with the result that only very few tributaries of the
stream feed water to main stream during a particular storm.
iv. Thus runoff intensity of larger stream, per unit catchment area is
lesser.
v. In the case of a fan or sector shaped catchment Fig. 7(a) all the
tributaries are approximately of the same size.
vi. Such catchment gives greater runoff since the peak flood from the
tributaries is likely to reach the main stream approximately at the
same time.
vii. In the case of a fern leaf catchment Fig. 7(b), the tributaries are
generally of different lengths, and meet the main stream at the
regular intervals.
Watershed

Watershed

Main
stream
Watershed Main stream
(a) Fan shaped catchment (b) Fern left catchment
Fig. 7.
3. Topography of Catchment :
i. The runoff depends upon whether the surface of the catchment is
smooth or rugged.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–19 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. If the surface slope is steep, water will flow quickly, and absorption
and evaporation losses will be less, resulting in greater runoff.
iii. If the catchment is mountainous, and is on the windward side of
the mountains, the intensity of rainfall will be more, and hence
runoff will also be more.
4. Orientation of Watershed :
i. The orientation of watershed affects the evaporation and
transpiration loss by influencing the amount of heat received from
the sun.
ii. The north and south orientation of watershed affects the melting
time of collected snow and hence the runoff.
iii. Similarly, in mountainous watershed, the windward side of the
mountain receives comparatively higher intense rainfall than the
leeward side.
C. Method : This question is out of syllabus from sessions 2020-21.

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. From the analysis of available data on annual flood peaks
of a stream for a period of 40 years, the 50 year and 100 year
floods have been estimated to be 878 cumec and 970 cumec.
Using Gumbel’s method, estimate the 200 year flood for the
stream.
Ans.
Given : Flood discharge for 50 yr = 878 cumecs
Flood discharge for 100 yr = 970 cumecs.
To Find : Flood discharge for 200 yr.

1. For N = 40 years,
yn = 0.5436 and Sn = 1.1413
2. Now y50 = – [ln ln (50/49)] = 3.90194
y50  yn 3.90194  0.5436
and K50 = = = 2.9426
Sn 1.1413
3. Similarly, y100 = – [lnln (100/99)] = 4.60015
y100  yn 4.60015  0.5436
and K100 = = = 3.5543
Sn 1.1413
4. From the general equation,
xT = x + KT n – 1
x50 = 878 = x + 2.9426 n – 1 ...(1)
and x100 = 970 = x + 3.5543 n – 1 ...(2)
Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–20 C (CE-Sem-8)
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5. Solving the eq. (1) and eq. (2), we get
x = 435.4 m3/sec and n – 1 = 150.4 m3/sec
Hence, we have xT = 435.4 + K T(150.4) ...(3)
6. Again, y200 = – [lnln (200/199)] = 5.29581

y200  yn 5.29581  0.5436

From eq. (3), we get K200 = = = 4.16386
Sn 1.1413
7. x200 = 435.4 + 4.16386 (150.4)  1062 m3/sec

b. A one-day rainfall of 100 mm at a station was found to have

a return period of 50 years. Determine the probability. That
a one-day rainfall of this or larger magnitude will occur at
least once in 20 successive years.
Ans.

Given : One-day rainfall depth = 100 mm, Return period, T = 50

years, Design period, n = 20 years
To Find : The probability that a one-day rainfall

1
1. Probability, p=  0.02 ,
50
2. q = 1 – p = 1 – 0.02 = 0.98

n!
3. Pr, n = pr qn r
( n  r)! r !

20!
P1, 20 =  0.02(0.98)19 = 0.272
19! 1!

7. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. What are the differences between confined and unconfined
aquifers for the determination of discharge with steady
flow condition ? A well penetrates into an unconfined
aquifer having a saturated depth of 100 m. The discharge is
250 liters per minute at 12 m draw down. Assuming
equilibrium flow conditions and a homogeneous aquifer,
estimate the discharge at 18 m draw down. The distance
from the well where the draw down influences are not
appreciable may be taken equal for both cases.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–21 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Ans.
A. Difference between Confined and Unconfined Aquifers :
S. No. Confined Aquifers Unconfined Aquifers

1. Confined aquifer is the one Unconfined aquifer, or watertable

in which ground water is aquifer is the one in which a
confined under pressure watertable serves as the upper
greater than atmospheric by surface of the zone of saturation.
overlying, relatively
impermeable strata.
2. Confined aquifers are also It is also sometimes known as the
known as artesian aquifers. free, phreatic or non-artesian
aquifer.
3. In confined aquifer, the water In such an aquifer, the water
table varies in static form and table varies in undulating form
in slope. and in slope.
4. In a well penetrating aquifer, Rises and falls in the watertable
the water level will rise to the corresponds to changes in the
le ve l of the local static volume of water in storage within
pressure or artesian head. unconfined aquifer.
5. Artesian aquifers usually Unconfined aquifer usually has
have relatively small relatively large recharge areas as
recharge areas as compared compared to confined aquifers.
to unconfined aquifers.

B. Numerical :
Given : Saturated depth, H = 100 m, Discharge, Q1 = 250 litres/min
Drawdown, s1 = 12 m, s2 = 18 m
To Find : Discharge at 18 m drawdown
2Ts
1. Discharge, Q=
R
ln
rw
2. Qs
Q1 s
3. = 1
Q2 s2
s 18
Q2 = Q1  2 = 250 × = 375 litres/min
s1 12

b. Write short notes on any four of the following :

i. Well losses.
Ans.
1. When water is pumped out of a well, the total drawdown caused includes
not only that of the logarithmic drawdown curve at the well face, but also
Solved Paper (2017-18) SP–22 C (CE-Sem-8)
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drawdown caused by flow through well screen and axial movement
within the well. The latter drawdown is called well loss.
2. Since, turbulent flow generally occurs near the well face, this loss
may be taken to be proportional to Qn.

