Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed.

Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.1. Let a one-dimensional velocity field be u = u(x, t), with v = 0 and w = 0. The
density varies as ρ = ρ0(2 − cos ωt). Find an expression for u(x, t) if u(0, t) = U.

Solution 4.1. Here u = u(x,t)ex, and the density field is given, so a solution for u(x,t) might be
found from the continuity equation:
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρu) = 0 , or specifically for this problem: + u + ρ = 0.
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂x
The given density field only depends on time so ∂ρ/∂x = 0, and this leads to:
∂u 1 ∂ρ ρ 0 sin(ωt) ' sin(ωt) *
=− =− → u = −) , x + C(y,z,t) .
€ ∂x ρ ∂t ρ 0 (2 − cos(ωt)) € ( 2 − cos(ωt) +
where C is function of integration that does not depend on x. The initial condition requires:
u(0, t) = U = C(y,z,t),
so the final answer for u(x, t) is
€ $ sin(ωt) '
u = U −& )x .
% 2 − cos(ωt) (

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.2. Consider the one-dimensional Cartesian velocity field: u = (α x t, 0, 0 ) where α is a

constant.
a) Find a spatially uniform, time-dependent density field, ρ = ρ(t), that renders this flow field
mass conserving when ρ = ρo at t = to.
b) What are the unsteady (∂u/∂t), advective ( [u ⋅ ∇]u ), and particle (Du/Dt) accelerations in this
flow field? What does α = 1 imply?

Solution 4.2. a) Use the continuity equation and the given velocity field with ρ = ρ(t):
∂ρ dρ α
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρu) = 0 implies + ρ = 0.
∂t dt t
Separate variables and integrate:
dρ α
∫ ρ = − ∫ t dt ––> ln ρ = −α ln t + C .
€ € −α
Exponentiate and evaluate the integration constant at t = to to find: ρ = ρ o ( t t o ) .
b) For the given flow field:
€ 2
∂u αx €⋅ ∇)u = u ∂u e = $ α x ' α e = α x e , and Du = ∂u + (u ⋅ ∇)u = α (α −1)x e .
= − 2 e x , (u x & ) x x x
∂t t ∂x % t (t t2 € Dt ∂t t2
When α = 1 the unsteady and advective acclerations are non-zero, but they are equal and
opposite so that Du/Dt is zero.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.3. Find a non-zero density field ρ(x,y,z,t) that renders the following Cartesian velocity
fields mass conserving. Comment on the physical significance and uniqueness of your solutions.
a) u = (U sin(ωt − kx),0,0) where U, ω, k are positive constants.
[Hint: exchange the independent variables x,t for a single independent variable ξ = ωt–kx]
b) u = (−Ωy,+Ωx,0) with Ω = constant. [Hint: switch to cylindrical coordinates]
c) u = ( A x,B y,C z) where A, B, C are constants.
€

€ Solution 4.3. a) u = (U sin(ωt − kx),0,0) where U, ω, k are positive constants. Use the expanded
∂ρ ∂u ∂ρ
€ form of the continuity equation for a unidirectional velocity, u = ( u,0,0) : +ρ +u = 0,
∂t ∂x ∂x
and plug in the given velocity field to find:
€ ∂ρ ∂ρ
− ρkU cos(ωt − kx) + U sin(ωt − kx) = 0 .
∂t € ∂x
€
Now follow the hint and change from independent variables (x, t) to ξ, where ξ = ωt–kx:
∂ ∂ξ d d ∂ ∂ξ d d
= =ω , and = = −k ,
€ ∂t ∂t dξ dξ ∂x ∂x dξ dξ
dρ dρ
to find a first-order differential equation: ω − kU sin ξ = ρkU cosξ that can be
dξ dξ
dρ kU cosξ
€
separated and integrated: ∫ ρ = ∫ ω − kU €
sin ξ
dξ –> ln ρ = −ln(ω − kU sin ξ ) + C(y,z) .

Here, the constant C must be used to € make the solution dimensionally sound. Noting that ω/k
has units of velocity, define M = kU/ω. Since the original equation did not contain any y or z
dependence the constant of integration might depend € on these variables. So, the final solution
€
can be obtained by exponentiating the last equation:
ρ (y,z) ρ o (y,z)
ρ(x, y,z,t) = o = ,
1− M sin ξ 1− ( kU ω ) sin(ωt − kx)
where ρo(y,z) is an undetermined function. Thus, this solution is not fully determined; it is not
unique. This is the density field that corresponds to a traveling-wave disturbance in a stationary
medium. In the limit as M → 0 with ρo = constant, this wave becomes an acoustic plane wave
€
with ω/k = the speed of sound and M = the Mach number of the fluid particle motions.
b) u = (−Ωy,+Ωx,0) with Ω = constant. The change to cylindrical coordinates is straight forward
using: x = Rcosϕ & y = Rsin ϕ , and uR = ucosϕ + v sin ϕ & uϕ = −usin ϕ + v cosϕ .
uR = −Ωy cosϕ + Ωx sin ϕ = −ΩRsin ϕ cos ϕ + ΩRcos ϕ sin ϕ = 0 , and
€ uϕ = +Ωy sinϕ + Ωx cosϕ = ΩRsin 2 ϕ + ΩRcos 2 ϕ = ΩR .
€ Thus, u = ΩRe€ € ∂ρ €1 ∂ ∂ρ ∂ρ
ϕ , so the continuity equation is: + ( ρΩR) = 0 or +Ω = 0.
€ ∂t R ∂ϕ ∂t ∂ϕ
The solution of this equation can be obtained from the method of characteristics. The idea is to
€
determine special or characteristic directions or paths in the r-θ-z-t space along which the
€ solution for ρ is easy to find. Start by postulating the existence of such a path
€ €
ρ = ρ( R(t),ϕ (t),z(t),t ) so that the total derivative of ρ with respect to time is:
dρ ∂ρ dR ∂ρ dϕ ∂ρ dz ∂ρ
= + + + .
dt ∂R dt ∂ϕ dt ∂z dt ∂t
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Comparing this equation with the one above shows that the characteristic paths are defined by
dR dt = 0 , dϕ dt = Ω , and dz dt = 0 . Thus, after a single time integration of each equation, the
characteristic paths are determined to be:
R = Ro , ϕ = Ωt + ϕ o , and z = zo .
where the quantities with subscript zero are constants. Along these paths the original equation
€ € €
for ρ becomes dρ/dt = 0, which implies the density is constant along these paths. If the density
at Ro, ϕo, zo and t = 0 is ρ o (Ro ,ϕ o ,zo ) , then the density at all later times can be obtained by
€ € €
substituting for ro, θo, zo from the three equations that specify the characteristic path. Hence, the
solution for the density is: ρ = ρ o (R,ϕ − Ωt,z) .
Here again
€ ρo is an undetermined function so this solution is not fully determined; it is
not unique. In this case, the velocity field corresponds to solid-body rotation about the z-axis at
angular rate Ω, so conservation of mass implies that the density variations must revolve around
€
the z-axis at the angular rate Ω as well.
c) u = ( A x,B y,C z) where A, B, C are constants.
∂ρ
Use the expanded form of the continuity equation: + ρ∇ ⋅ u + u ⋅ ∇ρ = 0 , and plug in the given
∂t
∂ρ " A B C % A ∂ρ B ∂ρ C ∂ρ
€ velocity field to find: − ρ$ 2 + 2 + 2 '+ + + = 0 . This equation is linear in
∂t #x y z & x ∂ x y ∂ y z ∂z
ρ, so try a separation of variables solution: € i.e. ρ = X(x)Y (y)Z(z)T(t) . Putting in the trial
solution, dividing the whole equation by the trial solution, and grouping terms yields:
T " $ A X " A ' $ B Y " B ' $C Z " C '
+ − +& − )+ − =0
T &% x X €x 2 )( % y Y y 2 ( &% z Z z 2 )(
where ( )´ denotes derivative of ( ) with respect to is argument. Because each group of terms
depends on only one of the independent coordinates, this equation can only be satisfied if each
term is equal to a constant, and the 4 constants sum to zero. This means setting:
T" € A X" A B Y" B C Z" C
= d, − 2 = a, − 2 = b , and − = c where a + b + c + d = 0
T x X x y Y y z Z z2
The solution of the first equation is: T(t) = Toe dt where To is a constant, while that of the second
can be found from:
€ € X " ax € 1 ax 2 € " ax 2 %
= + → ln X = + ln x + const., or X(x) = X o x exp# &,
X A x€ 2A $ 2A '
where Xo is a constant. The solutions of the third and fourth equations are similar to that of the
second. Combining the solutions of these equations and condensing the leading product of
constants
€ to C1 = To X oYo Z o produces:
$ ax 2 €by 2 cz 2 '
ρ(x, y,z,t) = C1 xyz exp% + + − (a + b + c)t (
& 2A 2B 2C )
where C1, a, b, c are undetermined constants, and the above restriction on a, b, c, and d has been
€
used to eliminate d. Any particular version of this solution is acceptable as long as C1 ≠ 0. Here,
the density field is zero everywhere that ∇ ⋅ u → ∞ . The constants C1, a, b, and c are not
determined € so again this solution is not fully determined; it is not unique.

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Overall, conservation of mass is typically inadequate to fully specify a fluid density or

velocity field; conservation of momentum and initial & boundary conditions are needed for
complete flow field solutions.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.4. A proposed conservation law for ξ, a new fluid property, takes the following form:
d
∫ ρξ dV + ∫ Q ⋅ n dS = 0 , where V(t) is a material volume that moves with the fluid velocity
dt V (t ) A(t )

u, A(t) is the surface of V(t), ρ is the fluid density, and Q = −ργ∇ξ .

a) What partial differential equation is implied by the above conservation statement?
∂ξ 1
b) Use the part-a) result and the continuity equation to show: + u ⋅ ∇ξ = ∇ ⋅ ( ργ∇ξ ) .
∂t ρ

Solution 4.4. a) Start with the given material CV equation, and apply Reynolds Transport Thm.
to the first term on the left side and Gauss’s Divergence Thm. to the other term:
d ∂
∫
dt V (t )
ρξ dV + ∫ Q ⋅ n dS = 0 → ∫ ( ρξ ) dV + ∫ ρξ ( u ⋅ n) dV + ∫ ∇ ⋅ Q dV = 0 .
S(t ) V (t ) ∂ t A(t ) V (t )

Now apply Gauss’s divergence theorem to the remaining surface integral, subsitute in the
specified relationship Q = −ργ∇ξ , and combine all the terms into one volume integral to find:
$∂ '
∫ %&∂ t ( ρξ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρξ u) − ∇ ⋅ ( ργ∇ξ )() dV = 0 .
V (t )

Here V(t) is an arbitrary material volume, so the integrand must be zero. Thus, the partial
differential equation implied by the given CV equation is:
∂
( ρξ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρξ u) = ∇ ⋅ ( ργ∇ξ ) .
∂t
b) Expand the left side of the part a) result and group the terms that have ξ as a coefficient:
∂ξ ∂ρ ∂ξ # ∂ρ &
ρ + ξ + ξ∇ ⋅ ( ρ u) + ρ u ⋅ ∇ξ = ρ + ρ u ⋅ ∇ξ + ξ % + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ u) ( .
∂t ∂t ∂t $ ∂t '
The contents of the parentheses is zero because of the continuity equation, so dividing by ρ
yields:
∂ξ 1
+ u ⋅ ∇ξ = ∇ ⋅ ( ργ∇ξ ) ,
∂t ρ
which can be recognized as the advection-diffusion equation for a conserved passive scalar.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.5. The components of a mass flow vector ρu are ρu = 4x2y, ρv = xyz, ρw = yz2.
a) Compute the net mass outflow through the closed surface formed by the planes x = 0, x = 1, y
= 0, y = 1, z = 0, z = 1.
b) Compute ∇ ⋅ ( ρu) and integrate over the volume bounded by the surface defined in part a)
c) Explain why the results for parts a) and b) should be equal or unequal.

Solution 4.5. a) The specified volume is a cube, and the mass outflow will have six contributions
€ for each side):
(one
1 1 1 1
∫∫ ρu ⋅ ndA = ∫ ∫ [4 x 2 y ] x=1 dydz − ∫ ∫ [4 x 2 y ] x= 0 dydz
cube surface y= 0z= 0 y= 0z= 0
1 1 1 1
+ ∫ ∫ [ xyz] y=1 dxdz − ∫ ∫ [ xyz] y= 0 dxdz
x= 0z= 0 x= 0z= 0
1 1 1 1
+ ∫ ∫ [ yz 2 ] z=1 dxdy − ∫ ∫ [ yz 2 ] z= 0 dxdy
x= 0y= 0 x= 0y= 0
The integral evaluations are straightforward and unremarkable, and lead to:
1 1 11
∫∫ ρu ⋅ ndA = 2 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 4 .
cube surface
€
b) First compute the divergence of the mass flow:
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ⋅ ( ρu) = ( ρu) + ( ρv ) + ( ρw ) = 8xy + xz + 2yz ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
€
then integrate it in the cubical volume:
1 1 1
& 1 )& 1 ) & 1 )& 1 ) & 1 )& 1 ) 11
∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ (ρu)dV = ∫ ∫ ∫ (8xy + xz + 2yz)dxdydz = 8(' 2 +*(' 2 +* + (' 2 +*(' 2 +* + 2(' 2 +*(' 2 +* = 4 .
cube € x= 0y= 0z= 0
c) The two answers should be the same because of Gauss' Divergence Theorem.

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.6. Consider a simple fluid mechanical model for the atmosphere of an ideal spherical
star that has a surface gas density of ρo and a radius ro. The escape velocity from the surface of
the star is ve. Assume that a tenuous gas leaves the star’s surface radially at speed vo uniformly
over the star’s surface. Use the steady continuity equation for the gas density ρ and fluid velocity
u = (ur , uθ , uϕ ) in spherical coordinates
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂
2
r ∂r
( r ρur ) +
r sin θ ∂θ
( ρuθ sinθ ) +
r sin θ ∂ϕ
( ρuϕ ) = 0
for the following items

( )
a) Determine ρ when vo ≥ ve so that u = (ur , uθ , uϕ ) = vo 1− ( ve2 vo2 ) (1− ( ro r )), 0, 0 .
b) Simplify the result from part a) when vo >> ve so that: u = (ur , uθ , uϕ ) = (vo , 0, 0) .
c) Simplify the result from part a) when vo = ve .
d) Use words, sketches, or equations to describe what happens when vo < ve . State any
assumptions that you make.

Solution 4.6. a) ur is the only non-zero velocity component so only the continuity equation
simplifies to
1 ∂ 2
r 2 ∂r
(r ρur ) = 0 ,
multiply by r2 and integrate to find: r 2 ρur = C(θ,ϕ ) , where C is the function of integration that
cannot depend on r. Thus,
C(θ,ϕ ) ρ o ro2 −1 2
ρ =€ 2
r ur r
[
= 2 1− (v e2 v o2 )(1− ( ro r)) ] ,
€
where C(θ,ϕ ) = ρ o ro2v o = const. is determined from the boundary conditions: ρ = ρo & v = vo at r
= ro .
2 2
b) When v o >> v€ e , the square root factor in the result of part a) becomes unity, so ρ = ρ o ro r .
−1 2 32
€ c) When v o = v e , the square root factor simplifies to ( ro r) , so ρ = ρ o [ ro r]
d) Here, the gas leaving the star’s surface does not escape the star’s gravitational field, so it must
€fall back to star’s surface. For a tenuous gas, it might be acceptable € to ignore molecular
€collisions so that the velocity field of the outward
€ moving
+
( 2
)
€ gas, ur = v o 1− v e v o (1− ( ro r)) for
2

r < rmax = ro [1− v o2 v e2 ] , is equal and opposite to the velocity field of the inward falling gas so
that u−r = −ur+ . Both outward and inward mass fluxes must balance because the net mass flux
must be zero. Thus, the resulting density field will have € equal parts contributed by inward and
outward flowing stellar gas. Under these conditions, the density field will be double that from
€
part a) with a radial limitation:
€ % ρ o ro2 −1 2 )
ρ=& r
'2
2 [
1− (v 2
e v 2
o )(1− ( ro r]) ) for r < rmax
'
* where rmax = ro [1− v o2 v e2 ] .
'(0 for r ≥ rmax '+

€
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.7. Consider the three-dimensional flow field ui = β xi or equivalently u = βrer, where
β is a constant with units of inverse time, xi is the position vector from the origin, r is the
distance from the origin, and êr is the radial unit vector. Find a density field ρ that conserves
mass when:
a) ρ(t) depends only on time t and ρ = ρo at t = 0, and
b) ρ(r) depends only on the distance r and ρ = ρ1 at r = 1 m.
c) Does the sum ρ(t) + ρ(r) also conserve mass in this flow field? Explain your answer.

Solution 4.7. The full continuity equation is: ∂ρ ∂t + (u ⋅ ∇)ρ + ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0 .

a) When ρ depends only on t, (u ⋅ ∇)ρ = 0 so the cont. equation reduces to: d ρ dt + ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0 .
For the given velocity field, ∇ ⋅ u = ∂ui ∂xi = β ∂xi ∂xi = β (∂x1 ∂x1 + ∂x2 ∂x2 + ∂x3 ∂x3 ) = 3β , so
d ρ dt = −3βρ . This equation has the exponential solution: ρ (t) = ρo e−3βt when ρ = ρo at t = 0.
b) When ρ only depends on distance r, ∂ρ/∂t = 0 so the continuity equation reduces to:
(β rêr )⋅ ∇ρ + 3βρ = 0 , or r ( d ρ dr ) = −3ρ . This equation has the power law solution
3
ρ (r) = ρ1 ⋅ (1m r ) when ρ = ρ1 at r = 1 m.
c) The proposed sum solution, ρ(t) + ρ(r), does conserve mass, and this is readily shown by
substitution of ρ(t) + ρ(r) into the full continuity equation. This sum solution conserves mass
because the continuity equation is linear in ρ when u is specified independently of ρ. When ρ
when u are both dependent field variables, the continuity equation is non-linear.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.8. The definition of the stream function for two-dimensional constant-density flow in
the x-y plane is: u = −e z × ∇ψ , where ez is the unit vector perpendicular to the x-y plane that
determines a right-handed coordinate system.
a) Verify that this vector definition is equivalent to u = ∂ψ ∂y , and v = −∂ψ ∂x in Cartesian
coordinates.
€
b) Determine the velocity components in r-θ polar coordinates in terms of r-θ derivatives of ψ.
c) Determine an equation for the z-component of the vorticity in terms of ψ.
€ €
Solution 4.8. a) Start from the definition of the cross product:
ex ey ez
' ∂ψ * ' ∂ψ * ' ∂ψ * ' ∂ψ *
u = −e z × ∇ψ = − 0 0 1 = −e x )− , − e y ) , = e x ) , + e y ) − , .
( ∂y + ( ∂x + ( ∂y + ( ∂x +
∂ψ ∂x ∂ψ ∂y 0
Setting components equal from the extreme ends of this extended equality produces:
u = ∂ψ ∂y , and v = −∂ψ ∂x .
b) In r-θ polar coordinates u = urer + u e , e z × e r = eθ , and e z × eθ = −e r . Plus,
θ θ
€
∂ψ 1 ∂ψ
∇ψ = e r + eθ . Therefore, using the same definition in r-θ polar coordinates produces:
∂r r ∂θ € €
( ∂ψ 1 ∂ψ + ∂ψ 1 ∂ψ
u = ure r + uθ eθ = −e z × ∇ψ = −e z × *€e r + eθ - = −e
€θ + er .
) ∂r r ∂θ , ∂r r ∂θ
€ Matching components implies:
1 ∂ψ ∂ψ
ur = and uθ = − .
r ∂θ ∂r
c) €
The z-component of the vorticity is:
∂v ∂u ∂ & ∂ψ ) ∂ & ∂ψ ) & ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ )
ω z = − = ( − + − ( + = −( 2 + 2 + = −∇ 2ψ .
∂x€ ∂y ∂x ' ∂x€* ∂y ' ∂y * ' ∂x ∂y *

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.9. A curve of ψ (x, y) = C1 (= a constant) specifies a streamline in steady two-

dimensional constant-density flow. If a neighboring streamline is specified by ψ (x, y) = C2 ,
show that the volume flux per unit depth into the page between the streamlines equals C2 – C1
when C2 > C1.
€
Solution 4.9. Start with a picture of the two streamlines and let Q = volume€flow rate (per unit
depth) between them.

∇ψ ψ=C 2

d
ψ=C 1

€
€

2
By definition, Q = ∫ | u | d where d is an increment of length that lies perpendicular to the flow
1
in the stream tube. Again by definition, ∇ψ lies in the direction perpendicular to the lines of
constant ψ. Thus:
€ ∂ψ ∂x dx + ∂ψ ∂y dy
€ d = ∇ψ ⋅ dx = ( ) ( ) = −vdx + udy = dψ , so | u | d = dψ .
| ∇ψ | (∂ψ
2
€ ∂x ) + (∂ψ ∂y )
2
v 2 + u2 |u |
2 2
This means that: Q = ∫ | u | d = ∫ dψ = C2 − C1 , which completes the proof.
1 1 €
€

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.10. Consider steady two-dimensional incompressible flow in r-θ polar coordinates
where u = (ur , uθ ) , ur = + ( Λ r 2 ) cosθ , and Λ is positive constant. Ignore gravity.
a) Determine the simplest possible uθ .
b) Show that the simplest stream function for this flow is ψ = ( Λ r ) sin θ .
c) Sketch the streamline pattern. Include arrowheads to show stream direction(s).
d) If the flow is frictionless and the pressure far from the origin is p∞, evaluate the pressure p(r,
θ) on θ = 0 for r > 0 when the fluid density is ρ. Does the pressure increase or decrease as r
increases?

1 ∂ 1 ∂u
Solution 4.10. a) Place the given ur = + ( Λ r 2 ) cosθ into ∇ ⋅ u = (rur ) + θ = 0 , to find:
r ∂r r ∂θ
1 ∂ 1 ∂ Λ# & Λ 1 ∂uθ ∂uθ Λ Λ
(rur ) = % + cosθ ( = − 3 cosθ = − , or = + 2 cosθ → uθ = + 2 sin θ ,
r ∂r r ∂r $ r ' r r ∂θ ∂θ r r
where the final constant of integration has been dropped to produce the simplest possible uθ .
b) By definition: ur = (1 r ) (∂ψ ∂θ ) , and uθ = −∂ψ ∂r . Thus,
1 ∂ψ Λ ∂ψ Λ Λ
= + 2 cosθ so = + cosθ → ψ = sin θ + f (r) , and
r ∂θ r ∂θ r r
∂ψ Λ Λ
− = + 2 sin θ so ψ = sin θ + g(θ ) .
∂r r r y!
The simplest stream function is recovered when f = g = 0:
ψ = ( Λ r ) sin θ .
c) Start from the result of b) and switch to Cartesian coordinates:
Λ y
ψ= , which implies x 2 + y 2 = ( Λ ψ ) y , or
2 2 2 2
x +y x +y
2 2
x!
x 2 + ( y − Λ 2ψ ) = ( Λ 2ψ ) .
Thus, the streamlines are circles centered on the y-axis that are
tangent to the x-axis at the origin of coordinates. The stream
direction is determined from the radial velocity ur, which must be
positive when θ is near zero.
d) Use the ordinary Bernoulli-equation to find:
1 1 # Λ2 Λ2 &
p∞ = p(r, θ )θ =0 + ρ ( vr2 + vθ2 ) = p(r, 0) + ρ % 4 cos2 (0) + 4 sin 2 (0)( , or
2 θ =0 2 $r r '
1 Λ2
p(r, 0) = p∞ − ρ 4 .
2 r
The pressure increases as r increases.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.11. The well-known undergraduate fluid mechanics textbook by Fox et al. (2009)
provides the following statement of conservation of momentum for a constant-shape (non-
rotating) control volume moving at a non-constant velocity U = U(t).
d dU
∫ ρurel dV + ∫ ρurel (urel ⋅ n)dA = ∫ ρgdV + ∫ fdA − ∫ ρ
dt V *(t ) dt
dV .
A *(t ) V *(t ) A *(t ) V *(t )
Here urel = u − U(t) is the fluid velocity observed in a frame of reference moving with the
control volume while u and U are observed in a non-moving frame. Meanwhile, (4.17) states
this law as
€ d
€ ∫ ρudV + ∫ ρu(u − U) ⋅ ndA = ∫ ρgdV + ∫ fdA
dt V *(t ) A *(t ) V *(t ) A *(t )
where the replacement b = U has been made for the velocity of the accelerating control surface
A*(t). Given that the two equations above are not identical, determine if these two statements of
conservation of fluid momentum are contradictory or consistent.
€
Solution 4.11. The goal here is to derive one result from the other. Start with the equation from
the undergraduate textbook, substitute using urel = u − U , and put the forces on the left and move
the extra acceleration term to the other side of the equation.
dU d
∫ ρgdV + ∫ fdA = ∫ ρ dt dV + dt ∫ ρ(u − U)dV + ∫ ρ(u − U)(u − U) ⋅ ndA
V *(t ) A *(t ) V *(t ) V *(t ) A *(t )
€
Now expand the terms on the terms on the right side.
∫ ρgdV + ∫ fdA =
V *(t ) A *(t )
€ dU d dU d
∫ ρ
dt
dV + ∫ ρudV −
dt V *(t )
∫ ρdV − U
dt V *(t )
∫ ρdV + ∫ ρu(u − U) ⋅ ndA − U ∫ ρ(u − U) ⋅ ndA
dt V *(t )
V *(t ) A *(t ) A *(t )
Here, U and dU/dt depend on time only – that is, they are uniform over V*(t) and A*(t) – so they
can move inside or outside of the volume and surface integrals over V*(t) and A*(t), but not
through time differentiations. Thus, the first and third terms on the right side are equal and
€ opposite. Rearrange the other terms to find:
d &d )
∫ ρgdV + ∫ fdA = dt ∫ ρudV + ∫ ρu(u − U) ⋅ ndA − U( dt ∫ ρdV + ∫ ρ(u − U) ⋅ ndA+.
V *(t ) A *(t ) V *(t ) A *(t ) ' V *(t ) A *(t ) *
Conservation of mass requires the contents of the [,]-brackets to equal zero. After removing
these terms, the remaining simplified equation,
d
€ ∫ ρudV + ∫ ρu(u − U) ⋅ ndA = ∫ ρgdV + ∫ fdA ,
dt V *(t ) A *(t ) V *(t ) A *(t )
is the same as (4.17). The two statements of conservation of momentum are consistent. The
essential difference between the two CV formulations of conservation of momentum amounts to
a transformation between an inertial and an accelerating frame of reference when mass is also
conserved. €
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.12. A jet of water with a diameter of 8 cm and a speed of 25 m/s impinges normally
on a large stationary flat plate. Find the force required to hold the plate stationary. Compare the
average pressure on the plate with the stagnation pressure if the plate is 20 times the area of the
jet.

Solution 4.12. Choose a rectangular CV with one side that covers and the flat stationary plate.

Ajet
Ujet x

Denote the plate area by A, and the jet velocity & area by Ujet and Ajet, respectively. In this
problem only the x-component of the integral momentum equation is required, and x-direction
fluid momentum only enters the CV of its left side. Assume that atmospheric pressure Po acts on
the three sides of the CV that are not in contact with the plate.
−ρU 2jet A jet + 0 = Po A − ∫ PdA = Fx , or
A
π
Fx = −ρU A jet = −(10 kg /m )(25m /s) 2
2
jet
3 3
(0.08m) 2 = −3.142kN
4
2
€ Fx
ρU jet (10 kg /m 3 )(25m /s) 2
3
The average pressure is: Pave = = = = 31.25kPa .
20A jet 20 20
€ 1 (10 3 kg /m 3 )(25m /s) 2 P 1
The stagnation pressure is: Ps = ρU 2jet = = 312.5kPa , so ave =
2 2 Ps 10
Here Ps and Pave€are reported as gauge pressures.

€ €
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.13. Show that the thrust developed by a stationary rocket motor is F = ρAU2 + A(p −
patm), where patm is the atmospheric pressure, and p, ρ, A, and U are, respectively, the pressure,
density, area, and velocity of the fluid at the nozzle exit.

Solution 4.13. Use the control volume shown, where F is the force that holds the rocket motor in
place.
patm

F p
A ! U

Assuming the flow is steady and that control volume is not moving (b = 0), the horizontal
component of (4.17) becomes:
ρU 2 A = F + patm A − pA , or F = ρU 2 A + A( p − patm ) .

€ €
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.14. Consider the propeller of an airplane moving with a velocity U1. Take a reference
frame in which the air is moving and the propeller [disk] is stationary. Then the effect of the
propeller is to accelerate the fluid from the upstream value U1 to the downstream value U2 > U1.
Assuming incompressibility, show that the thrust developed by the propeller is given by
F = ρ A(U 22 −U12 ) 2, where A is the projected area of the propeller and ρ is the density (assumed
constant). Show also that the velocity of the fluid at the plane of the propeller is the average
value U = (U1 + U2)/2. [Hint: The flow can be idealized by a pressure jump of magnitude Δp =
F/A right at the location of the propeller. Also apply Bernoulli’s equation between a section far
upstream and a section immediately upstream of the propeller. Also apply the Bernoulli equation
between a section immediately downstream of the propeller and a section far downstream. This
will show that Δp = ρ (U 22 −U12 ) / 2 .]

Solution 4.14. The CV and nominal propeller-edge streamlines are:

a b
1 2

where the mass flux within the curved propeller-edge streamlines is constant and equal to
m˙ = ρU1 A1 = ρU 2 A2 . Apply the steady constant density Bernoulli equation from "1" to "a", and
from "b" to "2":
p1 + 12 ρU12 = pa + 12 ρU a2 , and pb + 12 ρU b2 = p2 + 12 ρU 22 .
€ Since p1 = p2, and Ua = Ub, these equations become:
pb − pa = + 12 ρ(U 22 − U12 ) .
Now apply€the momentum principle across € the propeller plane:
−ρU a + ρU b = 0 = pa A − pb A + F , or F = A( pb − pa ) = 12 ρA(U 22 − U12 ) .
2 2

where Ua = Ub, and F is the €force applied to the propeller (positive to the right) by the device that
holds it in place.
To find the velocity at the propeller plane, use the stationary rectangular control volume
€ €
shown above, and start with (4.5),
−ρU1 A1 + ρU 2 A2 + ρU1 (A1 − A2 ) + m˙ sides = 0 ,
where the four terms correspond to the inlet, fast flow at the outlet, ordinary speed flow at the
outlet, and stream-wise sides of the CV. Here the inlet flow is uniform at velocity U1. Using the
definition of m˙ , the conservation of mass statement becomes:
€ ρU1 (A1 − A2 ) + m˙ sides = 0 .
where A2 is the fast-flow area on the outlet side of the CV. Now evaluate the horizontal
component
€ of (4.17)
−m˙ U1 + m˙ U 2 + ρU12 (A1 − A2 ) + U1m˙ sides = ( p1 − p2 )A1 + F .
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Substitute in the conservation of mass result and note that p1 = p2 to find:

−m˙ U1 + m˙ U 2 = F , or F = ρUA(U 2 − U1 ) .
where m˙ = ρUA , while U (= Ua = Ub) and A are flow velocity and area inside the curved lines at
the propeller plane. Equate the relationship for F found from the Bernoulli equations with the
one found from conserving mass and momentum to develop an equation for U:
€ €
F = 12 ρA(U 22 − U12 ) = ρUA(U 2 − U1 ) ,
€
1
Use the second equality, cancel common factors, and solve for U to find: U = 2 (U 2 + U1 ) .

€
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.15. Generalize the control volume analysis of Example 4.1 by considering the control
volume geometry shown for steady two-dimensional flow past an arbitrary body in the absence
of body forces. Show that the force the fluid exerts on the body is given by the Euler momentum
integral, F j = − ∫ ( ρui u j − τ ij )n i dA , and that 0 = ∫ ρui n i dA .
A1 A1

Solution 4.15. For steady flow through a stationary control volume (b = 0) and no body force,
(4.5) and (4.17) simplify to:
€
∫ ρ(u ⋅€n)dA = 0 → ∫ ρui n i dA = 0 , and
A *(t ) A *(t )

∫ ρu(u ⋅ n) dA = ∫ f(n,x,t)dA → ∫ ρu j ui n i dA = ∫ n iτ ij dA ,
A *(t ) A *(t ) A *(t ) A *(t )
where the second equality in each case is the same as first after conversion to index notation, and
(2.15) or (4.20b)€has been used to write
the surface force f in terms of the stress
tensor τ€ij.
Here the control surface A* is
composed of three pieces,
A* = A1 + A2 + A3,
where A1 is the outer surface, A2 conforms
to the body's surface, and A3 is the
connection between A1 and A2. Here n
(with components ni) is the outward
normal on the combined surface. Thus, n points outward on A1 (shown as n1 in the figure) and
points into the body on A2 (shown as n2 in the figure). Thus, the conservation laws require:
∫ ρui n i dA = 0 and ∫ (ρu j ui − τ ij )n i dA = 0 .
A1 +A 2 +A 3 A1 +A 2 +A 3

Now consider the contribution of each surface individually. In general, there are no
simplifications to be made on A1 and all the integrand terms must be retained. The surface A2
coincides with the surface of the solid body, thus u ⋅ n = uini = 0 on A2. This fact eliminated the
€ A in the conservation
contribution from € of mass equation, and causes the first integrand term to
2
dropout of the conservation of momentum equation. On A3, as the width of the opening goes to
zero, the magnitude of the integrands on € the upper and lower surfaces become equal but the
normal on these two surfaces is opposite; therefore, A3 provides no net contribution to either
conservation law. Thus, the integral laws become:
∫ ρui n i dA = 0 and − ∫ τ ij n i dA + ∫ (ρu j ui − τ ij )n i dA = 0 .
A1 A2 A1

The first of these is sought as part of the solution to this exercise. The second becomes the Euler
momentum integral after considering the lone integral over A2 and orientation of n on A2. If n
pointed outward from the body, this integral would represent the force, F, the fluid applies to the
€ on A , n (= n ) €
body. However 2 2 points inward so –n points outward from the body, thus
F = − ∫ τ ij n i dA .
A2

Therefore the final result (the Euler momentum integral) is: F = − ∫ ( ρu j ui − τ ij ) n i dA .