 k (h22 – h12 )  n
Rewriting equation Q   and adding well loss CQ to it,
r
 log e 2 
 r1 
For confined aquifer, s = (H – h) = (Q/2kB) loge (R/r) + CQn ...(1)
where the constant C is governed by several factors such as well
radius, construction and condition of the well.
3. Rewriting the above, we get, s = C1Q + CQn ...(2)
log e ( R / r)
where, C1 = ; C1Q = Aquifer loss and CQn = Well loss.
2kB
4. Fig. 8(a) illustrates that the total drawdown consists of the sum of
the aquifer loss (C1Q) and the well loss (CQn).
5. Fig. 8(b) shows the variations of drawdown and well loss with the
discharge.
Q
Ground surface

Initial piezometric surface

C1Q
Drawdown (s)

Drawdown curve
H
CQn Well loss
n
w
do

C1Q
aw

r s
h D
Confined aquifier l lo s s
W el
CQn

(a) (b) Discharge ( Q)

Fig. 8.
6. For a screen which is not clogged or encrusted and whose size is
compatible to the surrounding porous media, the portion of the
well loss caused by water entering the well is small in comparison
with the portion resulting from axial movement inside the well to
the pump intake.
ii. Specific capacity and specific yield of an aquifer.
Ans.
1. Specific Yield :
i. While porosity gives a measure of the water storage capability of a
formation, not all the water held in the pores is available for
extraction by pumping or draining by gravity.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–23 C (CE-Sem-8)
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ii. The pores hold back some water by molecular attraction and surface
tension.
iii. The actual volume of water that can be extracted by the force of
gravity from a unit volume of aquifer material is known as the
specific yield (Sy).
2. Specific Capacity : The specific capacity of a well is defined as the
well yield per unit of drawdown.
Discharge of well Q  1 
Specific capacity = = = 
Drawdown C1Q  C2Q 2  C1  C2Q 
The equation clearly shows that the specific capacity of the well is
not constant but decreases as the discharge increases.

iii. Rain water harvesting.

Ans. Rain water harvesting is defined as the process of collecting and
concentrating runoff water from a runoff area into a run-on-area,
where the collected water is either directly applied to the cropping
area and stored in the soil profile for immediate use by the crop, i.e.,
runoff farming, or stored in an on-farm water reservoir for future
productive uses, i.e., domestic use, livestock watering, aquaculture
and irrigation.

iv. Aquifer and aquiclude.

Ans.
1. Aquifer :
i. It is a saturated formation of earth material which not only
stores water but yields it in sufficient quantity. Thus an aquifer
transmits water relatively easily due to its high permeability.
ii. Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifers.
2. Aquiclude :
i. It is a geological formation which essentially impermeable to the
flow of water.
ii. It may be considered as closed to water movement even though
it may contain large amounts of water due to its high porosity.
Clay is an example of an aquiclude.

v. Radius of influence and cone of depression.

Ans.
1. Radius of Influence : The areal extent of the cone of depression
is called area of influence and its radial extent radius of influence.
2. Cone of Depression : If the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic
and the water table assumes a conical shape called cone of
depression.


Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–1 C (CE-Sem-8)
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B. Tech.
(SEM. VII) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2018-19
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100

Note : Attempt all section. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.

SECTION-A

1. Attempt all questions in brief : (2 × 10 = 20)

a. Discuss depression storage.

b. What are methods to assess the recharge of ground water

in an area ?

c. Discuss flood frequency analysis.

d. Write short note on Global Water Budget.

e. Define synthetic unit hydrograph.

f. What is a “Return Period” ?

g. Define probable maximum precipitation.

h. What is transmissibility ?

i. Why is base flow separated from total runoff ?

j. Define recurrence interval of flood.

SECTION-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)

a. State the Horton’s equation for infiltration capacity curve
and sketch with the salient components of the curve. And
explain briefly about the -index and W-index.

b. The following are the ordinates for a flood hydrograph

resulting from an isolated storm of 6 hours duration.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–2 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Time (hr) 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96
Ordinates of 5 15 40 80 60 50 25 15 5
Flood
Hydrograph

Determine the ordinates of 1 cm-6 hour unit hydrograph if

the catchment area is 450 km2.

c. List the various direct methods of measurement of

consumptive use of water.

d. How will you derive the synthetic unit hydrograph from a

number of unit hydrograph ? Illustrate the method with
suitable example in a tabular form.

e. Derive an express ion for dis charge from a well in

unconfined aquifer. The well fully penetrates it.

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Explain the concept of S-hydrograph and under what
circumstances you would adoption of this hydrograph.
Give a clear associated sketch.

b. What do you mean by probable maximum precipitation

(PMP) over the basin ? Explain how PMP is estimated.

4. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Define Unit Hydrograph. Explain its assumption and uses.
A 12-hr. UH of a catchment is triangular in the shape with
a base width of 144 hr and peak discharge of 23 m 3/s.
Calculate the area of the catchment.

b. Briefly distinguish between :

i. Actual and Potential evapotranspiration.
ii. Field Capacity and permanent wilting point.
iii. Depression storage and interception.
iv. Infiltration capacity and infiltration rate.

5. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. The ordinates of a 4 hr unit hydrograph of a basin of area
300 km2 measured at 1 hr intervals are 6, 36, 66, 91, 106, 93,
79, 68, 58, 49, 41, 34, 27, 23, 17, 13, 9, 6, 3 and 1.5 m 3/s
respectively. Determine the ordinates of a 3 hr unit
hydrograph for the basin.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–3 C (CE-Sem-8)
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b. Unit hydrograph ordinates of 4 hour are given below. Find
out ordinates of 8 hr.
Time(hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
UHO 0 17 28 42 72 60 47 32 15 0

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Describe the various structural methods adopted for
control of floods. Also discuss the problem of floods and
their control with special reference to the Indian scene.

b. The peak values of the floods from the year 1941 to 1954 are
4000, 5400, 7000, 4600, 3800, 5800, 4900, 7800, 6400, 5300, 4700,
5200, 10000 and 5200 cumecs. Estimate the magnitude of
flood having frequency equal to :
i. 100 years, ii. 300 years. The yn = 0.5128 and Sn= 1.0206.
7. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Write short notes on following :
i. Specific capacity of well.
ii. Well loss.
iii. Spherical flow in well.

b. A 25 cm diameter well penetrates 20 m below water table.

After 1 day pumping at a rate of 4600 litre/minutes. The
water level in a test well at 110 m is lowered by 0.7 m and
test well at 40 m away drawdown is 1.25 m. What is the
transmissibility of aquifer ?


Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–4 C (CE-Sem-8)
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2018-19)

Note : Attempt all section. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief : (2 × 10 = 20)
a. Discuss depression storage.
Ans. When the precipitation of a storm reaches the ground it must fire
fill up all depressions before it can flow over the surface. The volume
of water trapped in these depressions is called depression storage.

b. What are methods to assess the recharge of ground water

in an area ?
Ans.
Artificial recharge methods

Direct methods Indirect methods

Surface Subsurface Induced Aquifer Groundwater

spreading techniques recharge modifications conservation
techniques structures

e.g., Flooding, e.g., Injection well, e.g., e.g., Bore e.g., GW dams
Run off conservation, Recharge well Collector well, blasting, Hydro bhandaras
structures, Infiltration fracturing
Surface irrigation galleries
Fig. 1.

c. Discuss flood frequency analysis.

Ans.
i. Flood frequency analysis is a technique used by the hydrologists to
predict flow values corresponding to specific return periods or
probabilities along a river.
ii. Frequency analysis is most commonly applied to peak instantaneous
discharges, but may also be applied to daily mean flow or to a
volume over a specified duration.

d. Write short note on Global Water Budget.

Ans.
i. The total quantity of water in the world is estimated to be about
1386 million cubic kilometres (M km3).
ii. About 96.5 % of this water is contained in the oceans as saline water.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–5 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iii. Some of the water on the land amounting to about 1 % of the total
water is also saline.
iv. Thus, only about 35.0 M km3 of fresh water is available.
v. Out of this about 10.6 M km3 is both liquid and fresh and the
remaining 24.4 M km3 is contained in frozen state as ice in the
polar region and on mountain tops and glaciers.

e. Define synthetic unit hydrograph.

Ans. In the case of ungauged rivers, recorded data are not available. In
some other cases, the data available may be scanty. For such
catchments, unit hydrographs are derived by relating the selected
basin characteristics to the unit hydrograph shape. The resulting
hydrograph, derived from basin characteristic relationships is known
as synthetic unit hydrograph.

f. What is a “Return Period” ?

Ans. It is the average recurrence interval for a certain event or flood.

g. Define probable maximum precipitation.

Ans. The probable maximum precipitation (PMP) is defined as the
greatest or extreme rainfall for a given duration that is physically
possible over a station or basin.

h. What is transmissibility ?
Ans. It is defined as the rate of flow of water (m3/day) through vertical
strip of aquifer of unit width and extending the full saturation
height under unit hydraulic gradient.

i. Why is base flow separated from total runoff ?

Ans. To obtained surface flow hydrograph, base flow separated from
total runoff.

j. Define recurrence interval of flood.

Ans. This is the flood that would result from a severe combination of
meteorological and hydrological factors that are reasonably
applicable to the region. Extremely rare combinations of factors
are excluded.
SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)
a. State the Horton’s equation for infiltration capacity curve
and sketch with the salient components of the curve. And
explain briefly about the -index and W-index.
Ans.
A. Horton’s Equation :
1. Fig. 2 shows a typical variation of infiltration capacity fp with
time.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–6 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2. Cumulative infiltration capacity Fp(t) is defined as the accumulation
of infiltration volume over a time period since the start of the
process and is given by,
t
FP = f p (t)dt ...(1)
0
3. Thus, the curve Fp(t) vs time in Fig. 2 is the mass curve of
infiltration.
4. It may be noted that from eq. (1), it follows that
dFp (t)
fp(t) = ...(2)
dt
5. Many equations have been proposed to express the curves fp(t)
or Fp(t) for use in hydrological analysis.

Fp (t c )
Infiltration capacity fp

Cumulative infiltration
capacity F p( t)
fp( t) vs t

fc
fc
tc
Time t
Fig. 2.
6. Horton’s Equations (1933) : Horton expressed the decay of
infiltration capacity with time as an exponential decay given by,
fp = fc + (f0 – f c)e–Kht for 0  t  t ...(3)
where, fp = Infiltration capacity at any time t from the
start of the rainfall.
f0 = Initial infiltration capacity at t = 0.
fc = Final steady state infiltration capacity occurring
at
t = tc. Also, fc is sometimes known as constant
rate or ultimate infiltration capacity.
Kh = Horton’s decay co-efficient which depends
upon soil characteristics and vegetation cover.
-index and W-index : It is the average rate of loss such that the
volume of rainfall in excess of that rate will be equal to the direct
runoff. Estimate of runoff volume from large areas having
heterogeneous infiltration loss and rainfall characteristics, are
made by use of infiltration indices.
A. -index :
i. The -index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall volume
is equal to the runoff volume.
ii. The -index is derived from the rainfall hyetograph with the
knowledge of the resulting runoff volume.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–7 C (CE-Sem-8)
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iii. The initial loss is also considered as infiltration.
iv. The -value is found by treating it as a constant infiltration
capacity.
B. W-index :
i. In an attempt to refine the -index, the initial losses are separated
from the total abstractions and an average value of infiltration
rate, called W-index, is defined as,
P  R  Ia
W= ...(1)
te
where, P = Total storm precipitation (cm).
R = Total storm runoff (cm).
Ia = Initial losses (cm).
te = Duration of the rainfall excess, i.e., the total
time in which the rainfall intensity is greater
than W (in hours).
W = Defined average rate of infiltration (cm).
ii. Since initial losses are difficult to obtain, the accurate estimation
of W-index is rather difficult.
iii. The minimum value of the W-index obtained under very wet soil
conditions, representing the constant minimum rate of infiltration
of the catchment, is known as Wmin.
iv. It is to be noted that both the -index and W-index vary from
storm to storm.

b. The following are the ordinates for a flood hydrograph

resulting from an isolated storm of 6 hours duration.
Time (hr) 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96
Ordinates of 5 15 40 80 60 50 25 15 5
Flood
Hydrograph