A1

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.16. The pressure rise Δp = p2 − p1 that occurs for flow through a sudden pipe-cross-
sectional-area expansion can depend on the average upstream flow speed Uave, the upstream pipe
diameter d1, the downstream pipe diameter d2, and the fluid density ρ and viscosity µ. Here p2 is
the pressure downstream of the expansion where the flow is first fully adjusted to the larger pipe
diameter. €
a) Find a dimensionless scaling law for Δp in terms of Uave, d1, d2, ρ and µ.
b) Simplify the result of part a) for high-Reynolds-number turbulent flow where µ does not
matter.
c) Use a control volume analysis to determine Δp in terms of Uave, d1, d2, and ρ for the high
Reynolds number limit. [Hints: i) a streamline drawing might help in determining or estimating
the pressure on the vertical surfaces of the area transition, and ii) assume uniform flow profiles
wherever possible.]
d) Compute the ideal flow value for Δp and compare this to the result from part d) for a diameter
ratio of d1/d2 = ½. What fraction of the maximum possible pressure rise does the sudden
expansion achieve?
d2!
d1 !

Uave! p1! p2!

Solution 4.16. a) This is a dimensional analysis task. Construct the units matrix.
Δp Uave d1 d2 ρ µ
M 1 0 0 0 1 1
L -1 1 1 1 -3 -1
T -2 -1 0 0 0 -1
The matrix has rank three so there are 6 – 3 = 3 dimensionless groups. These can be found by
inspection; thus: Δp ( ρU ave
2
) = f (d1 d2 , ρU ave d1 µ) where f is an undetermined function.
b) At high Reynolds number the viscosity will not be a parameter, so the Reynolds number can
be dropped from the part a) result: Δp ( ρU ave 2
) = f (d1 d2 ) . The remainder of this exercise
involves
€ finding f.
c) Place a cylindrical CV in the duct that
abuts the area change on the upstream
€ side and extends far enough downstream
to fully enclose the flow’s reattachment
zone. For high-Re turbulence, its OK to
Separation assume uniform inflow and outflow
Reattachment profiles. Denote the outflow velocity by
U2 .
π 2 π
Cons. of mass implies: − d1 U ave + d22U 2 = 0 ; (a)
4 4
π π π π
Cons. of horizontal momentum: − d12 ρU ave 2
+ d22 ρU 22 = p1 d22 − p2 d22 . (b)
4 4 4 4
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Here, the cross-stream momentum equation suggests that p1 acts on the flat surfaces of the area
transition because the flow separates at the area junction and is parallel to the x-direction and this
implies that ∂p ∂r = 0 . Use the above equations to determine Δp = p2 − p1. Equation (b) implies:
p2 − p1 = ρd12U ave
2
d22 − ρU 22 , and equation (a) reduces to: U 2 = ( d12 d22 )U ave . Eliminate U2 to
find:
2 2
€ p2 − p1 = ρd12U ave
2
d22 − ρ( d12 d22 ) U ave , or € 2
p2 − p1 = ρU ave (
(d12 d22 ) 1− (d12 d22 ) . )
€ d) For an ideal flow: p2 − p1 = ρU 1
2
2
ave
1 2
− ρU = ρ€U
2 2
1
2
2
ave (1− d
1
4
d 4
2 ) = (15 32)ρU 2
ave
2
ave 1
2 2
2 ( 1
2 2
2 )
From part d): p2 − p1 = ρU ( d d ) 1− ( d d ) = ( 3 16) ρU . Thus, the pressure rise in a
2
ave
€sudden expansion to four times the area with € separated flow is only 40% of that possible in an
ideal flow. €
Abrupt area changes are exceptionally common in automotive piston-engine exhaust
€
systems where they are used for low-frequency noise control. However, they lead to pumping
losses that reduce the engine's horsepower, especially under wide-open-throttle conditions,
because of the principles illustrated in this exercise.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.17. Consider how pressure gradients and skin friction develop in an empty wind
tunnel or water tunnel test section when the flow is incompressible. Here the fluid has viscosity µ
and density ρ, and flows into a horizontal cylindrical pipe of length L with radius R at a uniform
horizontal velocity Uo. The inlet of the pipe lies at x = 0. Boundary layer growth on the pipe’s
walls induces the horizontal velocity on the pipe’s centerline to be UL at x = L; however, the
pipe-wall boundary layer thickness remains much smaller than R. Here, L/R is of order 10, and
ρUoR/µ >> 1. The radial coordinate from the pipe centerline is r.
a) Determine the displacement thickness, δ L* , of the boundary layer at x = L in terms of Uo, UL ,
and R. Assume that the boundary layer displacement thickness is zero at x = 0. [The boundary
layer displacement thickness, δ*, is the thickness of the zero-flow-speed layer that displaces the
outer flow by the same amount as € the actual boundary layer. For a boundary layer velocity
profile u(y) with y = wall-normal coordinate and U = outer flow velocity, δ* is defined by:
∞
δ* = ∫ 0 (1− ( u U ))dy .]
b) Determine the pressure difference, ΔP = PL – Po, between the ends of the pipe in terms of ρ,
Uo, and UL.
c) Assume the horizontal velocity profile at the outlet of the pipe can be approximated by:
€
(
u(r, x = L) = U L 1− ( r R)
n
) and estimate average skin friction, τ w , on the inside of the pipe

between x = 0 and x = L in terms of ρ, Uo, UL, R, L, and n.

d) Calculate the skin friction coefficient, c f = τ w 12 ρU o2 , when Uo = 20.0 m/s, UL = 20.5 m/s, R =
€
€ 1.5 m, L = 12 m, n = 80, and the fluid is water, i.e. ρ = 103 kg/m3.

€ r!
Uo! U L!

x = 0! x = L!
2R!

Solution 4.17. a) Apply the principle of conservation of mass. The effective flow area will be
2 2
πR 2 at the inlet (x = 0), but will be π ( R − δL* ) at the outlet (x = L): U oπR 2 = U L π ( R − δL* ) .
(
Solve for δL* = R 1− U o U L . )
b) Start from the steady Bernoulli equation (4.19) for horizontal flow (no body force):
€ 1 1 1 1 1
ρU o2 + Po = ρU L2 + PL ,€and rearrange it to find: PL − Po€= ρU o2 − ρU L2 = ρ(U o2 − U L2 ) .
2 2 2 2 2
€
c) Choose a CV that encloses all the fluid in the tube between x = 0 and x = L, and apply the CV
form of conservation of momentum (4.17). Here the flow is steady and there is no net body
force, thus:
€ R R € 2
n
( )
−2πρ ∫ U o2 rdr +2πρ ∫ U L2 1− ( r R) rdr = ( Po − PL )πR 2 − 2πRLτ w
r= 0 r= 0
Cancel common factors, evaluate the integrals, and substitute in the part b) result for the pressure
difference:
R
€
r= 0
(
−ρU o2 R 2 + 2 ρ ∫ U L2 1− 2( r R) + ( r R)
n 2n
)rdr = (P − P )R
o L
2
− 2RLτ w

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

$ R 2 2 R n +2 1 R 2n +2 '
−ρU o2 R 2 + 2 ρU L2 & − n − 2n 2
) = ( Po − PL ) R − 2RLτ w
% 2 R n + 2 R 2n + 2 (
$ 4 1 ' 1
−ρU o2 R 2 + ρU L2 R 2 &1− ) = ρ(U L − U o ) R − 2RLτ w
2 2 2
+
% n + 2 n + 1( 2
2
Divide
€ by ρR and collect terms:
# 4 1 & 1 2 Lτ
−U o2 + U L2 %1− ( = (U L − U o ) − 2 w
2
+
€ $ n + 2 n + 1' 2 ρR
#1 4 1 & 2 1 2 Lτ w
% − + (U − U = −2
$ 2 n + 2 n + 1' L 2 o ρR
Solve for the average
€ shear stress:
ρR + 2 % 8 2 ( 2.
τw = -U o − '1− + *U 0
€ 4L , & n + 2 n + 1) L /
2τ R+ % 8 2 ( U L2 .
d) Use the result of part c) to find: c f = w2 = -1− '1− + * 0 . Evaluate:
ρU o 2L , & n + 2 n + 1) U o2 /
1.5m ) # 2 &# 20.5 & ,
€ 2
8
cf = +1− %1− + (% ( .= 0.00162
2(12m) * $ 82 81'$ 20.0 ' -
The numbers provided here € are approximately applicable to the William B. Morgan Large
Cavitation Channel in Memphis, Tennessee, the world's largest low-turbulence water tunnel.
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.18. An acid solution with density ρ flows horizontally into a mixing chamber at
speed V1 at x = 0 where it meets a buffer solution with the same density moving at speed V2. The
inlet flow layer thicknesses are h1 and h2 as shown, the mixer chamber height is constant at h1 +
h2, and the chamber width into the page is b. Assume steady uniform flow across the two inlets
and the outlet. Ignore fluid friction on the interior surfaces of the mixing chamber for parts a) and
b).
a) By conserving mass and momentum in a suitable control volume, determine the pressure
difference, Δp = p(L) – p(0), between the outlet (x = L) and inlet (x = 0) of the mixing chamber in
terms of V1, V2, h1, h2, and ρ. Do not use the Bernoulli equation.
b) Is the pressure at the outlet higher or lower than that at the inlet when V1 ≠ V2?
c) Explain how your answer to a) would be modified by friction on the interior surfaces of the
mixing chamber.

V1! h1!
V2! h2!
x = 0! x = L!

Solution 4.18. a) Choose a stationary control volume (b = 0) that captures the fluid between x =
0 and x = L. Here the inflows and outflows are presumed steady. Thus, conservation of mass
from (4.5) reduces to:
∫ ρu ⋅ n dA = 0 .
A*(t )

At x = 0 (the inlet CV surface), n = –ex but the velocities of both streams are positive. At x = L
(the outlet CV surface), n = +ex and the velocity of the mixed stream is positive. On both
surfaces dA = bdy. Thus, the reduced form of (4.5) can be written:
∫ ρu ⋅ n dA = − ∫ ρub dy + ∫ ρub dy = −ρV1bh1 − ρV2bh2 + ρV3b(h1 + h2 ) = 0 ,
A*(t ) inlet outlet

where V3 is the outlet flow speed. Here, the density ρ and flow width b are constants, so this
result can be simplified to:
V1h1 +V2 h2 = V3 (h1 + h2 ) . (†)
The same control volume should be used to conserve of momentum. Again the flow is
presumed steady, so the horiztonal component of (4.17) reduces to:
∫ ρu(u ⋅ n)dA = ∫ fx (n, x, t)dA ,
A*(t ) A*(t )

where fx is the horizontal surface force on the control volume. The body force term is absent here
because gravity acts vertially. As for conservation of mass with this control volume, only the
inflow and outflow surfaces contribute. Evaluating the reduced form of (4.17) produces:
∫ ρu(u ⋅ n)dA = − ∫ ρu2b dy + ∫ ρu2b dy = −ρV12bh1 − ρV22bh2 + ρV32b(h1 + h2 )
A*(t ) inlet outlet

= ∫ f x (n, x, t)dA = + ∫ p(0)b dy − ∫ p(L)b dy = ( p(0) − p(L)) b(h1 + h2 ),

A*(t ) inlet outlet

where the friction terms on the upper and lower CV boundaries have been neglected. Divide out
the common factor of b, and rearrange this to isolate the pressure difference on the left:
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

ρ
p(0) − p(L) = ρV32 −
h1 + h2
(V12 h1 +V22 h2 ) .

Use (†) to eliminate V3,

2
" V h +V h % ρ
p(0) − p(L) = ρ $ 1 1 2 2 ' −
# h1 + h2 & h1 + h2
(V12 h1 +V22 h2 ) ,

and – after some alegbra – this can be simplified to:

h1h2 2
2 ( 1
p(L) − p(0) = ρ V −V2 ) .
(h1 + h2 )
b) Interestingly, the pressure always rises when the two streams have different speeds: p(L) ≥
p(0), and it does not matter which velocity is larger.
c) If friction were included in the calculation the pressure rise would be less.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.19. Consider the situation depicted below. Wind strikes the side of a simple
residential structure and is deflected up over the top of the structure. Assume the following: two-
dimensional steady inviscid constant-density flow, uniform upstream velocity profile, linear
gradient in the downstream velocity profile (velocity U at the upper boundary and zero velocity
at the lower boundary as shown), no flow through the upper boundary of the control volume, and
constant pressure on the upper boundary of the control volume. Using the control volume shown:
a) Determine h2 in terms of U and h1, and
b) Determine the direction and magnitude of the horizontal force on the house per unit depth into
the page in terms of the fluid density ρ, the upstream velocity U, and the height of the house h1.
c) Evaluate the magnitude of the force for a house that is 10 m tall and 20 m long in wind of 22
m/sec (approximately 50 miles per hour).

Solution 4.19. 3. a) Use the control volume formulation of the continuity equation to find that:
h2 h2
Uy U h22 Uh2
Uh1 = ∫ u(y)dy = ∫ dy = = → h2 = 2h1.
0 0 h2 h2 2 2
b) The control volume form of the x-momentum equation is
h1 h2 h1 h2
2 2
− ∫ ρU dy + ∫ ρu dy = ∫ p∞ dy + ∫ − p∞ dy + ∫ + p∞ (n ⋅ e x )dy + Φx .
€ 0 0 0 0 top

where Φx is the force on the fluid per unit depth into the page. It is delivered through the
foundation of the house. Here the flow is assumed inviscid so there's no friction on the lower CV
surface. Evaluating the integrals yields:
€
1 1
−ρU 2 h1 + ρU 2 h2 = p∞ (+h1 − h2 + (h2 − h1 )) + Φx → Φx = − ρU 2 h1 .
3 3
1
Therefore, the force on the house in the +x direction per unit depth into page = + ρU 2 h1 .
3
3 2
c) (Force on the house) = (1.2 kg/m )(22 m/sec) (10 m)(20 m)/3 = 38.7 kN ≈ 8700 pounds. The
€ €
force attempts to push the house in the positive x-direction, that is: downwind.
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.20. A large wind turbine with diameter D extracts a fraction η of the kinetic energy
from the airstream (density = ρ = constant) that impinges on it with velocity U.
a) What is the diameter of the wake zone, E, downstream of the windmill?
b) Determine the magnitude and direction of the force on the windmill in terms of ρ, U, D, and
η.
c) Does your answer approach reasonable limits as η → 0 & η → 1?

Solution 4.20. Place a control volume around the stream tube that hits the windmill with vertical
inflow-outflow surfaces well upstream and downstream of the wind turbine.
a) For ρ = const, the volume flux in the stream tube must be constant. Therefore: V = A1U/A2.
The efficiency of the wind turbine, η, implies: (1 – η)ρU2/2 = ρV2/2, or V = U(1 – η)1/2.
Eliminate V with the continuity result to find: A1U/A2 = U(1 – η)1/2 , or E = D/(1 – η)1/4 .
b) For the chosen CV, cons. of horizontal momentum implies:
–ρU2A1 + ρV2A2 = +Φx,
where Φx is force the wind turbine applies to the fluid. Here the flow speed outside the CV is
assumed to be U everywhere. Therefore, the pressure on the CV surface is P∞ everywhere
because of the steady constant-density horizontal flow Bernoulli equation. Thus, the pressure
integration drops out of the momentum equation because P∞ acts on the entire control surface.
Substituting in the results from part a) produces:
π D2 π D2 2
2 πD #
Force on the windmill = −Φ x = ρ U 2 − ρ U 2 (1− η ) $1− (1− η ) %& .
12
12
= ρ U
4 4(1− η ) 4
The force on the windmill points in the downstream direction, and is dimensionally sound
(ρU2D2 is has units of force).
c) This answer approaches reasonable limits. When as η → 0 the force on the wind turbine also
goes to zero. So, when there is no change in airspeed, there should be no force on the wind
turbine. When η → 1 the force on the windmill approaches πρU2D2/4, which precisely balances
the momentum flux in the incoming stream tube.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.21. An incompressible fluid of density ρ flows through a horizontal rectangular duct
of height h and width b. A uniform flat plate of length L and width b attached to the top of the
duct at point A is deflected to an angle θ as shown.
a) Estimate the pressure difference between the upper and lower sides of the plate in terms of x,
ρ, Uo, h, L and θ when the flow separates cleanly from the tip of the plate.
b) If the plate has mass M and can rotate freely about the hinge at A, determine a formula for the
angle θ in terms of the other parameters. You may leave your answer in terms of an integral.

Solution 4.21. a) The question says to estimate the pressure difference. Thus, reasonable
simplifying assumptions should be acceptable. The first of these is to ignore the two-dimensional
character of the flow field and assume uniform horizontal flow at each x location. The second is
to assume steady flow.
So, for the conditions stated (incompressible), the pressure difference between the upper
and lower side the plate can be estimated from the Bernoulli equation applied between a mid-
duct point comfortably upstream of the plate, where the flow speed is Uo and the pressure is po,
and a location x that is connected to the first point by a streamline, where the flow speed and
pressure below the plate are U(x) and p(x).
1 1
po + ρU o2 = p(x) + ρU 2 (x)
2 2
Conservation of mass in the duct requires:
U o h = U(x)h(x) = U(x)( h − x tan θ ) .
Combining these two equations to eliminate U(x) produces:
€
1 1 % U o2 h 2 ( 1 % 1 (
2€
( )
p(x) − po = ρ U o2 − U 2 (x) = ρ'U o2 −
2 &
* =
(h − x tan θ ) 2 ) 2
ρU 2
o '1− *.
& 1− (x /h) 2 tan 2 θ )
When the flow separates from the plate as shown, the pressure above the dotted separating
streamline will be the same as that below it. This pressure is
1 % 1 (
€ pupper = p(x = L cos θ ) − po = ρU o2 '1− *,
2 & 1− (L /h) 2 sin 2 θ )
so that
1 % 1 1 (
p(x) − pupper = ρU o2 '1− −1+ *
€ 2 & 1− (x /h) 2 tan 2 θ 1− (L /h) 2 sin 2 θ )
1 % 1 1 (
= ρU o2 ' 2 2
− 2 2 *
.
2 &1− (L /h) sin θ 1− (x /h) tan θ )
b) The
€ angle θ can be determined requiring the net moment on the plate to be zero. For a small
element of the plate of length dl = dx/cosθ located at horizontal location x, the moment around A
due to gravity is: – x(M/L)g(dx/cosθ). For this same element, the moment due to fluid mechanical
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

pressure is: +(x/cosθ)(p(x) – pupper)b(dx/cosθ). Thus, the angle that solves the problem is specified
by:
x= L cosθ
$ M b '
Net moment on the plate = 0 = ∫ &%−g L cosθ + ( p(x) − pupper ) cos2 θ )(xdx .
x= 0
Using the above relationship for p(x) – pupper, and pressing on with the integration and a little
algebra yields a final transcendental equation:
ML cosθ €1 % 1 2 1 (
0 = −g
2
+ ρU o2bL2 ''
4 ( L h )
2
sin 2{θ
ln 1− ( )
L h }
sin 2
θ +
1− ( L h )
2
sin 2 *
θ
*,
& )
which could be solved for specific values of the various parameters. Although complicated, this
formula does reach the correct limits. When the fluid dynamic force is negligible, the second
term can be ignored, the plate hangs straight down, and the answer θ = π/2 is provided by the
€first term. When the plate's weight is negligible, the first term can be ignored so the plate's angle
of deflection should be very small and this answer is recovered from the formula above when the
terms inside the big parentheses go to zero, which occurs when θ → 0.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.22 A pipe of length L and cross sectional area A is to be used as a fluid distribution
manifold that expels a steady uniform volume flux per unit length of an incompressible liquid
from x = 0 to x = L. The liquid has density ρ, and is to be expelled from the pipe through a slot of
varying width, w(x). The goal of this problem is to determine w(x) in terms of the other
parameters of the problem. The pipe-inlet pressure and liquid velocity at x = 0 are Po and Uo,
respectively, and the pressure outside the pipe is Pe. If P(x) denotes the pressure on the inside of
1
the pipe, then the liquid velocity through the slot Ue is determined from: P(x) − Pe = 2 ρU e2 . For
this problem assume that the expelled liquid exits the pipe perpendicular to the pipe’s axis, and
note that wUe = const. = UoA/L, even though w and Ue both depend on x.
a) Formulate a dimensionless scaling law for w in terms of x, L, A, ρ, Uo, Po, and Pe.
b) Ignore the effects of viscosity, assume all profiles through the€ cross section of the pipe are
uniform, and use a suitable differential-control-volume analysis to show that:
dU d dP
A + wU e = 0 , and ρ U 2 = − .
dx dx dx
c) Use these equations and the relationships stated above to determine w(x) in terms of x, L, A, ρ,
Uo, Po, and Pe. Is the slot wider at x = 0 or at x = L?
€ €

Solution 4.22. a) Create the parameter matrix.

w x L A ρ Uo Po Pe
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
M 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
L 1 1 1 2 -3 1 -1 -1
T 0 0 0 0 0 –1 -2 -2
There will be 8 – 3 = 5 dimensionless groups
w x A ρU o2 P w # x A ρU 2 P &
By inspection the groups are: , , 2 , , and o , thus: = fn% , 2 , o , o (
L L L Po Pe L $ L L Po Pe '
b) For a differential slice of the pipe located between x and x+dx, cons. of mass implies:
−ρU(x)A + ρU e (x)w(x)dx + ρU(x + dx)A = 0 .
Group the U-terms together
€ € €and € divide by dx:
€
ρA (U(x + dx) − U(x)) dx € + ρU e (x)w(x) = 0 .
Divide by ρ and€take the limit as dx goes to zero to find:
A dU dx + U e w = 0 .
Using the same CV conserv horizontal momentum
€
−ρU 2 (x)A + ρU 2 (x + dx)A = P(x)A − P(x + dx)A
Divide by A & dx, and take the limit as dx goes to zero to find:
€
ρ dU 2 dx = − dP dx .
c) Integrate the two equations found for part b): U = −(U e w A) x + C1, and ρU 2 = −P + C2
€

€
€ €
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

The boundary conditions for U are: U(0) = Uo, and U(L) = 0, and from the problem statement:
wUe = const. = UoA/L, so U(x) = U o (1− x L) .
Noting that P(0) = Po and U(0) = Uo, the integrated momentum equation becomes:
P(x) + ρU 2 (x) = Po + ρU o2 .
Put this together with the COMA result and the exit velocity condition,
€ 2
P(x) − Pe = 12 ρU e2 = 12 ρ(U o A wL) ,
to find: €
2 2
Pe + 12 ρ(U o A wL) + ρU o2 (1− x L) = Po + ρU o2 ,
which can be solved for
€ w(x) to get −1 2

[(
w(x) = ( A L) (Po − Pe ) 1
2 (
ρU o2 ) + 2 1− (1− x L)
2
)] .
€ at x = 0.
The slot is wider

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.23. The take-off mass of a Boeing 747-400 may be as high as 400,000 kg. An Airbus
A380 may be even heavier. Using a control volume (CV) that comfortably encloses the aircraft,
explain why such large aircraft do not crush houses or people when they fly low overhead. Of
course, the aircraft’s wings generate lift but they are entirely contained within the CV and do not
coincide with any of the CV’s surfaces; thus merely stating the lift balances weight is not a
satisfactory explanation. Given that the CV’s vertical body-force term, −g ∫ ρdV , will exceed
CV
4x106 N when the airplane and air in the CV’s interior are included, your answer should instead
specify which of the CV’s surface forces or surface fluxes carries the signature of a large
aircraft’s impressive weight.
€
Solution 4.23. Assume that the airplane is in steady level flight so that the flow is steady in the
frame of reference of the airplane. Therefore, choose a frame of reference attached to the
airplane and select a control volume (CV) that comfortably encloses the aircraft. In this frame of
reference the CV is not moving but is instantaneously aligned above the house. The overall
problem is really three dimensional, but will be simplified here. Therefore, take the CV to be a
cube of volume V = L3 with z = 0 at mean roof level. Retaining the roof-peak in the solution is
not essential since there is no flow through the bottom of the control volume. Denote the speed
and mass of the aircraft by Uac and Mac, let the Cartesian-coordinate fluid velocity with respect

to the control volume be u = (u,v,w) , and choose the front of the control volume to coincide with
the y-z plane.
z
€ y

x
For steady flow of a perfect fluid with density ρ (viscous forces are irrelevant here because of the
enormous Reynolds number), the integral momentum equation in the z-direction is:
− ∫ ρwudS + ∫ ρwudS + ∫ ρw 2 dS − ∫ ρwvdS + ∫ ρwvdS
front back top close side far side

= −g( ρ airV + M ac ) − ∫ PdS + ∫ PdS

top bottom
where g is the acceleration of gravity, P is pressure, and the volume of the aircraft has been
ignored €compared V. There is no flux term on the bottom of the CV because the rooftop is
assumed to be solid and impenetrable.
€ back of the control volume u is approximately equal to U . The
On the front and ac
contribution from sides and top of the control volume will be small since |w|,|v| « Uac at any
reasonable distance from the aircraft. For low-Mach-number subsonic flight, such as during
take-off and landing, the fluid density can be treated as constant. If the length of one side of the
cubical control volume is L, then momentum conservation simplifies to :
L L L L
ρU ac ∫ ∫ (w back − w front ) dydz = −g( ρ airV + M ac ) + ∫ ∫ (Pbottom − Ptop ) dxdy . (a)
0 0 0 0
In the absence of a difference between the front and back vertical velocity on the CV surface, the
weight of the aircraft and air in the CV would be borne by the ground through the pressure
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

difference Pbottom – Ptop. Here we can set Pbottom = Patm + Pextra, where Patm is the atmospheric
pressure that supports the air in the CV and counter acts the pressure on the top of the CV, and
Pextra is the extra pressure on the ground caused by the aircraft. In particular, evaluate (a) when
the aircraft is absent to find a hydrostatic balance,
L L
0 = −gρ airV + ∫ ∫ (Patm − Ptop )dxdy ,
0 0
and subtract this from (a) to find:
L L L L
gM ac = ρU ac ∫ ∫ (w front − w back )dydz + ∫ ∫ Pextra dxdy . (b)
0 0 0 0
€
Thus, the weight of the aircraft is borne by moving air (the first term in b) and an extra pressure
on the ground (the second term in b). In reality, the pressure distribution on the aircraft's wings
causes wfront – wback to be both nonzero and positive (i.e. wfront is an updraft and wback is a
downdraft), and€ this term primarily balances the impressive weight of the aircraft. For a landing
speed of 100 m/s, L ≈ 100 m (~50% larger than the aircraft’s wingspan), gMac = 4 mega-Newton,
we can estimate the vertical velocity difference necessary to support the aircraft:
4 ×10 6 N
w front − w back ≈ ~ 3.3m /s.
(1.2kg /m 3 )(100m /s)(10 4 m 2 )
Such wind speeds are not much of a hazard to most people, buildings, or other structures.
Further consideration of the flow-field produced by a flying aircraft shows that heavy
aircraft do not crush houses and people because the plane's weight ends up being spread over an
€ area. A flying aircraft's pressure distribution may exist for a kilometer or more in
extremely large
all directions, so the supporting area for a plane with a weight of 4 mega-Newtons might easily
exceed 1 km2 or 106 square meters. Therefore the extra pressure on the ground will be at most a
few Pa (less than 0.01% of an atmosphere).
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.24. An inviscid incompressible liquid with density ρ flows in a wide conduit of
height H and width B into the page. The inlet stream travels at a uniform speed U and fills the
conduit. The depth of the outlet stream is less than H. Air with negligible density fills the gap
above the outlet stream. Gravity acts downward with acceleration g. Assume the flow is steady
for the following items.
a) Find a dimensionless scaling law for U in terms of ρ, H, and g.
b) Denote the outlet stream depth and speed by h and u, respectively, and write down a set of
equations that will allow U, u, and h to be determined in terms of ρ, H, and g.
c) Solve for U, u, and h in terms of ρ, H, and g. [Hint: solve for h first.]

Solution 4.24. a) Density is the only

parameter with units of mass. Thus, it %! &! '!
cannot be part of a dimensionless law $"
for U. The remaining parameters (U, g, !" "#$!
#" !
H) can only be assembled into one
2
dimensionless group, Π1 = U gH ,
thus:
U = const ⋅ gH . !
b) Place the
€ CV around the change in liquid level as shown above, ignore friction, set
atmospheric pressure to zero, and assume uniform inflow and outflow.
Cons. of mass: ρUH = ρuh (1)
€ of horizontal momentum
Cons. 2 2 1 2 1
−ρU H + ρu h = P0 H + 2 ρgH − 2 ρgh 2
(2)
Bernoulli from ‘0’ to ‘1’: P0 + 12 ρU 2 + ρgH = 0 + 0 + ρgH (3)
Bernoulli from ‘1’ to ‘2’: € 1 2
0 + 0 + ρgH = 0 + 2 ρu + ρgh (4)
The zeros arise in the Bernoulli
€ equations because point ‘1’ is a stagnation point and the pressure
there is atmospheric pressure. There are four unknowns (U, u, h, P0) so these four equations
€
should be sufficient for a complete solution.
c) Use (4) to find u = 2g(H € − h) . Use this to eliminate u from (1) and (2), and use (3) to
eliminate P0 from (2). The remaining equations are:
ρUH = ρh 2g(H − h) , and −ρU 2 H + ρ2g(H − h)h = − 12 ρU 2 H + 12 ρg(H 2 − h 2 ) .
Divide each
€ equation by ρ. Square the first and divide by H, and simplify the second to get:
1 2 1 2 2
U H = 2g(H − h)h 2 H , and − 2 U H + 2g(H − h)h = + 2 g(H − h ) .
2

€Use the first of these to eliminate

€ U 2 H in the second, and then divide by (H–h) to find:
− gh 2 H + 2gh = + 12 g(H + h) , or h 2 − 32 Hh + 12 H 2 = 0 = (h − H)(h − 12 H) .
€ h = H 2 so (4) implies u = €gH , and these together with (1) produce: U = gH 2 .
Thus,
€

€ €
€ € €
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.25. A hydraulic jump is the shallow-water-wave equivalent of a gas-dynamic shock

wave. A steady radial hydraulic jump can be observed safely in one’s kitchen, bathroom, or
backyard where a falling stream of water impacts a shallow pool of water on a flat surface. The
radial location R of the jump will depend on gravity g, the depth of the water behind the jump H,
the volume flow rate of the falling stream Q, and stream’s speed, U, where it impacts the plate.
In your work, assume 2gh << U where r is the radial coordinate from the point where the falling
stream impacts the surface.
a) Formulate a dimensionless law for R in terms of the other parameters.
b) Use the Bernoulli
€ equation and a control volume with narrow angular and negligible radial
Q % 2U 2 (
extents that contains the hydraulic jump to show that: R ≅ 2'
− H*.
2πUH & g )
c) Rewrite the results of part b) in terms of the dimensionless parameters found for part a).

Solution 4.25. a) Units matrix R g H Q U

M 0 0 0 0 0
L 1 1 1 3 1
T 0 -2 0 -1 -1
The matrix has rank two, so the number of dimensionless groups is: (5 parameters) – (2
dimensions) = 3 dimensionless groups. Generate the dimensionless groups by inspection:
R U Q
Π1 = , Π 2 = , and Π 3 =
H gH gH 5
State the dimensionless law: R H = f U ( gH ,Q gH 5 )
b) The pressure is atmospheric on all the water surfaces and observation of kitchen- or bathroom-
sink hydraulic jump€ suggests€that any change of € the thickness of the fast moving layer upstream
of the jump is negligible compared to this distance the water has fallen to reach the bottom of the
€
sink. Thus, the Bernoulli equation for any radial liquid-surface streamline from the point of
impact to the hydraulic jump suggests that the fluid velocity is essentially constant and equal to
U. If h is the thickness of the fast moving water layer upstream of the hydraulic jump, then
conservation of mass implies: h(r) = Q (2πrU) where r is the radial distance from the point of
water impact. The stage is now set for a control volume calculation. Consider a rectangular CV
of small radial extent that encloses the hydraulic jump. Let ho = h(R) = Q (2πRU) , and V be the
velocity of the outlet flow.
Conserve Mass:€ Uho = VH
2 h2 H2
Conserve Horizontal Momentum: −ρU € ho + ρV 2 H = ρg o − ρg
2 2

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Here the conservation of momentum equation specifies a balance between momentum fluxes and
hydrostatic pressure terms. First eliminate V from the second equation using the first.
2 $ Uho ' 2 ho2 H2
−ρU ho + ρ& ) H = ρg − ρg
% H ( 2 2
Divide by ρ, and manipulate this equation to eliminate a common factor of H – ho.
h g h g # U2 &
−U 2 o (H − ho ) = − ( H − ho )( H + ho ) –> U 2 o = ( H + ho ) –> ho %2 −1( = H
H € 2 H 2 $ gH '
Now use the relationship ho = h(R) = Q (2πRU) to eliminate ho and solve for R:
Q $ U2 ' Q $ U2 '
& 2 −1) = H –> R = & 2 − H )
€ 2πRU % gH (€ 2πUH 2 % € g (
c) Putting this result
€ into dimensionless form just takes a little algebra. The final result is:
R 1 Q $ U gH '
= & 2 − )
€ H 2π € gH 5 % gH U (

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.26. A fine uniform mist of an inviscid incompressible fluid with density ρ settles
steadily at a total volume flow rate (per unit depth into the page) of 2q onto a flat horizontal
surface of width 2s to form a liquid layer of thickness h(x) as shown. The geometry is two-
dimensional.
a) Formulate a dimensionless scaling law for h in terms of x, s, q, ρ, and g.
b) Use a suitable control volume analysis, assuming u(x) does not depend on y, to find a single
cubic equation for h(x) in terms of h(0), s, q, x, and g.
c) Determine h(0).