Determine the ordinates of 1 cm-6 hour unit hydrograph if

the catchment area is 450 km2.
Ans.
Given : Ordinates of a hydrograph are given in table, Area of
catchment, A = 450 km2.
To Find : The ordinates of 6-h unit hydrograph.
1. Let us assume a constant base flow of 5 cumecs.
2. The ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph are obtained by
subtracting base flow (= 5 cumecs) from each ordinate of the
given flood hydrograph, as given in the Table. 1.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–8 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Table 1.
Time in Ordinates of Flood Ordinate of Ordinate of
Hours Hydrograph Direct Runoff Unit Hydrograph
0 5 0 0
12 15 10 4.17
24 40 35 14.58
36 80 75 31.25
48 60 55 22.92
60 50 45 18.75
72 25 20 8.33
84 15 10 4.17
96 5 0 0
3. The direct runoff is given by,
( O)  t
n = 0.36 cm
A
O = 0 + 10 + 35 + 75 + 55 + 45 + 20 + 10 + 0 = 250 cumecs
t = Time interval between ordinates, in hours, = 12 hours
Direct runoff, n = (0.36 × 250 × 12) /450 = 2.4 cm
4. Hence the ordinates of 6-hour unit hydrograph are obtained by
dividing the ordinates of direct runoff by n = 2.4, as shown in the
Table 1.

c. List the various direct methods of measurement of

consumptive use of water.
Ans. Direct Measurement of Consumptive Use : Following are the
methods of direct measurement of consumptive use of water :
1. Tank and lysimeter methods.
2. Field experimental plots.
3. Soil moisture studies.
4. Integration method.
5. Inflow and outflow studies for large area.

d. How will you derive the synthetic unit hydrograph from a

number of unit hydrograph ? Illustrate the method with
suitable example in a tabular form.
Ans.
A. Synthetic Unit Hydrograph :
1. We have seen that if the rainfall and runoff records are available,
unit hydrographs can be derived.
2. However, in the case of ungauged rivers, these data are not
available. In some other cases, the data available may be scanty.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–9 C (CE-Sem-8)
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3. For such catchments, unit hydrographs are derived by relating
the selected basin characteristics to the unit hydrograph shape.
4. The resulting hydrograph, derived from basin characteristics
relationship is known as a synthetic unit hydrograph.
B. Snyder’s Method :
1. Snyder studied the data of catchments of Appalachian Highlands
of Eastern United States, and then developed empirical equations
for synthetic hydrograph.
2. Snyder selected three parameters of unit hydrograph :
i. Base width, Tb
ii. Peak discharge, Qp
iii. Basin lag, tL.
T

t L = Basin lag
T P
Qp —
2

Q
0.75 Q p W75

0.50 Q p W50

Qp

Tb
Time, t
Fig. 3.
3. The equations given by him take into account catchment area,
shape of basin, topography, channel slopes, stream density and
channel storage.
4. He eliminated all these parameters except the first two, by
including them in a single co-efficient Ct.
5. He dealt with the size and shape of the catchment by measuring
the length of the main stream channel, by proposing the following
equation for basin lag :
tL = Ct(Lca × L)0.3 ...(1)
where, tL = Basin lag in hours, (basin lag is the time
between mass of centre of unit rainfall of T
hour duration and runoff peak flow).
Ct = A co-efficient depending upon units and
drainage basin characteristics (1.35 – 1.65).
L = Distance from station to catchment boundary
measured along the main stream, in km.
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Lca = Distance along the main stream from gauging
station to a point opposite the centroid of the
watershed, in km.
6. The peak discharge of Qp unit hydrograph of standard duration T
is given by,
2.778 C p A
Qp = ...(2)
tL
where, Qp = Peak discharge (m3/sec).
A = Catchment area (km2).
Cp = A regional constant, ranging from 0.56 to 0.69.
7. Snyder adopted the standard duration (T) hours of effective rainfall
given by,
T = (2 / 11)tL ...(3)
8. The duration of surface runoff or the base length Tb of unit
hydrograph is given by,

Tb = 3  3  tL  (days)
 24 
When Tb is expressed in hours,
Tb = 72 + 3 tL ...(4)
(where both Tb and tL are in hours)
9. It is found that equation (4) gives unreasonably long base periods
for small catchments. Some investigators recommend that a base
period equal to five times the time to peak should be taken :
T t 
Tb = 5   tL  = 5  L  tL 
2   11 
or Tb = 5.455 tL ...(5)
Alternatively, assuming a triangular shape of unit hydrograph,
Tb = 5.556/qp
10. Sketching of unit hydrographs becomes easier by adopting the
following recommendations given by US Army Corps of Engineers,
for widths of unit hydrographs at 50 and 75 % of the peak
discharge :
5.87
W50 =
q1.08
p

W50
and W75 =
1.75
where, W50 = Width of unit hydrograph in hours, at 50 %
peak discharge.
W75 = Width of unit hydrograph, in hours, at 75 % peak
discharge.
qp = Qp / A = Peak discharge per unit area.
11. Usually, one third of this width is kept before the unit hydrograph
peak and two thirds after the peak.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–11 C (CE-Sem-8)
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12. If synthetic unit hydrograph of any other duration T  is required,
then the modified basin lag is
T – T
TL = TL 
4
2.778 A C p
Also, Qp =
tL
C. Example :
A set of information extracted for estimating SUH are given below :
Area, A = 606.52 km2
Length of longest flow path, L = 56.4 km
Centroidal flow path, Lc = 28.2 km
Answer :
1. 1 hr Synthetic UH parameters generated by 1 cm effective rainfall.
SUH parameters are computed by using equations as follows :

Qp 0.905 (A)0.758 0.905 (606.52)0.758 116.42 say 116.0 cumec

qp (Qp/A) (116.0/606.52) 0.19 cumec/km2
tP 2.87 (qp)–0.839 2.87 (0.19)–0.839 11.56 say 11.50 hrs.
–1.035 –1.035
W50 2.304 (qp) 2.304 (0.19) 12.85 hrs
W75 1.339 (qp)–0.978 1.339 (0.19)– 0.978 6.79 hrs.
WR50 0.814 (qp)–1.018 0.814 (0.19)–1.018 4.41 hrs
WR75 0.494(qp) –0.966 0.494 (0.19)–0.966 2.46 hrs
TB 2.447 (tp)1.157 2.447(11.50)1.157 41.29 hrs say 41.00 hrs
TM tP + (tr / 2 ) 11.50 + (1/2) 12.00 hrs.