Solution 4.26. a) There appear to be six parameters, but the density is the only parameter that
includes the units of mass so it can be set aside. Thus, there will only be two independent
dimensions, length (L) and time (T).
Therefore, the units matrix is: h x s q g
L 1 1 1 2 1
T 0 0 0 -1 -2
There will be 5 – 2 = 3 dimensionless groups. By inspection: Π1 = h s , Π 2 = x s , and
( 2 3
Π 3 = q 2 gs3 , so h s = fn x s,q gs . )
b) Conserve mass using the differential CV:
−u(x)h(x) + u(x + dx)h(x + dx) − (q€s) dx = 0 ,€or d(uh) dx = q s .
€ Conserve horizontal momentum in same differential CV with hydrostatic pressure forces:
€ −ρu 2 (x)h(x) + ρu 2 (x + dx)h(x + dx) = 12 ρgh 2 (x) − 12 ρgh 2 (x + dx) ,
€ or d(u 2 h) dx = −( g 2)€dh 2 dx .
Integrate these equations and evaluate the constants with u(0) = 0 to get
€
2
(
2 2
uh = qx s , and u h = −( g 2) h − h (0) . )
2 2 2
( 2 2
€ two equations to find: q x hs = −( g 2) h − h (0) , which is a
Eliminate u(x) between these )
cubic equation so h(x) cannot be put into a simple form.
€ of mass implies:
c) Global conservation € q = u(s)h(s) . If Pa = atmospheric pressure, a Bernoulli
streamline from x = 0 to x = s on the flat surface (the liquid surface is not a streamline) produces:
Pa + ρgh(0) = Pa + ρgh(s) + 12 ρu€2 (s) , or u 2 (s) = 2g( h(0) − h(s)) = q 2 h 2 (s) .
2
(
€ of part b) evaluated at x = s, q h(s) = −( g 2) h (s) − h (0) ,
This final equality and the result
2 2
)
represent two equations in two unknowns, h(0) & h(s), that can be solved simultaneously to
determine
€ h(0) in terms of q and g: €
13
h(0) = 3(q 2 4g) = 3h(s).
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.27. A thin-walled pipe of mass mo, length L, and cross sectional area A is free to
swing in the x-y plane from a frictionless pivot at point O. Water with density ρ fills the pipe,
flows into it at O perpendicular to the x-y plane, and is expelled at a right angle from the pipe’s
end as shown. The pipe’s opening also has area A and gravity g acts downward. For a steady
mass flow rate of m˙ , the pipe hangs at angle θ with respect to the vertical as shown. Ignore fluid
viscosity.
a) Develop a dimensionless scaling law for θ in terms of mo,
L, A, ρ, €
m˙ , and g.
b) Use a control volume analysis to determine the force
components, Fx & Fy, applied to the pipe at the pivot point in
€ terms of θ, mo, L, A, ρ, m
˙ , and g.
c) Determine θ in terms of mo, L, A, ρ, m˙ , and g.
d) Above what value of m˙ will the pipe rotate without
stopping? €
€
Solution 4.27. a) The
€ units matrix is:
θ mo L A ρ m˙ g
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
M 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
L 0 0 1 2 € -3 0 1
T 0 0 0 -1 0 -1 -2
This matrix has rank three and there are seven parameters so four dimensionless groups should
be constructed. By inspection the dimensionless groups are: θ, m˙ 2 L gmo2 , L2 A , and ρAL mo ,
( 2 2 2
)
so the dimensionless scaling law is: θ = f m˙ L gmo ,L A, ρAL mo , where f is an undetermined
function.
b) Note that this part of the problem involves steady flow. € Place€the CV around
€ the outside of
the pipe except at the pivot point O where the CV slices through the pipe parallel to the x-y
plane. Assume that the flow € is in the z-direction across this control surface slice at O. Here,
conservation of mass merely requires m˙ = const. The control surface pressure is atmospheric
everywhere outside the pipe, and pressure forces can only act in the z-direction on the control
surface slice at O. Thus, there is no pressure contribution to the reaction forces, Fx and Fy, which
arise from the portion of the € control surface that passes through the pipe structure. The
momentum flux of water at O is perpendicular to the x-y plane so only the outflow momentum
flux is relevant for determining Fx and Fy. For the chosen stationary control volume, this outflow
flux term can be readily evaluated because the water’s discharge velocity and the CV’s outward
normal are parallel. Assume the outflow velocity is uniform too; u = ( m˙ ρA)n , so conservation
of momentum implies:
m˙ % m˙ ( m˙ 2
∫ ρu(u ⋅ n)dA = ρ ρA n' ρA * A = − ρA (e x cosθ + e y sin θ ) = −( mo + ρAL) ge y + Fxe x + Fye y ,
outlet & ) €
where n = −e x cos θ − e y sin θ . Equating x & y components produces the final answers:
Fx = −( m˙ 2 ρA) cosθ , and Fy = (mo + ρAL)g − ( m˙ 2 ρA) sinθ .
€ c) This part of the problem again involves STEADY flow. A small CV placed inside the pipe at
€ its end shows that the force resulting from the flux of fluid discharged from the pipe primarily
acts at end of the pipe. Based on this, equate the gravity- and flow-induced moments on the pipe
€ €
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

(2
)
about O so that Fx and Fy are not needed: (mo + ρAL)g( L 2) sin θ = m˙ ρA L . Solve for the
(2
)
angle: sin θ = 2 m˙ ρA (mo + ρAL)g .
( 2
)
d) When 2 m˙ ρA (mo + ρAL)g > 1 there is no answer for θ since sinθ ≤ 1. Thus, when
m˙ > ρA(mo + ρAL)g 2 , no steady€solution is possible, and the pipe will spin without stopping.
€
€
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.28. Construct a house of cards, or light a candle. Get the cardboard tube from the
center of a roll of paper towels and back away from the cards or candle several feet so that by
blowing you cannot knock down the cards or blow out the candle unaided. Now use the tube in
two slightly different configurations. First, place the tube snugly against your face encircling
your mouth, and try to blow down the house of cards or blow out the candle. Repeat the
experiment while moving closer until the cards are knocked down or the candle is blown out
(you may need to get closer to your target than might be expected; do not hyperventilate; do not
start the cardboard tube on fire). Note the distance between the end of the tube and the card
house or candle at this point. Rebuild the card house or relight the candle and repeat the
experiment, except this time hold the tube a few centimeters away from your face and mouth,
and blow through it. Again, determine the greatest distance from which you can knock down the
cards or blow out the candle.
a) Which configuration is more effective at knocking the cards down or blowing the candle out?
b) Explain your findings with a suitable control-volume analysis.
c) List some practical applications where this effect might be useful.

Solution 4.28. a) The most effective configuration is when the tube is held a few centimeters in
front of the face and mouth.
b) The difference between the two cases is the greater volume flux through the tube when it is
held a few centimeters in front of the mouth. Since the exit area of the tube does not change, the
volume flux change results entirely from an increased exit velocity. Therefore, the control
volume solution should determine the exit velocity from the tube in terms of other parameters.
In the following, the subscript ‘o’ will refer to conditions at the inlet end of the tube, the
subscript ‘e’ will refer to conditions at the exit or downstream end of the tube, and the subscript
‘a’ will refer to ambient (motionless) conditions some distance from the tube.
Consider a control volume that encloses the air inside the tube, ignore the frictional losses
between the tube and the flowing air, and align the tube with the x-axis (see picture). For the air
speeds and temperature differences under consideration the flow is essentially incompressible
and isothermal which means, ρ ≈ const.

po
Uo pe
Tube Walls

Ao Af Uf Ue
Control Volume
Boundary

Let Af be the cross sectional area of the fast moving air blown out of the mouth, and Uf be the
velocity of this air stream where it enters the tube. When ρ = const, conservation of mass reduces
to conservation of volume implying:
A f U f + (Ao − A f )U o = AeU e (1)

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

The horizontal-component of the momentum equation is then

−ρA f U 2f − ρ(Ao − A f )U o2 + ρAeU e2 = ∫ Po dA − ∫ Pe dA (2)
Ao Ae

In both cases, Ao = Ae = A. Using these relationships and assuming that the inlet and exit pressure
integrals can be approximated by the PoAo and PeAe, produces:
A f U f + (A − A f )U o = AU e (3)
€
(Po − Pe )A + ρA f U 2f + ρ(A − A f )U o2 = ρAU e2 (4)
These are two equations in three unknowns: (Po–Pe), Uo, and Ue. The third equation is
determined by the tube configuration.
€
CASE I.
When the tube is € held against the face, the third relationship is Uo = 0, so (3) implies:
( )
U e = A f A U f = sU f , (5)
where s = Af/A.
CASE II.
When the tube is held away from the mouth. The remaining relationship comes from a pressure
balance outside the tube. The € pressure of the air drawn into the tube from the ambient condition
can be estimated from the steady Bernoulli equation:
Pa + 12 ρU a2 = Pa = Po + 12 ρU o2 (6)
where, of course, Ua ≈ 0. In addition, if the exit velocity is parallel to the tube axis, then the
component of the momentum equation perpendicular to the tube axis suggests that Pa ≈ Pe so that
Pe − Po = 12 ρU o2 . (7)
€
Put (7) into (4), then the equations to be solved for Ue are (3) and
− 12 U o2 A + A f U 2f + (A − A f )U o2 = AU e2 . (8)
where the common factor of ρ has € been divided out. Rearrange (3) and (8) with s = Af/A to find:
U e − sU f 1
Uo = , and ( 2 − s)U o2 = U e2 − sU 2f . (9a,b)
1− s
€ for U in terms of U and s (this involves some algebra).
Eliminate Uo and solve e f

U e s(2s −1) + 2s(1− s) 3

= (10)
€ Uf € (1− s) 2 + s2
Although it is not obvious by looking at it, this result, (10), is always larger than the result for
Case I, (5), especially when s is small. For example, when s = 1/10: Case I –> Ue = 0.100Uf,
while Case II –> Ue = 0.368Uf, almost 4 times larger! Or, when s = 1/4: Case I –> Ue = 0.250Uf,
€
while Case II –> Ue = 0.535U f, more than twice as large!
c) For this problem, the fast-moving air from the mouth and the cardboard tube form a crude
ejector pump. Applications for ejector pumps occur wherever rapid or steady pumping without
moving parts is required for inflation or evacuation of a container or chamber. Examples: air
bags, emergency exit ramps on commercial aircraft, emergency life support (ventilation of the
lungs), and a variety of industrial processes involving corrosive materials. In addition, if the
fast-moving stream carries a fuel and the entrained fluid carries the oxidizer (for example), the
shape (i.e. the area ratio) of the ejector pump can be used to mix reactants to a set the mixture
ratio for combustion.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.29. Attach a drinking straw to a 15-cm-diameter cardboard disk with a hole at the
center using tape or glue. Loosely fold the corners of a standard piece of paper upward so that
the paper mildly cups the cardboard disk (see drawing). Place the cardboard disk in the central
section of the folded paper. Attempt to lift the loosely folded paper off a flat surface by blowing
or sucking air through the straw.
a) Experimentally determine if blowing or suction is more effective in lifting the folded paper.
b) Explain your findings with a control volume analysis.

Solution 4.29. a) It would seem that the only way to lift the paper would be to suck on the straw.
However, blowing is found to be just as successful!
b) This can be explained with a control volume analysis. Choose a control volume that encloses a
portion of the fluid between the paper and the cardboard disk. For simplicity assume that the
flow is axisymmetric, constant density, and inviscid. Also assume that the paper and the
cardboard are perfectly planar surfaces. Denote the distance between the paper and the
cardboard disk by h, the diameter of the cardboard disk by R, and the radius & cross sectional
area of the straw by rs & As.

2rs h

Cardboard
ur control volume
Paper
p∞
r
R
Conservation of mass implies: 2πrhur = UiAs for r >> rs, where r is the radius of the control
volume, ur is the local radial component of the flow at the circular edge of the control volume,
and Ui is the inlet velocity from the straw. Therefore: ur = U i As (2πhr) for r >> rs.
What we need to know is the pressure distribution above the piece of paper in terms of the
parameters of the problem and p∞, the pressure below the piece of paper. The Bernoulli equation
in this case is:
€ + 1 ρu 2 = p + 1 ρU 2
p + 1 ρu 2 = p(r)
∞ 2 R 2 r i 2 i
where the 'i' subscript refers to conditions at the lower tip of the straw. For the paper to remain
suspended we need the following to be true:

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

r= R
W p ≤ 2π ∫ [− p(r) + p ]rdr ∞ (†)
r= o
where Wp is the weight of the paper. This pressure integral can be estimated from the vertical
momentum equation for a control volume like that shown above with radius R:
r= R r= R
∫ ρU i (U ie z ⋅ e€z )dA = ρU i2 As = −2π ∫ p(r)rdr − pi As + 2π ∫ p(r)rdr .
As r= rs r= 0

The first and second integrals on the right side come from the cardboard and paper surfaces,
respectively. Rearrange this, use the Bernoulli equation, and then approximate the flow under
the cardboard as purely radial for r > rs.
€ r= R r= R
2π ∫ p(r)rdr = ρU i2 As + 2π ∫ p(r)rdr + pi As
r= 0 r= rs
r= R r= R
2π ∫ p(r)rdr = ρU 2
i As + 2π ∫ (p ∞ )
+ 12 ρuR2 − 12 ρur2 rdr + pi As .
r= 0 r= rs
Now start reconstructing
€ the integral of the pressure difference (†):
r= R r= R
2π ∫ [p 2
∞ − p(r)] rdr = − ρU i As − 2π ∫( 1
2
ρuR2 − 12 ρur2 ) rdr − pi As + p∞ As
€ r= 0 r= rs

Inserting ur = uR ( R r) yields:
r= R
2π ∫ [p ∞ − p(r)] rdr = −ρU i2 As − 12 πρuR2 ( R 2 − rs2 ) + πρuR2 R 2 (ln R − ln rs ) − pi As + p∞ As .
€ r= 0
Collect
€ terms and introduce Wp:
W p ≤ ( p∞ − pi − ρU i2 ) As + 12 πρuR2 ( rs2 + 2R 2 ln( R rs ) − R 2 ) .
2
€ Simplifying further using As = πrs , the Bernoulli relationships, and
uR = U i As (2πhR) = U i rs2 (2hR) produces:
1 % r2 (
W p ≤€− 12 ρU i2 As + 12 πρuR2 R 2 (2ln( R rs ) −1) , or, W p ≤ ρU i2 As'−1+ s 2 (2ln( R rs ) −1)* .
€ 2 & 4h )
€ For a straw diameter rs = 3 mm, h = 1 mm, and R = 80 mm, the factor inside the large
parentheses is about +11.5. With these dimensions and Ui ≈ 20 m/sec, Wp can be as large as a
€ 0.08 N. This strange lifting effect is used in manufacturing processes to pick up computer chips
without touching them. Note also that Ui enters € the final answer as U i2 so it doesn’t matter which
ways the flow goes; suction or blowing through the straw should yield identical results.

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.30. A compression wave in a long gas-filled constant-area duct propagates to the left
at speed U. To the left of the wave, the gas is quiescent with uniform density ρ1 and uniform
pressure p1. To the right of the wave, the gas has uniform density ρ2 (> ρ1) and uniform pressure
is p2 (> p1). Ignore the effects of viscosity in this problem.
a) Formulate a dimensionless scaling law for U in terms of the pressures and densities.
b) Determine U in terms of ρ1, ρ2, p1, and p2 using a control volume.
c) Put your answer to part b) in dimensionless form and thereby determine the unknown function
from part a).
d) When the density and pressure changes are small, they are proportional:
p2 − p1 = c 2 ( ρ2 − ρ1 ) for ( ρ2 − ρ1 ) ρ2 << 1 ,
where c 2 = (∂p ∂ρ )s . Under these conditions, U is associated with what common property of the
gas?
U!

p1, ρ1!
p2, ρ2!
u1 = 0!

Solution 4.30. a) Use dimensional analysis. There are five parameters but there are only two
independent dimensions ([density] and [velocity] because [density x velocity2] = [pressure]), so
there are three dimensionless groups. Three satisfactory groups are easily found by inspection:
Π1 = ρ1U 2 p1 , Π 2 = ρ1 ρ2 , and Π3 = p1 p2 . Thus, the scaling law is:
ρ1U 2 p1 = fn ( ρ1 ρ2 , p1 p2 ) .
b) Place a moving control volume around the compression wave with vertical surfaces on the left
and on the right of the wave, similar to Example 4.6. The contents of this control volume do not
vary in time so:
Cons. of mass −ρ1UA + ρ2 (U + u2 )A = 0
Cons. of x-momentum −ρ1U 2 A + ρ2 (U + u2 )2 A = p1 A − p2 A
where A is the cross section of the duct, and u2 is the horizontal velocity of the gas on the right of
the wave in a stationary frame of reference. Divide both equations by A, and use the first
2
equation to eliminate U + u2 from the second equation to find: −ρ1U 2 + ρ2 ( ρ1U ρ2 ) = p1 − p2 .
p2 − p1
Solve this equation to find: U= .
ρ1 (1− ρ1 ρ2 )
ρ1U 2 p p −1 Π−1 −1
c) Manipulate the result of part b) to find: = 2 1 , or Π1 = fn(Π 2 , Π3 ) = 3 .
p1 (1− ρ1 ρ2 ) 1− Π 2
d) Start with the result of part b) and insert the small-change approximation:
p2 − p1 c 2 ( ρ2 − ρ1 ) ρ ρ
U= = = c 2 → c as 2 →1
ρ1 (1− ρ1 ρ2 ) ρ1 (1− ρ1 ρ2 ) ρ1 ρ1
Thus, in this limit, U is associated with c, the speed of sound.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.31. A rectangular tank is placed on wheels and is given a constant horizontal
acceleration a. Show that, at steady state, the angle made by the free surface with the horizontal
is given by tan θ = a/g.