2. An SUH based on the estimated parameters in table is shown in

Fig. 4.
Q
120
12, 116
100
9.54, 87 16.33, 87
80
27.71, 58
60
7.59, 58
40

20
0.0 41.0
0 hr
0 10 20 30 40
Fig. 4.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–12 C (CE-Sem-8)
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e. Derive an express ion for dis charge from a well in
unconfined aquifer. The well fully penetrates it.
Ans.
1. Equation Relating the Steady State Discharge from a Well
in an Unconfined Aquifer :
i. Fig. 5 shows a well penetrating an unconfined or free aquifer to
its full depth.
Let, r = Radius of the well.
H = Thickness of the aquifer, measured from the
impermeable layer to the initial level of watertable.
s = Drawdown at the well.
h = Depth of water in the well measured above
impermeable layer.
Q
Ground level
r r
r2 R
r1 Initial water table
s2
s1 P
2 s Cone of
(x , y )
depression
1
Observation wells

H
h2
h1
h

y
x

Impervious layer O
Fig. 5.
ii. Considering the origin of co-ordinates at a point O at the centre
of the well at its bottom, let the co-ordinates of any point P on
the drawdown curve be (x, y).
Then, from Darcy’s law, Q = k A x i x
where, Ax = Area of cross-section of the saturated part of aquifer
at P
= (2 x) × (y) = 2  x y
dy
ix = Hydraulic gradient at P =
dx
dy
iii. Discharge, Q = k(2  x y)
dx
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–13 C (CE-Sem-8)
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dx
 Q = 2  k y dy
x
iv. Integrating between the limits (R, r) for x and (H, h) for y, we get
R H
dx
Q = 2 k  y dy
r x h
H
 2
Q  log xr = 2 k  y 
R

 2 h
k( H 2 – h 2 ) 1.36 k( H 2 – h2 )
Q= 
R R
log e log10
r r

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Explain the concept of S-hydrograph and under what
circumstances you would adoption of this hydrograph.
Give a clear associated sketch.
Ans. The S-curve :
1. If it is desired to develop a unit hydrograph of duration mD,
where m is a fraction, the method of superposition cannot be
used.
2. A different technique known as the S-curve method is adopted in
such cases, and this method is applicable for rational values of m.
3. The S-curve, also known as S-hydrograph is a hydrograph produced
by a continuous effective rainfall at a constant rate for an infinite
period.
4. It is a curve obtained by summation of an infinite series of
D-h unit hydrographs spaced D-h apart.
5. Fig. 6 shows such a series of D-h hydrograph arranged with their
starting points D-h apart.
6. At any given time the ordinates of the various curves occurring
at that time coordinate are summed up to obtain ordinates of the
S-curve.
7. A smooth curve through these ordinates result in an S-shaped
curve called S-curve.
8. This S-curve is due to a D-h unit hydrograph. It has an initial
steep portion and reaches a maximum equilibrium discharge at a
time equal to the time base of the first unit hydrograph.
9. The average intensity of ER producing the S-curve is 1/D cm/h
and the equilibrium discharge,
A 
Qs =   104  m3/h
D 
where, A = Area of the catchment in km 2, and D = Duration in
hours of ER of the unit hydrograph used in deriving the S-curve.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–14 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Unit rainfall excess equals 1 cm in D-h
1
cm
Average excess rainfall intensity = 1/ D cm/m
D

S-curve
Discharge (m3/sec)

5
1 ui
n
1 ui = Q s
(u 1 + u 2 + u3)

4
1 ui
(u1 + u2)

u1
u4
u3
u2 u5
u1 u6 u7
0
0 Time in hours
Fig. 6.
Alternatively,
A 3
m /sec Qs = 2.778
D
where, A is in the km2, and D is in h.
10. The quantity Qs represents the maximum rate at which an ER
intensity of 1/D cm/h can drain out of a catchment of area A. In
actual construction of an S-curve, it is found that the curve oscillates
in the top portion at around the equilibrium value due to
magnification and accumulation of small errors in the hydrograph.
When it occurs, an average smooth curve is drawn such that it
reaches a value Qs at the time base of the unit hydrograph.

b. What do you mean by probable maximum precipitation

(PMP) over the basin ? Explain how PMP is estimated.
Ans.
A. Probable Maximum Precipitation :
1. The probable maximum precipitation, commonly known as PMP,
for a region is the precipitation resulting from the most critical
meteorological combinations that are considered probable of
occurrence.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–15 C (CE-Sem-8)
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2. It can be defined as that rainfall over a basin which would produce
the flood flow with virtually no risk of being exceeded.
3. From the statistical studies, PMP can also be estimated from the
following equation :
PMP = P  K 
where, P = Mean of annual maximum rainfall series.
 = Standard deviation of the series.
K = Frequency factor, which is usually in the
neighbourhood of 15.
B. Maximum and Minimum Rainfall : The magnitudes of
maximum rainfall and minimum rainfall within specified time
period can be determined by the use of frequency formula given
by Hazen :
2N N
T= 
2m  1 m  0.5
where, T = Recurrence interval within which the event is either
equal to or greater than the specified amount.
Procedure for Determination of Maximum Rainfall :
1. Arrange the rainfall data in descending order and assign rank
number (m) to each rainfall event, the total number of event
being equal to N.
2. Compute recurrence interval (T) for each event.
3. Plot a graph between recurrence interval (T) as abscissa and
corresponding rainfall as ordinate.
4. Determine the expected maximum rainfall magnitude for any
desired value of T from this graph.
Procedure for Determination of Minimum Rainfall :
1. Arrange the rainfall data in ascending order and assign rank
number (m) to each rainfall event, the total number of events
being equal to N.
2. Compute recurrence interval (T) for each event.
3. Plot a graph between recurrence interval (T) as abscissa and
corresponding rainfall as ordinate.
4. Determine the expected minimum rainfall magnitude for any
desired value of T from this graph.

4. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Define Unit Hydrograph. Explain its assumption and uses.
A 12-hr. UH of a catchment is triangular in the shape with
a base width of 144 hr and peak discharge of 23 m3/s.
Calculate the area of the catchment.
Ans.
A. Unit Hydrograph :
1. A unit hydrograph (or unit-graph) is the direct runoff hydrograph
resulting from one centimeter (or one millimeter or one inch) of
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–16 C (CE-Sem-8)
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excess rainfall generated uniformly over a catchment area at a
constant rate for an effective duration.
2. The unit hydrograph for a catchment basin is the direct runoff
hydrograph produced by a unit (usually 1 cm) rainfall excess from
a storm of D-hour duration and therefore, is the lumped response
of the basin to the storm.
B. Assumptions : Following are the basic assumptions in the unit
hydrograph theory :
1. The excess rainfall has a constant intensity (1/D cm/hr) within
effective storm duration of D-hours.
2. The excess rainfall (giving rise to 1 cm depth of runoff) is uniformly
distributed throughout the entire catchment basin.
3. The base time of direct runoff hydrograph (i.e., the duration of
the direct runoff resulting from an excess rainfall of given duration)
is constant.
4. The ordinates of all direct runoff hydrographs of a common base
time are directly proportional to the total amount of direct runoff
represented by each hydrograph.
5. For a given catchment basin, the hydrograph, resulting from a
given excess rainfall, reflects the unchanging characteristics of
the catchment basin.
C. Numerical :
Given : Base width, B = 144 hr, Peak discharge = 23 m3/sec
To Find : Area of catchment
Discharge
23 m 3/sec

Time
144 hr.
Fig. 7.
We know that, Area of UH = Area of catchment × 1 cm
(1 / 2) × B × 60 × 60 × peak = Area × 1 cm
(1/2) × 144 × 60 × 60 × 23 = A × (1/100)
A = 596160000 m2 = 596.16 km2

b. Briefly distinguish between :

i. Actual and Potential evapotranspiration.
ii. Field Capacity and permanent wilting point.
iii. Depression storage and interception.
iv. Infiltration capacity and infiltration rate.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–17 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Ans.
1. Potential Evapotranspiration :
i. If sufficient moisture is always available completely to meet the
needs of vegetation fully covering the area, the resulting
evapotranspiration is called potential evapotranspiration (PET).
ii. Potential evapotranspiration no longer critically depends on the
soil and plant factors but depends essentially on the climatic
factors.
2. Actual Evapotranspiration : The real evapotranspiration
occurring in a specific situation is called actual evapotranspiration
(AET).
3. Field Capacity : It is defined as the maximum quantity of water
that the soil can retain against the force of gravity. Any higher
moisture input to a soil at field capacity simply drains away.
4. Permanent Wilting Point :
i. It is the moisture content of a soil at which the moisture is no
longer available in sufficient quantity to sustain the plants.
ii. At this stage, even though the soil contains some moisture, it
will be so held by the soil grains that the roots of the plants are
not able to extract it in sufficient quantities to sustain the plants
and consequently the plants wilt.
5. Depression Storage :
i. A catchment area generally has many depressions of shallow depth
and of varying size and shape.
ii. When precipitation take place, water runs towards these
depressions and fill them before actual overland flow or runoff
towards a stream takes place.
iii. Depression storage depends on a vast number of factors. The
major factors are :
a. The type of soil.
b. The condition of the surface reflecting the amount and nature
of depression.
c. The slope of the catchment.
d. The antecedent precipitation as a measure of the soil moisture.
iv. The following relationship may be used for computing the depression
storage,
P
  e 
Vds = K 1  e k 
where, Vds = Volume of water stored in surface depression.
Pe = Rainfall excess.
k = Depression storage capacity of the basin.
6. Interception :
i. It may be defined as that amount of precipitation water which is
intercepted by vegetative foliage, buildings and other objects lying
over the land surface.
ii. Interception does not reach the land surface but is returned back to
the atmosphere by evaporation.
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iii. The intercepted precipitation may follow one of the three possible
routes :
a. It may be retained by the vegetation as surface storage and
returned to the atmosphere by evaporation; this is known as
interception loss.
b. It can drip off the plant leaves to join the ground surface or the
surface flow; this is known as throughfall.
c. The rainwater may run along the leaves and branches and down
the stem to reach the ground surface. This part is called stemflow.
7. Infiltration Capacity : The maximum rate at which a given soil
at a given time can absorb water is defined as the infiltration
capacity. It is designated as fp and is expressed in units of cm/h.
The actual rate of infiltration can be expressed as
f = fp when i  fp
f = i when i < fp
The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at the beginning of a storm
and has an exponential decay as the time elapses.
8. Infiltration Rate : Infiltration rate, at any instant is the rate at
which water actually enters into the soil during a storm, and is
equal to the infiltration capacity fp or the rainfall rate, whichever is
less.

5. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. The ordinates of a 4 hr unit hydrograph of a basin of area
300 km2 measured at 1 hr intervals are 6, 36, 66, 91, 106, 93,
79, 68, 58, 49, 41, 34, 27, 23, 17, 13, 9, 6, 3 and 1.5 m 3/s
respectively. Determine the ordinates of a 3 hr unit
hydrograph for the basin.
Ans.
Given : Area of basin, A = 300 km2
To Find : The ordinates of a 3-h unit hydrograph from the basin.
1. Column-2 of table 2 given the 4-hr unit hydrograph while column-
4 gives the ordinates of S-curve derived from it. Column-5 gives
the ordinates of the offset S-curve by to = 3-hr. Column-6 gives
the difference y between the ordinates of the two S-curve.
2. The ordinate of the 3-hr unit hydrograph are given by,
O = y(T0 / t0) = (4 / 3) y
where, T0 = 4-hr unit hydrograph.
t0 = 3-hr unit hydrograph.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–19 C (CE-Sem-8)
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Table 2.
4
Time 4 h-Unit Offset Ordinate of Ordinate y O= y
3
(hr) Hydrograph Ordinate of S-curve offset S-
curve
Col. (1) Col. (2) Col. (3) Col. (4) Col. (5) Col. (6) Col. (7)
00 0 – 0 – 0 0
01 6 – 6 – 6 8
02 36 – 36 – 36 48
03 66 – 66 0 66 88
04 91 0 91 6 85 113.3
05 106 6 112 36 76 101.33
06 93 36 129 66 63 84
07 79 66 145 91 54 72
08 68 91 159 112 47 62.67
09 58 112 170 129 41 54.67
10 49 129 178 145 33 44
11 41 145 186 159 27 36
12 34 159 193 170 23 30.67
13 27 170 197 178 19 25.33
14 23 178 201 186 15 20
15 17 186 203 193 10 13.33
16 13 193 206 197 9 12
17 9 197 206 201 5 6.67
18 6 201 207 203 4 5.33
19 3 203 206 206 0 0
20 1.5 206 207.5 206 1.5 2

207.5 207 0.5 0.67

b. Unit hydrograph ordinates of 4 hour are given below. Find

out ordinates of 8 hr.
Time(hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
UHO 0 17 28 42 72 60 47 32 15 0

Ans.
Given : The ordinates of 4-h unit hydrograph
To Find : The ordinates of 8-h unit hydrograph
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–20 C (CE-Sem-8)
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1. When 2 unit hydrographs, each of 4-hr duration, are added together
placed at 4-hr lag successively from one another, then we will get
the ordinates of 8-hr.
2. Surface runoff hydrograph, containing 2 cm of direct runoff. Hence
the ordinates of a 8-hr unit hydrograph are obtained by dividing
each of the ordinates of 8-hr hydrograph by 2.
3. The computations are done in table 3.
Table 3.
Time 1st 4 hr 2nd 4 hr Total 8 hr Ordinates
(hr) UH UH hydrograph of 8 hr
of 2 cm runoff UH
0 0 0 0
4 17 0 17 8.5
8 28 17 45 22.5
12 42 28 70 35
16 72 42 114 57
20 60 72 132 66
24 47 60 107 53.5
28 32 47 79 39.5
32 15 32 47 23.5
36 0 15 15 7.5
0 0 0

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Describe the various structural methods adopted for
control of floods. Also discuss the problem of floods and
their control with special reference to the Indian scene.
Ans.
A. Structural Methods : Following are the structural method :
1. Storage Reservoir :
i. Storage reservoirs offer one of the most reliable and effective
methods of flood control.
ii. Ideally, in this method, a part of the storage in the reservoir is
kept apart to absorb the incoming flood.
iii. Further, the stored water is released in a controlled way over an
extended time so that downstream channels do not get flooded.
iv. Fig. 8 shows an ideal operating plan of a flood control reservoir.
v. To achieve complete flood control in the entire length of the
river, a large number of reservoirs at strategic locations in the
catchment will be necessary.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–21 C (CE-Sem-8)
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vi. The Hirakud and Damodar valley corporate (DVC) reservoirs
are example of major reservoirs in the country which have specific
volumes earmarked for flood absorption.

Flood Inflow hydrograph

Discharge

volume Safe discharge channel

stored capacity
B C
A Reservoir
Controlled release release (ABCD)
D
Time
Fig. 8.
2. Levees :
i. Levees, also known as dikes or flood embankments are earthen
banks constructed parallel to the course of the river to confine it
to a fixed course and limited cross-sectional width.
ii. Masonry structures used to confine the river in a manner similar
to levees are known as flood walls. These are used to protect
important structures against floods, especially where the land is
at a premium.
iii. The heights of levees will be higher than the design flood level
with sufficient free board.
iv. The confinement of the river to a fixed path frees large tracts of
land from inundation and consequent damage.
v. Levees are one of the oldest and most common methods of flood-
protection works adopted in the world. Also, they are probably
the cheapest of structural flood-control measures.
vi. While the protection offered by a levee against flood damage is
obvious, what is not often appreciated is the potential damage in
the event of a levee failure.
vii. The design of a levee is a major task in which costs and economic
benefits have to be considered.
viii. The cross-section of a levee will have to be designed like an
earth dam for complete safety against all kinds of saturation
and drawdown possibilities.
3. Floodways :
i. Floodways are natural channels into which a part of the flood
will be diverted during high stages.
ii. A floodway can be a natural or manmade channel and its location
is controlled essentially by the topography.
iii. Generally, wherever they are feasible, floodways offer an
economical alternative to other structural flood-control measures.
iv. To reduce the level of the river Jhelum at Srinagar, a supplementary
channel has been constructed to act as a floodway with a capacity
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–22 C (CE-Sem-8)
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of 300 m3 /s. This channel is located 5 km upstream of Srinagar
city and has its outfall in Lake Wullar.
v. In Andhra Pradesh, a floodway has been constructed to transfer
a part of the flood waters of the river Budamaru to river Krishna
to prevent flood damages to the urban areas lying on the
downstream reaches of the river Budamaru.
4. Channel Improvement : The works under this category involve :
i. Widening or deepening of the channel to increase the cross-
sectional area.
ii. Reduction of the channel roughness, by clearing of vegetation
from the channel perimeter.
iii. Short circuiting of meander loops by cutoff channels, leading to
increased slopes.
5. Watershed Management :
i. Watershed management and land treatment in the catchment
aims at cutting down and delaying the runoff before it gets into
the river.
ii. Watershed management measures include developing the
vegetative and soil cover in conjunction with land treatment
words like Nalabunds, check dams, contour bunding, zing terraces
etc.
iii. These measures are towards improvement of water infiltration
capacity of the soil and reduction of soil erosion.
iv. Watershed treatment is now a day’s an integral part of flood
management.
v. It is believed that while small and medium floods are reduced by
watershed management measures, the magnitude of extreme
floods are unlikely to be affected by these measures.
B. Flood Control in India :
i. In India, the Himalayan rivers account for nearly 60 % of the flood
damage in the country.
ii. Floods in these rivers occur during monsoon months and usually in
the months of August or September. The damages caused by floods
are difficult to estimate.
iii. During 1953-2004, the average number of human lives and cattle
lost due to floods in the country were 1597 and 94,000 respectively.
iv. It is estimated that annually, on an average about 40 Mha of land is
liable to flooding and of this about 14 Mha have some kind of flood
control measures.
v. At the beginning of the current millennium, in the country, as per
flood control measures, there were about 15800 km of levees and
about 32000 km of drainage channel affording protection from
floods.
vi. On an average, about 7.5 Mha land is affected by flood annually.
Out of this, about 3.56 Mha are lands under crops.
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–23 C (CE-Sem-8)
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vii. Similarly, annually about 3.345 lakhs people are affected and
about 12.15 lakhs houses are damaged by flood. On an average,
about 60-80 % of flood damages occur in the state U.P., Bihar,
West Bengal, Assam and Odisha.
viii. Flood forecasting is handled by CWC. The CWC has 157 flood
forecasting stations, of which 132 stations are for river stage forecast
and 25 for inflow forecast.
ix. A National programme for flood management was launched in
1954 and an amount of 3165 crores was spent till 1992. The tenth
plan (2002-2007) had an expenditure of 4468 crores for flood
management.

b. The peak values of the floods from the year 1941 to 1954 are
4000, 5400, 7000, 4600, 3800, 5800, 4900, 7800, 6400, 5300, 4700,
5200, 10000 and 5200 cumecs. Estimate the magnitude of
flood having frequency equal to :
i. 100 years, ii. 300 years. The yn = 0.5128 and Sn= 1.0206.