Solution 4.31. Make a drawing and add some

dimensions to the tank. Place the control y!
volume around the water inside the rolling
θ! g!
tank. Here the continuity equation merely
ensures that the mass of water in the tank, x!
M = ∫ ρdV , doesn’t change as the tank
!h1
L ! ! h2
V*
accelerates. The horizontal component of the
momentum equation is:
d
€ ∫ ρudV + ∫ ρu( u − at )e x ⋅ ndA = ∫ f x dA
dt V *(t ) S*(t ) S*(t )
where the CV velocity, b, has been set to b = atex, so that db/dt = aex is the specified steady
horizontal acceleration. The body force term does not appear in the above equation since
gravity acts in the vertical direction. At steady state, the fluid velocity will equal the velocity of
the moving tank€so the flux terms will be zero, and the pressure forces will be hydrostatic:
∇p = ρg , where p is the pressure and g is the body force acceleration. In this situation, g has
both horizontal and vertical components. However, the vertical component of the hydrostatic
equation, ∂p ∂y = −ρg , is not changed by the horizontal acceleration. This equation integrates
to: p = A(x) − ρgy where A(x) is the function of integration; it cannot depend on y. Here we
€
know that atmospheric pressure occurs on the surface of the water so the pressure on the left and
right sides of the tank are p1 (y) = po + ρg(h1 − y) and p2 (y) = po + ρg(h2 − y) , respectively.
€
Thus, the horizontal momentum conservation equation becomes:
€ h1 h2 ρgB 2
Ma = ∫ 0 ρg(h1 − y)Bdy − ∫ 0 ρg(h2 − y)Bdy =
2
( h1 − h22 ) ,
€ €
where B is the dimension of the tank into the page, and the CV-surface integration of po leads (as
usual) to no net force. Now, use the two ends of this extended equality and divide by M noting
that M = ρBL (h1 + h2 ) 2 where L is the horizontal length of the tank:
€ g a
a = ( h1 − h2 ) = gtan θ , so tan θ =
L g
€

€ €
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.32. Starting from rest at t = 0, an airliner of mass M accelerates at a constant rate
a = ae x into a headwind, u = −uie x . For the following items, assume that: i) the x-component of
the fluid velocity is –ui on the front, sides, and back upper half of the control volume (CV), ii)
the x-component of the fluid velocity is –uo on the back lower half of the CV, iii) changes in M
can be neglected, iv) changes of air momentum inside the CV can be neglected, and v)
€ € In addition, assume constant air density ρ and uniform flow conditions exist
frictionless wheels.
on the various control surfaces. In your work, denote the CV’s front and back area by A. (This
approximate model is appropriate for real commercial airliners that have the engines hung under
the wings).
a) Find a dimensionless scaling law for uo at t = 0 in terms of ui, ρ, a, M, and A.
b) Using a CV that encloses the airliner (as shown) determine a formula for uo(t), the time-
dependent air velocity on the lower half of the CV’s back surface.
c) Evaluate uo at t = 0, when M = 4 x 105 kg, a = 2.0 m/s2, ui = 5 m/s, ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, and A = 1200
m2. Would you be able to walk comfortably behind the airliner?

Solution 4.32. a) The units matrix is:

uo ui ρ a M A
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
M 0 0 1 0 1 0
L 1 1 -3 1 0 2
T -1 -1 0 -2 0 0
This matrix has rank three and there are six parameters so three dimensionless groups should be
constructed. These are found easily by inspection. The final dimensionless scaling law can be
uo # aA1 2 M &
stated: = fn% 2 , 3 2 ( .
ui $ ui ρA '
b) For constant acceleration from rest, the CV’s velocity is b = atex. Conserve mass:
d $ '
( M + M air ) + ρ% ∫ + ∫ + ∫ + ∫ ((u − b) ⋅ ndA = 0
dt & upper back lower back front sides )
€
Drop the time derivative terms and evaluate the first three surface integrations:
A A
ρ(−ui − at)e x ⋅ (−e x ) + ρ(−uo − at)e x ⋅ (−e x ) + ρ(−ui − at)e x ⋅ (e x )A + ρ ∫ (u − b) ⋅ ndS = 0
€ 2 2 sides
A
Simplify to find: ∫ (u − b) ⋅ ndS = (ui − uo ) 2 . (*)
sides
Note that ui must equal uo if the integral over the sides of the CV is not included. Now conserve
€
horizontal momentum noting that there are no external forces on the CV.
d $ '
( Mat + M€air uair ) + ρ% ∫ + ∫ + ∫ + ∫ ((u ⋅ e x )(u − b) ⋅ ndS = 0
dt & upper back lower back front sides )

Drop the air term from the time derivative, set dM/dt = 0, and evaluate the first three surface
integrations
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

A A
Ma − ρui (ui + at) − ρuo (uo + at) + ρui (ui + at)A − ρui ∫ (u − b) ⋅ ndS = 0 .
2 2 sides
Simplify this equation and use (*) to eliminate the integral over the sides of the control surface:
A A A
Ma + ρui (ui + at) − ρuo (uo + at) = ρui ∫ (u − b) ⋅ ndS = ρui (ui − uo ) .
2 2 sides 2
€
Distribute the various multiplications and cancel terms to find a quadratic equation for uo:
$ 2Ma '
uo2 − ( ui − at ) uo − & ui at + ) = 0.
€ % ρA (
Thus: uo = 12 (ui − at) + 12 (ui − at) 2 + 4 ( ui at + 2Ma ρA) , where the plus sign is chosen in front of
the square root to ensure that uo is positive.
# & u # &
c) At t = 0, uo = 12 %% ui +€ ui2 + 8Ma ρA (( , or o = 12 %%1+ 1+ 8( aA1 2 ui2 )( M ρA 3 2 ) ((
€
$ ' ui $ '
# &
= 12 %%5m /s + 25m 2 /s2 + 8(4 ×10 5 kg)(2m /s2 ) (1.2kg /m 3 )(1200m 2 ) ((
$ '
= 35.9 m/s ≈ 130 kph.
€ € behind the airliner.
No, you could not walk comfortably
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.33. A cart that can roll freely in the x-direction deflects a horizontal water jet into its
tank with a vane inclined to the vertical at an angle θ. The jet issues steadily at velocity U with
density ρ, and has cross sectional area A. The cart is initially at rest with a mass of mo. Ignore the
effects of surface tension, and the cart’s rolling friction and wind resistance in your answers.
a) Formulate dimensionless law for the mass, m(t), in the cart at time t in terms of t, θ, U, ρ, A,
and mo.
b) Formulate a differential equation for m(t).
c) Find a solution for m(t) and put it in dimensionless form.

Solution. 4.33. a) Create the parameter matrix

m mo t θ U ρ A
M 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
L 0 0 0 0 1 -3 2
T 0 0 1 0 -1 0 0
There will be: 7 – 3 = 4 dimensionless groups. By inspection these are:
m Ut ρ A3
Π1 = , Π2 = θ , Π3 = , and Π 4 = .
mo A mo
m $ Ut ρ A 3 '
Thus the dimensionless law is: = f &&θ, , ))
€ m o % A m o (
€ €
b) Choose a control volume that contains: i) the cart,€ii) the fluid in the cart, and iii) the tip of the
fluid jet that just hits the deflector plate. The vane is presumed to be entirely inside the CV. Let
b(t) be the cart's velocity in the positive x-direction.
€ dm
Conservation of mass: = ρ(U − b)A (1)
dt
d(mb)
Conservation of x-momentum: − ρU(U − b)A = 0 (2)
dt
Use (1) to find: b = U − (1 ρA)( dm € ( 2
dt ) , and by differentiation: db dt = −(1 ρA) d m dt ) 2

db dm
Expand the left-hand-side of (2), i.e. m + b − ρU(U − b)A = 0 , and eliminate b and db/dt
€ dt dt
using the relationships derived from (1):
€ € 2
$ 1 d 2m ' $ 1 dm ' dm 1 dm d 2 m " dm %
m&− + U−
2 ) & ) − ρU A = 0 , or m 2 + $ ' = 0
% ρA dt ( % € ρA dt ( dt ρA dt dt # dt &
d " dm % dm
c) The result of part a) can be written: $ m ' = 0 . Integrate once to find: m = C1.
dt # dt & dt
Integrate a second time and take the square root: m(t) = 2C
€ € 1t + C2 . Evaluate the constants

€ €
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

using the initial conditions: m(0) = mo, and dm/dt = ρUA at t = 0. The second initial condition
comes from the fact that b(0) = 0 (the cart starts from rest). With these conditions the constants
become: 2C1 = 2mo ρUA , and C2 = mo2 . Thus: m(t) = 2mo ρUAt + mo2 , or in dimensionless form
m(t) ρA 3 2 Ut
= 2 + 1 . The deflection angle of the vane doesn’t enter the solution.
mo mo A1 2
€ € €

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.34. A spherical balloon of mass Mb is filled with air of density ρ and is initially
stationary at x = 0 with diameter Do. At t = 0, an opening of area A is created and the balloon
travels horizontally along the x-axis. The aerodynamic drag force on the balloon is given by
(1/2)ρU2π(D/2)2CD, where: CD is a constant, U(t) is the velocity of the balloon, and D(t) is the
current diameter of the balloon. Assume incompressible air flow and that D(t) is known.
a) Find a differential equation for U that includes: Mb, ρ, CD, D, and A.
b) Solve the part a) equation when CD = 0, and the mass flow rate of air out of the balloon, m , is
π
 at time t.
constant, so that the mass of the balloon and its contents are M b + ρ Do3 − mt
6
c) What is the maximum value of U under the conditions of part b)?

A!
D!
x!

Solution 4.34. a) Enclose the balloon with an accelerating control volume that moves with
velocity b = U(t)ex. Denote the velocity of the air leaving the balloon by u = –Ueex + U(t)ex,
where Ue is the speed of the exiting air stream relative to the balloon and it appears with a minus
sign because it is oriented opposite to the x-direction.
For this control volume, the the total mass inside at any time is Mb + ρ(π/6)D3, and the
only place fluid crosses the control surface is at the balloon's outlet where n = –ex. Thus, from
d
(4.5), ∫ ρdV + ∫ ρ (u − b) ⋅ n dA = 0 , conservation of mass implies:
dt V*(t ) A*(t )

d! π 3$
# M b + ρ D & + ρ (−Ue +U −U ) (−1)A = 0 ,
dt " 6 %
which simplifies to:
π dD
ρ D2 + ρUe A = 0 .
2 dt
d
Similarly, from (4.17), ∫ ρudV + ∫ ρu (u − b) ⋅ ndA = ∫ ρgdV + ∫ fdA , conservation of x-
dt V*(t ) A*(t ) V*(t ) A*(t )

momentum implies:
2
d '! π 3$
* 1 2 !D$
)# M b + ρ D &U , + ρ (−Ue +U ) (−Ue +U −U ) (−1)A = − ρU π # & CD ,
dt (" 6 % + 2 "2%
which simplifies to:
2
d '! π 3$
* 1 2 !D$
#
) bM + ρ D &U , + ρ ( −U e +U ) U e A = − ρU π # & CD ,
dt (" 6 % + 2 "2%
Evaluate the derivative, and use the conservation of mass result to eliminate the Ue, the balloon-
exit speed to find:
2 2
! π 3 $ dU π 2 D 4 ! dD $ 1 2 !D$
# Mb + ρD & =ρ # & − ρU π # & CD .
" 6 % dt 4 A " dt % 2 "2%
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

b) When CD = 0, the final term is absent, and, for the specified mass flow rate, conservation of
mass implies
d! π 3$ π 2 dD
# Mb + ρD & = ρD = −m ,
dt " 6 % 2 dt
Thus, the part a) result for conservation of horizontal momentum simplifies to:
" π % dU m 2
M
$ b + ρ Do
3
− 
mt ' = .
# 6 & dt ρ A
This equation can be separated and integrated:
m 2 dt m "
∫ dU = ∫ or U + const. = −  $% .
ln # M b + (π / 6)ρ Do3 − mt
3
ρ A M b + (π / 6)ρ Do − mt  ρA
The constant can be evaluated using the initial condition U(0) = 0, to find:
m " M b + (π / 6)ρ Do3 %
U= ln $ '.
ρ A # M b + (π / 6)ρ Do3 − mt &
c) Here we see that U increases monotonically with time, so the highest speed occurs at the latest
time that the part b) answer applies. The mass flow from the balloon will stop when the balloon's
contents are exhausted. Denoting this time by tf, it occurs when (π / 6)ρ Do3 − mt  f = 0 . Thus, the
m ! M b + (π / 6)ρ Do3 $ ! (π / 6)ρ Do3 $
final (and highest balloon speed) is: U f = ln # & = Ue ln #1+ & , and
ρA " Mb % " Mb %
this may be substantially higher than Ue when (π / 6)ρ Do3 >> M b .
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.35. For time t < 0, a rolling water tank with frictionless wheels, horizontal cross-
sectional area A, and empty mass M sits stationary while filled to a depth ho with water of density
ρ. At t = 0, the outlet of the tank is opened and the tank starts moving to the right. The outlet tube
has cross sectional area a and contains a narrow-passage honeycomb so that the flow speed
through the tube is Ue = gh/R, where R is the specific flow resistivity of the honeycomb material,
g is the acceleration of gravity, and h(t) is the average water depth in the rolling tank for t > 0.
Here, Ue is the leftward speed of the water with respect to the outlet tube; it is independent of the
speed b(t) of the rolling tank. Assume uniform flow at the pipe outlet and use an appropriate
control volume analysis for the following items.
a) By conserving mass, develop a single equation for h(t) in terms of a, A, g, R, and t.
b) Solve the part a) equation for h(t).
c) By conserving horizontal momentum, develop a single equation for b(t) in terms of a, A, M, h,
ρ, g, and R.
d) Determine for b(t) in terms of a, A, M, ho, ρ, g, R, and t. [Hint: use db/dt = (db/dh)(dh/dt)]

y!
g! b(t)!

h(t)!
Ue!
x!

Solution 4.35. a) Enclose the rolling cart within a moving control volume. The mass inside the
control volume is: M + ρAh, and b = b(t)e x so conservation of mass implies:
d d
∫
dt V*
ρ dV + ∫ ρ (u − b)⋅ ndA = 0 →
dt
( M + ρ Ah) + ρ aUe = 0 .
A*
Here flowing water only crosses the control surface at the tube outlet. At this location the water's
velocity is u = −Ue e x + be x and the outward normal is: n = −e x , so (u − b)⋅ n = −Ue e x ⋅ (−e x ) = Ue .
The area of this outlet is a, so the flux integral is simply +ρaUe. To find the equation for h(t),
complete the indicated differentiation and use Ue = gh/R to reach: dh dt = − ( ag AR) h .
b) This equation has the exponential solution: h(t) = ho exp {−agt AR} when h(0) = ho.
c) Use the same control volume and note that only horizontal momentum needs to be conserved.
In addition assume that the mass of water in the outlet pipe is negligible compared M + ρhA so
that the horizontal momentum in the control volume is simply (M + ρhA)b. With frictionless
wheels, there is no horizontal force on the control volume, so horizontal conservation of
momemtum implies:
d d
∫
dt V*
ρu dV + ∫ ρu(u − b)⋅ ndA = 0 →
dt
[(M + ρ Ah)b] + ρ a(–Ue + b)Ue = 0 .
A*

db ! d $
Expand the derivative & flux term to find: (M + ρ Ah) + b # (M + ρ Ah) + ρ aUe & − ρ aUe2 = 0 .
dt " dt %
Cons. of mass requires the terms in [,]-brackets to be zero, so this equation simplifies to:
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

2
db ! gh $
(M + ρ Ah) = ρ a # & , where Ue = gh/R has been used to eliminate Ue.
dt "R%
d) Use the hint, and the cons. of mass finding for dh/dt to rewrite the differential equation for b:
2
db dh db " agh % 2 " gh %
(M + ρ Ah) = (M + ρ Ah) $ − ' = ρ aU e = ρ a $ ' .
dh dt dh # AR & #R&
The second and fourth terms of this extended equality simplify to:
db g g ρ Ah g g M
(M + ρ Ah) = − ρ Ah , or ∫ db = − ∫ dh = − ∫ dh + ∫ dh .
dh R R M + ρ Ah R R M + ρ Ah
Perform the integrals and evaluate the integration constant using b(ho) = 0 to reach:
) gM " M + ρ Aho e (
− ag AR)t %
gh (1− e (
− ag AR)t
g(ho − h) gM " M + ρ Ah %
b(h) = + ln $ ' , or b(t) = o + ln $$ '' ,
R ρ AR # M + ρ Aho & R ρ AR # M + ρ Aho &
where the final result comes from substituting in the part a) result for h(t).
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.36. Prove that the stress tensor is symmetric by considering first order changes in
surface forces on a vanishingly small cube in rotational equilibrium. Work with rotation about
the no. 3 coordinate axis to show T12 = T21. Cyclic permutation of the indices will suffice for
showing the symmetry of the other two shear stresses.
x2!
dx2 ∂T21
T21 +
2 ∂x1
dx1!
dx1 ∂T12 dx2! T − dx1 ∂T12
T12 − 12
2 ∂x1 centroid! 2 ∂x1
axis!

dx2 ∂T21
T21 −
2 ∂x1
x1!

Solution 4.36. Consider a small cubical volume dV = dx1dx2dx3. All of the surface tractions
lying in the x1-x2 plane act to rotate or counter rotate this cube around the x3 axis. The horizontal
and vertical moment arms from cube's center to each side are dx1/2 or dx2/2, respectively.