Ans.
Given : Flood peak values from 1941 to 1954 = 4000, 5400, 7000,
4600, 3800, 5800, 4900, 7800, 6400, 5300, 4700, 5200, 10000 and
5200 cumecs, yn = 0.5128, Sn = 1.0206.
To Find : Flood discharge for 100 yr and 300 yr.

1. Average, x = Sx / N = 80100 / 14 = 5721.43 cumecs

2. Standard Deviation :
Year Discharge ( x  x)2
1941 4000 2963321.245
1942 5400 103317.245
1943 7000 1634741.245
1944 4600 1257605.245
1945 3800 3691893.245
1946 5800 6173.245
1947 4900 674747.245
1948 7800 4320453.245
1949 6400 460457.245
1950 5300 177603.245
1951 4700 1043319.245
1952 5200 271889.245
1953 10000 18306161.24
1954 5200 271889.245
 80100  35183571.43
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–24 C (CE-Sem-8)
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(x  x ) 2
n–1 =  35183571.43 / 13 = 1645.123
N 1
3. When return period, T = 100 yr
  100  
i. yT = y100 =   ln ln  = 4.60015
  99  
y  yn 4.60015  0.5128
ii. kT = k100 = T = = 4.00485
sn 1.0206
iii. xT = x100 = x + kT n – 1
= 5721.43 + 4.00485 × 1645.123 = 12309.9 m3/sec
4. When return period, T = 300 yr
  300  
i. yT = y300 =   ln ln  = 5.70211
  299  
y  yn 5.70211  0.5128
ii. kT = k300 = T = = 5.0846
sn 1.0206
ii. xT = x300 = x + kTn – 1
= 5721.43 + 5.0846 × 1645.123 = 14086.22 m3/sec

7. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. Write short notes on following :
i. Specific capacity of well.
ii. Well loss.
iii. Spherical flow in well.
Ans.
A. Specific Capacity of Well : The specific capacity of a well is
defined as the well yield per unit of drawdown.
Discharge of well Q  1 
Specific capacity = = =
Drawdown C1Q  C2Q 2  C1  C2Q 
The equation clearly shows that the specific capacity of the well is
not constant but decreases as the discharge increases.
B. Well Loss :
1. When water is pumped out of a well, the total drawdown caused
includes not only that of the logarithmic drawdown curve at the
well face, but also drawdown caused by flow through well screen
and axial movement within the well. The latter drawdown is called
well loss.
2. Since, turbulent flow generally occurs near the well face, this loss
may be taken to be proportional to Qn.

 k (h22 – h12 ) 
Rewriting equation Q  and adding well loss CQn to
r2 
 log e 
 r1 
Engg Hydrology & Ground Water Mgmt. SP–25 C (CE-Sem-8)
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it,
For confined aquifer, s = (H – h) = (Q/2kB) loge (R/r) + CQn ...(1)
where the constant C is governed by several factors such as well
radius, construction and condition of the well.
3. Rewriting the above, we get, s = C1Q + CQn ...(2)
log e ( R / r)
where, C1 = ; C1Q = Aquifer loss and CQn = Well loss.
2kB
4. Fig. 9(a) illustrates that the total drawdown consists of the sum of
the aquifer loss (C1Q) and the well loss (CQn).
5. Fig. 9(b) shows the variations of drawdown and well loss with the
discharge.
Q
Ground surface

Initial piezometric surface

C1Q Drawdown (s)

Drawdown curve
H
CQn Well loss

n
w
do
C1Q
aw

r s
h D
Confined aquifier l lo s s
W el
CQn

(a) (b) Discharge ( Q)

Fig. 9. Well loss in confined aquifer.
6. For a screen which is not clogged or encrusted and whose size is
compatible to the surrounding porous media, the portion of the
well loss caused by water entering the well is small in comparison
with the portion resulting from axial movement inside the well to
the pump intake.
C. Spherical Flow in Well :
1. Fig. 10 shows a special case of partially penetrating well, where the
well just penetrates upto the top surface of the semi-infinite porous
medium.
2. In this case, the general equation is not applicable, because the flow
towards the well becomes purely spherical.
3. The discharge Qs from such a well can however be calculated from
the equations.
Qs = 2krw (H – hw)
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–26 C (CE-Sem-8)
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GL

H hw

Confined B
aquifer

Impervious
Fig. 10.

b. A 25 cm diameter well penetrates 20 m below water table.

After 1 day pumping at a rate of 4600 litre/minutes. The
water level in a test well at 110 m is lowered by 0.7 m and
test well at 40 m away drawdown is 1.25 m. What is the
transmissibility of aquifer ?
Ans.
Given : Diameter of well = 25 cm, Depth of water table, H = 20 m,
r1 = 40 m, s1 = 1.25 m, r2 = 110 m, s2 = 0.7 m, Q = 4600 litre/min.
To Find : Transmissibility, T.

k (h22 – h12 )
1. Discharge is given by, Q =
ln (r2 / r1 )
2. h1 = H – s1 = 20 – 1.25 = 18.75 m
3. h2 = H– s2 = 20 – 0.7 = 19.3 m
4600  10 –3
4. Q = 4600 litre/minutes = = 0.0767 m3/sec
60
k (19.32 – 18.752 )
0.0767 =
 110 
ln 
 40 
k = 1.18015 × 10–3 m/sec
5. Transmissibility, T = kH = 1.18015 × 10–3 × 20 = 0.0236 m2/sec