Rotational equilibrium about an axis through the cube's center parallel to the x3 axis requires:
! ∂ T dx $ dx ! ∂ T dx $ dx
+ #Y12 + 12 1 & ( dx2 dx3 ) 1 + #T12 − 12 1 & ( dx2 dx3 ) 1
" ∂ x1 2 % 2 " ∂ x1 2 % 2
" ∂ T dx % dx " ∂ T dx % dx
− $T21 + 21 2 ' ( dx1dx3 ) 2 − $T21 − 21 2 ' ( dx1dx3 ) 2 + higher order terms =
# ∂ x2 2 & 2 # ∂ x2 2 & 2
ρ 2 2 dΩ

12
{
dx1dx 2 dx 3 ( dx1 ) + ( dx 2 )} dt
where Ω is the rotation rate. Here, the first 4 terms are written as triple products, (surface
stress)(surface area)(moment arm). The final term is the product of the moment of inertia about
the x3-axis and the rotational acceleration. Canceling terms and dividing by dV produces:
€
ρ 2 2 dΩ
T12 − T21 =
12
dx{
( 1 ) + ( dx2 )
dt
}.
Taking dx1,dx2 → 0, produces τ12 = τ 21. Cyclic permutation of the indices can be used to show
the equality of the other two shear stresses: T23 = T32, and T31 = T13.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.37. Obtain an empty plastic milk jug with a cap that seals tightly, and a frying pan.
Fill both the pan and jug with water to a depth of approximately 1 cm. Place the jug in the pan
with the cap off. Place the pan on a stove and turn up the heat until the water in the frying pan
boils vigorously for a few minutes. Turn the stove off, and quickly put the cap tightly on the jug.
Avoid spilling or splashing hot water on yourself. Remove the capped jug from the frying pan
and let it cool to room temperature. Does anything interesting happen? If something does
happen, explain your observations in terms of surface forces. What is the origin of these surface
forces? Can you make any quantitative predictions about what happens?

Solution 4.37. When the sealed milk jug is allowed to cool, its volume shrinks. This occurs
because the water vapor inside the jug provides an outward-pushing surface pressure of only 3
kPa at room temperature, while the atmosphere in your kitchen provides an inward-pushing
surface force of ~1 atm (101.3 kPa). The plastic of the milk jug is not strong enough to support
the inward-pushing load, so the jug ends up being "crushed" by atmospheric pressure. This
simple experiment demonstrates that pressure produces surface forces that point into the control
volume represented here by the milk jug (opposite the outward normal).
For the experiments conducted in third author's kitchen, the volume of the milk jug was
reduced by about half. This volume change cannot be accounted for by the perfect gas law since
the temperature change from boiling water (373K) to room conditions (298K) is too small to
account for the actual decrease in jug volume. If the jug lacked any strength (like a plastic bag)
and it was perfectly filled only with water vapor when it was removed from the boiling water in
the frying pan, its volume would decrease by a factor of approximately 30 to 40 while it cooled.
The observed volume reduction is not this severe, and is mitigated by the actual strength of the
jug, the air trapped in the jug when it is sealed, and any air that leaks into the jug interior while it
cools. The trapped air does not condense and its presence produces a pressure that adds to the
vapor pressure of water in the jug.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.38. In cylindrical coordinates (R,ϕ,z), two components of a steady incompressible

viscous flow field are known: uϕ = 0 , and uz = −Az where A is a constant, and body force is zero.
a) Determine uR so that the flow field is smooth and conserves mass.
b) If the pressure, p, at the origin of coordinates is Po, determine p(R,ϕ,z) when the density is
constant. €
€
Solution 4.38. a) Incompressible flow implies:
∇ ⋅ u = 0 = (1 R)(∂RuR ∂R) + (1 R)(∂uϕ ∂ϕ ) + ∂uz ∂z (in cylindrical coords).
Substitute in the given uϕ and uz to find: ∂ (RuR ) ∂R − RA = 0 . Integrate in R to get:
uR = AR 2 + B R .
The constant B must be zero for the flow field to be smooth as R → 0 , so
€ uR = AR 2 .
€
b) Convert to Cartesian coordinates. With uϕ = 0 : u = uR cosϕ = Ax 2 and v = uR sin ϕ = Ay 2 .
€
A calculation of the vorticity produces: ∇ × u = 0 , so€the steady Bernoulli equation may be used
to get the pressure:
€
( ) ( )
ρ uR2 + u€z2 → p(R, ϕ, z) = Po −€12 ρ A 2 14 R 2 + z 2
Po = p(R, ϕ, z) + 12 €
€
because u = 0 at the origin.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.39. Consider solid-body rotation of an isothermal perfect gas (with constant R) at
temperature T in (r,θ)-plane-polar coordinates: ur = 0, and uθ = Ωz r , where Ωz is a constant
rotation rate and the body force is zero. What is the pressure distribution p(r) if p(0) = patm? If the
gas is air at 295 K and the container has a radius of ro = 10 cm, what Ωz is needed to produce
p(ro) = 2patm? Ignore gravity.

Solution 4.39. For steady solid body rotation, the unsteady fluid acceleration will be zero and the
viscous stress in the fluid will be zero. In plane polar coordinates, the radial momentum equation
is under these conditions is
u2 1 ∂p
− θ =− .
r ρ ∂r
(see Appendix B.6). Here, both ρ and p can vary, but the flow is presumed isothermal so ρ =
p/RT. Thus, with uθ = Ωz r , the steady radial momentum equation is:
2
2 RT ∂ p 2 r
Ω r=− z , which integrates to: Ωz + const. = RT ln( p) .
p ∂r 2
Exponentiate and evaluate the constant using p(0) = patm to find:
" Ω2 r 2 %
p(r) = patm exp # z & .
$ 2RT '
If the gas is air at 295 K and the container has a radius of ro = 10 cm, then the Ωz needed to
produce p(ro) = 2patm is given by:
" Ω2z r 2 % 2RT ln(2) 2(287)(295)ln(2)
2 = exp # & or Ωz = = = 3426rad / s .
$ 2RT ' r 0.10
This is almost 33,000 rpm.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.40. Solid body rotation with a constant angular velocity, Ω, is described by the
following Cartesian velocity field: u = Ω × x . For this velocity field:
(" ∂ u ∂ u % 2 ∂ u + ∂u
a) Compute the components of: Tij = − pδij + µ *$$ i + j '' − δij k - + µυδij k .
*)# ∂ x j ∂ xi & 3 ∂ xk -, ∂ xk
€
b) Consider the case of Ω1 = Ω2 = 0 , Ω3 ≠ 0 , with p = po at x1 = x2 = 0. Use the differential
momentum equation in Cartesian coordinates to determine p(r), where r 2 = x12 + x 22 , when there
is no body force and ρ = constant. Does your answer make sense? Can you check it with a
simple experiment?
€ €
Solution 4.40. a) The components of the velocity field u = Ω€ × x are u1 = Ω2 x 3 − Ω3 x 2 ,
u2 = Ω3 x1 − Ω1 x 3 , and u3 = Ω1 x 2 − Ω2 x1. The strain rate tensor is for this velocity field is:
) ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u3 -
+ 2 + € + +
+ ∂ x1 ∂ x 2 ∂ x1 ∂ x 3 ∂x1 +€ ) 0 +Ω3 +Ω2 − Ω2 -
€ 1 # ∂ui € ∂u j & 1 + ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u3 + + +
Sij = %% + (( = * + 2 + . = *+Ω3 − Ω3 0 −Ω1 + Ω1 .
2 $ ∂x j ∂x i ' 2 + ∂x1 ∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x 3 ∂ x 2 + + +
∂u3 + ,−Ω2 + Ω2 +Ω1 − Ω1 0 /
+ ∂u3 ∂u1 ∂u3 ∂u2
+ + 2
+, ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x +/
1 3 2 3 3
"0 0 0&
$ $
= #0 0 0' ,
$0 0 0$
€ % (
and this also shows that ∂uk/∂xk = 0. Thus, all the viscous stress components of Tij are zero, so
Tij = –pδij.
b) When Ω1 = Ω2 = 0 , with Ω3 = const., the fluid velocity is u = Ω3eϕ in cylindrical coordinates
€
with x3 = z. In spite of this simplification, it's even simpler to continue with Cartesian
coordinates. The switch to cylindrical coordinates can be made at the end. Use Cauchy's form
of the momentum equation (4.24)
€ €
∂uj ∂ u j € 1 ∂ Tij
+ ui = gj + .
∂t ∂ xi ρ ∂ xi
The flow is steady, ∂u j ∂t = 0 , and there’s no body force, gj = 0. Combine these facts with the
result of part a) to find:
∂u 1 ∂p
ui j = − .
€ ∂ x i ρ ∂ x j
Evaluate the left side of this equation using the given velocity field:
' ∂ ∂ * ∂p ∂p
ρ(−Ω3 x 2e1 + Ω3 xe 2 ) ⋅ ) e1 + e2 ,(−Ω3 x 2e1 + Ω3 x1e 2 ) = −e1 − e2 .
€ ( ∂x1 ∂x 2 + ∂x1 ∂x 2
This reduces to:
∂p ∂p ∂p
−ρΩ32 x1e1 − ρΩ32 x2 e 2 = e1 − e2 − e3 .
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ x3
€
Considering each component separately along with the boundary condition on x1 = x2 = 0, yields:
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

ρΩ23 2 ρΩ23 2
p(x1, x 2 ) = po +
2
( 1 2)
x + x 2
, or in cylindrical coordinates p(R) = p o +
2
R .
This answer makes sense because the necessary centripetal acceleration of the rotating fluid must
be provided by pressure forces. So, increasing pressure with increasing R is physically
meaningful, even when viewed from a rotating dynamics point of view. This result can be
€ checked with the swirling flow of a liquid in a cylindrical container
€ (see Section 5.1). The height
of the free surface is proportional to the pressure in the fluid, and the free surface of a liquid in
solid body rotation is parabolic. This effect was utilized by astronomers to cast telescope mirror
blanks on rotating tables in the early part of the 1900’s. The radial pressure gradient found
above is also used to separate constituents in fluid mixtures in a centrifuge, a technique
employed in the production of weapons-grade uranium through the separation of isotopes of UF6
(a gas), and in the biological sciences to obtain (the denser) nucleic material from cells.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.41. Using only (4.7), (4.22), (4.36), and (3.12) show that
Du
ρ
Dt
(
+ ∇p = ρg + µ∇ 2u + µυ + 13 µ ∇ (∇ ⋅ u) )
when the dynamic (µ) and bulk (µ ) viscosities are constants.
υ

Solution 4.41. Start by expanding the left side of the momentum equation (4.22), then regroup
the terms. €
∂ ∂ ∂u ∂ρ ∂u ∂
( ρu j ) + ( ρui u j ) = ρ j + u j + ρui j + u j (ρui ) ,
∂t ∂x i ∂t ∂t ∂x i ∂x i
∂u ∂u $ ∂ρ ∂ ' ∂u ∂u
= ρ j + ρui j + u j & + ( ρui )) = ρ j + ρui j
∂t ∂x i % ∂t ∂x i ( ∂t ∂x i
€ The terms inside the large parentheses on the second line are zero because of the continuity
equation (4.7). Now work on the right side of the momentum equation (4.22). Substituting in the
definition of Tij from (4.36) produces:
€ ∂T ∂ ( " 1 % +
ρ g j + ij = ρ g j + *− pδij + 2µ $ Sij − Skkδij ' + µυ Skkδij - .
∂ xi ∂ xi ) # 3 & ,
Now use (3.12), the definition of Sij, to find:
∂T ∂ ( " ∂u ∂u 2 ∂u % ∂u +
ρ g j + ij = ρ g j + *− pδij + µ $$ i + j − k
δij '' + µυ k δij - .
∂ xi ∂ xi *) # ∂ x j ∂ xi 3 ∂ x k & ∂ xk -,
With the summation convention and the definition of the Kronecker δ-function,
∂ ∂( ) ∂( )
∂x i
[( )δij ] = δij =
∂x i ∂x j
where ( ) represents any variable or combination of variables. Using this and distributing ∂ ∂x i
over the terms in [,]-braces yields:
∂τ ij € ∂p ∂ + % ∂ui ∂u j (. ∂ + ∂uk .
∂x i
=− + -µ'' +
∂x j ∂x i -, & ∂x j ∂x i )0/ ∂x j ,
(
**0 + )
- µυ − 3 µ
2
0.
∂x k / €
Combining the modified forms of the right and left sides of (4.22) leads to:
∂u j ∂u j ∂p ∂ + % ∂ui ∂u j (. ∂ + ∂uk .
€ ∂t
ρ + ρui
∂x i
= ρg j − + -µ'' +
∂x j ∂x i -, & ∂x j ∂x i )0/ ∂x j ,
(**0 + ) 2
- µυ − 3 µ 0.
∂x k /
When the dynamic viscosity µ and the bulk viscosity µυ are constants; they can be brought
outside the ∂ ∂x i -differentiations, i.e.
€ ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ % ∂ui ∂u j ( ∂ ,∂uk /
ρ j + ρui j = ρg j −
∂t ∂x i ∂x j
+µ '' +(
∂ x i & ∂x j ∂ x i )
)
** + µυ − 23 µ . 1
∂x j -∂x k 0
To€convert from index to vector notation, the following definitions and replacements apply:
∂ ∂ #∂ & 2
u j = u , g j = g, = ∇, % (=∇ ,
€ ∂ x j ∂ x i$ ∂ x i'

∂ # ∂ & ∂ # ∂ & ∂ ∂ D
% (= %% (( = ∇∇ (no dot product), and + ui = .
∂x j $ ∂ x i ' ∂x i $ ∂x j ' ∂t ∂x i Dt
€ €
€ €

€ €
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Whenever an index is repeated, a summation over that index (i.e. a vector-notation dot product)
is implied. Making term for term replacements in the last version of the momentum equation
produces:
∂u
( )
ρ + ρ(u ⋅ ∇)u = ρg − ∇p + µ∇(∇ ⋅ u) + µ(∇ ⋅ ∇ )u + µυ − 23 µ ∇(∇ ⋅ u)
∂t
Combining terms, moving the pressure gradient to the other side of the equation, and invoking
the definition of D/Dt produces the intended final result:
Du
€ ρ
Dt
( )
+ ∇p = ρg + µ∇ 2u + µυ + 13 µ ∇ (∇ ⋅ u) .

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

4.42. Air, water, and petroleum products are important engineering fluids and can usually be
treated as Newtonian fluids. Consider the following materials and try to classify them as:
Newtonian fluid, non-Newtonian fluid, or solid. State the reasons for your choices and note the
temperature range where you believe your answers are correct. Simple impact, tensile, and shear
experiments in your kitchen or bathroom are recommended. Test and discuss at least five items.
a) toothpaste d) glass g) hot oatmeal j) silly putty
b) peanut butter e) honey h) creamy salad dressing
c) shampoo f) mozzarella cheese i) ice cream

Solution 4.42. One simple way to conduct

rheological tests is with two ordinary plastic
cups that are meant to stack inside each
other. Coat the outside of one of the cups
with liquid or material of interest. Then slide this cup into the second one to make a crude
Couette rheometer. Shear flow of the material of interest can be produced using one's hands to
provide a torque difference and differential rotation of the cups.
The following information is based on such 2-cup shear tests, simple observations, or a
little reading about materials. Unless otherwise noted, all of the following information applies at
room temperature. The results you obtain may be different if, for example, materials like peanut
butter or shampoo are put in a freezer before conducting shear tests.
a) Toothpaste appears to be a viscous Newtonian fluid. (a blue gel was tested)
b) Creamy peanut butter is a Newtonian fluid. However, its viscosity decreases rapidly with
increasing temperature.
c) Shampoos are typically non-Newtonian liquids. In two cup shear tests it can feel like there is
a torsional spring connecting the two cups for very small angular deflections. In addition, rising
air bubbles in shampoo have pointed tails and this indicates there is memory within the fluid.
Moving bubbles in Newtonian fluids do not have pointed tails.
d) Glass is an elastic amorphous solid. Its material properties are continuous functions of
temperature. When it is heated, it softens and becomes a non-Newtonian liquid or a visco-elastic
solid. At high temperatures it becomes a Newtonian liquid.
e) Honey is a viscous Newtonian liquid, at least in the two-cup shear tests.
f) Mozzarella cheese is an elastic solid at room temperature. When heated, it becomes a non-
Newtonian liquid (note the stretchy cheese in pizza advertisements).
g) Oatmeal is not really a continuum material. Hot off the stove, it is approximately a Newtonian
liquid. When it cools, it becomes non-Newtonian. When it is allowed to dry out, it turns into a
solid material that is a lot like cement.
h) Creamy salad dressing may be either a non-Newtonian fluid or a viscous Newtonian fluid,
depending on the brand and the temperature. It’s shear-thinning properties are easily observed
when it is poured from a bottle. The first slug of comes out in big lump but the stream that
follows the slug can be much thinner.
i) Ice cream is effectively a solid when you first get it out of the freezer. At room temperature it
becomes a Newtonian liquid. In between, it may be non-Newtonian depending on its
composition.
j) Silly putty can be considered a visco-elastic solid (when formed into a ball, the ball bounces)
or a non-Newtonian liquid (when a ball of silly putty is left alone on a flat surface, gravity
compresses it and it begins to flow horizontally).
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.43. The equations for conservation of mass and momentum for a viscous Newtonian
fluid are (4.7) and (4.39a) when the viscosities are constant.
a) Simplify these equations and write them out in primitive form for steady constant-density flow
in two dimensions where ui = ( u1 (x1, x 2 ),u2 (x1, x 2 ),0) , p = p(x1, x 2 ) , and gj = 0.
b) Determine p = p(x1, x 2 ) when u1 = Cx1 and u2 = −Cx 2 , where C is a positive constant.

Solution 4.43. a) There are a number of simplifications to make. For steady flow ∂ ∂t → 0 ; for
€
constant density€flow ∇ρ = 0 ; for 2D flow ∂ ∂x 3 → 0 and u3 = 0; and gj = 0 implies g1 = g2 = 0.
€ € €
Thus, the continuity equation is simplified as follows:
steady exp and ρ = const≠0
∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂u ∂ρ ∂ui 2D ∂u ∂u
+ ( ρui ) = 0 → (ρui ) = 0 → ρ i + ui = 0 → = 0€ → 1 + 2 = 0 .
∂t ∂x i ∂x i ∂x i ∂x i ∂x i ∂x1 ∂x 2
€ €
Following a similar procedure and using this result, the simplified momentum equation is:
∂u j ∂p ∂ 2u j
ρui =− +µ 2 .
€ ∂x i ∂x j ∂x i
The components of this equation are obtained by setting j = 1 and 2:
∂u1 ∂u1 ∂p % ∂ 2 u1 ∂ 2 u1 ( ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂p % ∂ 2 u2 ∂ 2 u2 (
ρu1 + ρu2 =− + µ' 2 + 2 * , and ρu1 + ρu2 =− + µ' 2 + 2 * .
∂x1 ∂x 2 ∂x€1 & ∂x1 ∂x 2 ) ∂x1 ∂x 2 ∂x 2 & ∂x1 ∂x 2 )
b) With u1 = Cx1 and u2 = −Cx 2 , the simplified continuity equation is satisfied. The two
momentum equations become:
∂p ∂p
€ ρC 2 x1 = −€ , and ρC 2 x 2 = − .
∂x1 ∂x 2
€ €
Integrate both to find: p = −ρC 2 x12 2 + f (x 2 ) , and p = −ρC 2 x 22 2 + g(x1 ) , where f and g are
single-variable functions. These two equations for p are consistent when:
2 2
f (x 2 ) = −C x 2 2 + const€ , and g(x1 ) = −C
2 2
( 2
€ x1 2 + const . Thus, p(x1, x 2 ) = const − C x1 + x 2 2 ,
2
) 2

where the constant € is readily determined as the € pressure at the origin of coordinates; thus
( )
p(x1, x 2 ) = p(0,0) − C 2 x12 + x 22 2 .
€ € €

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.44. Simplify the planar Navier-Stokes momentum equations (given in Example 4.9)
for incompressible flow, constant viscosity, and conservative body forces. Cross differentiate
these equations and eliminate the pressure to find a single equation for ωz = ∂v/∂x – ∂u/∂y. What
process(es) might lead to the changes in ωz for fluid elements in this flow?

Solution 4.44. The starting-point equations are:

!∂u ∂u ∂u $ ∂ p ∂ ( ∂u ! 2 $! ∂ u ∂ v $+ ∂ ( ! ∂ v ∂ u $+
ρ # + u + v & = − + ρ gx + *2µ + # µυ − µ &# + &- + *µ # + &- , and
" ∂t ∂x ∂y% ∂x ∂x ) ∂x " 3 %" ∂ x ∂ y %, ∂ y ) " ∂ x ∂ y %,
!∂v ∂v ∂v $ ∂ p ∂ ( ! ∂ u ∂ v $+ ∂ ( ∂ v ! 2 $! ∂ u ∂ v $+
ρ # + u + v & = − + ρ gy + *µ # + &- + *2µ + # µυ − µ &# + &-
" ∂t ∂x ∂y% ∂y ∂ x ) " ∂ y ∂ x %, ∂ y ) ∂ y " 3 %" ∂ x ∂ y %,
In two-dimensional incompressible flow, ∂u/∂x + ∂v/∂y = 0. Thus, these equations simplify to:
!∂u ∂u ∂u $ ∂ p ∂ ( ∂ u + ∂ ( ! ∂ v ∂ u $+
ρ # + u + v & = − + ρ gx + *2µ - + *µ # + &- , and
" ∂t ∂x ∂y% ∂x ∂ x ) ∂ x , ∂ y ) " ∂ x ∂ y %,
!∂v ∂v ∂v $ ∂ p ∂ ( ! ∂ u ∂ v $+ ∂ ( ∂ v +
ρ # + u + v & = − + ρ gy + *µ # + &- + *2µ -
" ∂t ∂x ∂y% ∂y ∂ x ) " ∂ y ∂ x %, ∂ y ) ∂ y ,
When the body force is conservative, g = −∇Φ , where Φ if the body-force potential (a scalar
function). When the viscosity is constant the terms on the right may be rearranged and simplified
with the incompressibility requirement, ∂u/∂x + ∂v/∂y = 0:
!∂u ∂u ∂u $ ∂ p ∂Φ ∂ 2u ∂ ! ∂ u ∂ v $ ∂ 2u
ρ# +u + v & = − − ρ + µ 2 + µ # + &+ µ 2
" ∂t ∂x ∂y% ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂ x "∂ x ∂ y % ∂ y
∂p ∂Φ ! ∂ 2u ∂ 2u $
=− −ρ + µ # 2 + 2 &,
∂x ∂x "∂ x ∂ y %
!∂v ∂v ∂v $ ∂ p ∂Φ ∂ 2v ∂ ! ∂u ∂ v $ ∂ 2v
ρ# +u + v & = − − ρ + µ 2 + µ # + &+ µ 2
" ∂t ∂x ∂y% ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂ y "∂ x ∂ y % ∂ y
∂p ∂Φ ! ∂ 2v ∂ 2v $
=− −ρ + µ # 2 + 2 &.
∂y ∂y "∂ x ∂ y %
Now divide each equation by ρ, apply –∂/∂y to the first equation, apply ∂/∂x to the second
equation and add the equations to together. This causes the body force terms to cancel out.
∂ "∂u ∂v ∂v % ∂ "∂v ∂u ∂u %
$ +u + v '− $ +u + v '
∂x # ∂ t ∂ x ∂ y & ∂y # ∂ t ∂x ∂y&
∂ " 1 ∂p % ∂ " 1 ∂p % ∂ ) 1 " ∂ 2 v ∂ 2 v %, ∂ ) 1 " ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u %,
= $− ' − $ − ' + µ + $ + '. − µ + $ + '..
∂x # ρ ∂y & ∂y # ρ ∂x & ∂x * ρ # ∂ x 2 ∂ y 2 &- ∂y * ρ # ∂ x 2 ∂ y 2 &-
Expand derivatives on both sides of the equation and use the incompressible flow requirement
and definition ωz = ∂v/∂x – ∂u/∂y to consolidate terms.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

"∂ ∂ ∂%
$ + u + v 'ω z
#∂t ∂x ∂y &
∂ " 1 % ∂p ∂ " 1 % ∂p µ " ∂ 2 ∂ 2 % ∂ " 1 %" ∂ 2 v ∂ 2 v % ∂ " 1 %" ∂ 2u ∂ 2u %
=− $ ' + $ ' + $ + ω
' z + µ $ '$ + ' − µ $ '$ + '.
∂x # ρ & ∂y ∂y # ρ & ∂x ρ # ∂ x 2 ∂ y 2 & ∂x # ρ &# ∂ x 2 ∂ y 2 & ∂y # ρ &# ∂ x 2 ∂ y 2 &
Here we can recognize the term on the left as Dωz/Dt, the time rate of change of vorticity
following a fluid particle. The first two terms on the right are the two-dimensional outcome of
−∇ (1 ρ ) × ∇p , and these represent a torque applied to fluid elements because of mis-alignment
of their density and pressure gradients (aka the baroclinic torque). The third term on the right
represents diffusion of vorticity. The final two terms on the right are the two dimensional
outcome of −µ∇ (1 ρ ) × ∇ 2 u , and these represent a torque applied to fluid elements because of
mis-alignment of the density gradient and net viscous stress.
When the density is constant and the viscosity is zero, then Dωz/Dt = 0 and the vorticity
of fluid elements is constant.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.45. Starting from (4.7) and (4.39b), derive a Poisson equation for the pressure, p, by
taking the divergence of the constant-density momentum equation. [In other words, find an
equation where ∂ 2 p ∂x 2j appears by itself on the left side and other terms not involving p appear
on the right side]. What role does the viscosity µ play in determining the pressure in constant
density flow?
€
Solution 4.45. For constant density flow the continuity and momentum equations are:
2
∂ui ∂u j ∂u 1 ∂p µ ∂ uj
= 0 and + ui j = − + gj + .
∂x i ∂t ∂x i ρ ∂x j ρ ∂x i2
Apply ∂ ∂x j to the momentum equation and swap the order of differentiation in the first and last
terms to find:
€ ∂ #€ ∂ u & ∂ # ∂u j & 1 ∂ 2 p ∂g j µ ∂ 2 ∂u j
%% j (( + u
% i ( = − + + .
€ ∂t $ ∂ x j ' ∂x j $ ∂x i ' ρ ∂x 2j ∂x j ρ ∂x i2 ∂x j
The constant density flow continuity equation, ∂u j ∂x j = 0 , allows first and last terms to be set
to zero. Expand the second term on the left to find:
€ ∂ ∂u j ∂ui ∂u j 1 ∂ 2 p ∂g j
ui + =− + .
∂x i ∂x€j ∂x j ∂x i ρ ∂x 2j ∂x j
Here again the first term is zero for constant density flow, so the final Poisson equation for the
pressure is:
∂2 p % ∂u (% ∂u ( ∂g
€ 2
= − ρ'' i **' j * + ρ j .
∂x j & ∂x j )& ∂x i ) ∂x j
Interestingly, the viscosity is does not appear in this result! Thus, µ can influence p if i) µ
influences ∂u j ∂x i in the region of interest, and/or if ii) µ in enters in a factor that is linear in the
independent spatial variables.
€ Both of these possibilities occur in flows of interest to scientists
and engineers.
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.46. Prove the equality of the two ends of (4.40) without leaving index notation or
using vector identities.

Solution 4.46. Equation (4.40) holds for incompressible flow where ∂ui/∂xi = 0. Therefore, start
from the first equality of (4.40), and subtract µ(∂/∂xj) (∂ui/∂xi) = 0 to start building something that
looks like a cross product.
∂ 2u j ∂ 2u j ∂ 2 ui ∂ % ∂ui ∂u j (
( ) j ∂ x 2 ∂ x 2 ∂x ∂x
µ ∇ 2
u = µ = µ − µ = −µ ' − *
∂x i '& ∂x j ∂x i *)
i i j i

The terms in large parentheses on the right are the rotation tensor Rij from (3.13). Thus,
∂ ∂ ∂
(µ∇ 2u) j = −µ ∂x (−εijkω k ) = µεijk ∂x ω k = −µε jik ∂x ω k = −µ(∇ × ω ) j ,
i i i
€
where (3.15), Rij = –εijkωk has been used.
Alternatively, start with the curl of the vorticity and expand it to show both cross
products in terms of the alternating tensor:
€
∂ ∂ ( ∂ + ∂ 2 un
−µ(∇ × ω ) j = −µε jkl ω l = −µε jkl *εlmn un - = −µε jklεlmn .
∂x k ∂x k ) ∂ x m , ∂x k∂x m
Now use epsilon-delta relation (2.19) for the product εijkεlmn, to find:
∂ 2 un ( ∂ 2u ∂ 2u j + ∂ 2u j
−µ(∇ × ω ) j = −µ(δ jmδkn − δ jnδkm ) = −µ** k
− -- = µ 2 = (µ∇ 2u) j .
€ ∂x k∂x m ) ∂x k∂x j ∂x k∂x k , ∂x k

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.47. The viscous compressible fluid conservation equations for mass and momentum
are (4.7) and (4.38). Simplify these equations for constant-density constant-viscosity flow and
where the body force has a potential, g j = − ∂Φ ∂x j . Assume the velocity field can be found
from u j = ∂φ ∂x j , where the scalar function φ depends on space and time. What are the
simplified conservation of mass and momentum equations for φ?
€
Solution 4.47. For constant density, the continuity equation simplifies:
€ ∂ρ ∂ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u ∂u ∂u
0= + ( ρui ) = + ui + ρ i = ρ i , or i = 0 .
∂t ∂x i ∂t ∂x i ∂x i ∂x i ∂x i
For the momentum equation with constant density and constant viscosities, the viscous stress
terms are altered:
∂ ) #€∂ui ∂u j &, ∂ )# 2 & ∂ui , )# ∂ 2 ui ∂ 2 u€j &, # 2 & ∂ )∂ui , ∂ 2u j
+µ%% + .
( + +%µυ − µ( . = µ %% + + .
( + % µυ − µ( + .=µ 2 ,
∂x i +* $ ∂x j ∂x i ('.- ∂x j *$ 3 ' ∂x i - +*$ ∂x i∂x j ∂x i2 ('.- $ 3 ' ∂x j *∂x i - ∂x i
where the continuity-equation result has been used to eliminate the first and third terms in the
middle portion of the extended equality. Thus the momentum equation simplifies to:
∂u j ∂u j ∂p ∂ 2u j
€ ρ + ρui =− + ρg j + µ 2
∂t ∂x i ∂x j ∂x i
Direct substitution of ui = ∂φ ∂x i into the simplified continuity equ. produces: ∂ 2φ ∂x i2 = 0 .
∂ ∂φ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ ∂p ∂ 2 ∂φ
Similarly, the momentum equation becomes: ρ +ρ =− + ρg j + µ 2 .
€ ∂t ∂x j ∂x i ∂ x i ∂x j ∂x j ∂x i ∂x j
2
∂φ€ ∂ ∂φ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ 1 ∂ $ ∂φ ' €
Note that = = & ) , rearrange terms, and insert g j = − ∂Φ ∂x j :
∂x i ∂x i ∂x j ∂ x i ∂x j ∂x i 2 ∂x j % ∂x i (
% € 2(
∂ ' ∂φ ρ % ∂φ ( * ∂ ∂ ∂ 2φ
ρ + ' * = − ( p + ρΦ) + µ .
∂x j '& ∂t 2 & ∂x i ) *) ∂x j ∂x € 2
j ∂x i
€
The final term is zero from the continuity equation, put everything on one side, pull out ∂ ∂x j ,
$ 2 '
∂ & ∂φ 1 $ ∂φ ' p
and divide by ρ: + + + Φ)) = 0 . Thus, the simplified equations are
€ ∂x j & ∂t 2 &% ∂x i )( ρ
% (
2 €
∂ 2φ ∂φ 1 $ ∂φ ' p
= 0 , and + & ) + + Φ = f (t) ,
∂x i2 ∂t 2 % ∂ x i ( ρ
€ the Laplace equation and an unsteady Bernoulli equation. Here, f(t) is an undetermined
which is
function of time that may be set by boundary conditions on φ and p. These are the equations for
unsteady potential flow, and can be used to solve fluid flow problems when: i) the fluid's density
€ € is constant, iii) the flow is irrotational, and iv) only a no
is constant, ii) the fluid's viscosity
through-flow boundary condition is required on solid surfaces. The no slip boundary condition
cannot be satisfied (in general) with these equations.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.48. The viscous compressible fluid conservation equations for mass and momentum
are (4.7) and (4.38).
a) In Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) with g = ( gx , 0, 0 ) , simplify these equations for unsteady one-
dimensional unidirectional flow where: ρ = ρ (x, t) and u = (u(x, t), 0, 0 ) .
b) If the flow is also incompressible, show that the fluid velocity depends only on time, i.e.,
u(x, t) = U(t) , and show that the equations found for part a) reduce to
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u ∂p
+ u = 0 , and ρ = − + ρ gx .
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x
c) If ρ = ρo (x) at t = 0, and u = U(0) = Uo at t = 0, determine implicit solutions for ρ = ρ (x, t)
and U(t) in terms of x, t, ρo (x) , Uo, ∂ p ∂ x , and gx.

Solution 4.48. a) For one-dimensional flow: ∂ ∂y = ∂ ∂z = 0 = v = w , so the continuity equation

reduces to:
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u
+ u + ρ = 0.
∂t ∂x ∂x
Similarly, the Navier-Stokes momentum € equation in the x-direction becomes:
∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ 2u
(
ρ + ρu = − + ρgx + µυ + 43 µ 2 . )
€ ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x
b) Incompressible flow means ∇ ⋅ u = 0 . Here this implies: ∂u ∂x = 0 , thus the equations for part
a) simplify to:
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u ∂p
€ + u = 0 , and ρ = − + ρgx .
€ ∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x
€
c) For ∂u ∂x = 0 , u(x,t) = U(t) . Therefore, start with what’s left of the continuity equation and
look for a method-of-characteristics solution, i.e. set ρ = ρ( x(t),t ) so that
€ dρ( x(t),t
€ ) = ∂ρ + $& dx ') ∂ρ = 0 ,
€ € dt ∂t % dt ( ∂x
t
where the characteristic curves are specified € by: dx dt = u(x,t) = U(t) , or x = ∫ o Udt + x o . The
equation above requires ρ to be constant along these curves, so if ρ(x o ,0) = ρ o (x o ) , then
ρ(x,t) = ρ o x − ∫ o Udt €
( )
t
.
€ €
Now, take what’s left of the momentum equation, set u(x,t) = U(t) , divide by ρ and
integrate in time to find: €
t % (
1 ∂p
€ U(t) = ∫ ' − + gx *dt + U o .
0 & ρ ∂x € )

Here the constant has been evaluated with the initial condition. These results for U and ρ are an
implicit solution because each relies on the other. If the density is uniform, then these reduce to
t % (
€ ρ = ρ o , and U(t) = ∫ ' − 1 ∂p + gx *dt + U o .
0 & ρ o ∂x )

€
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.49. a) Derive the following equation for the velocity potential for irrotational inviscid
∂ 2φ ∂ 1
compressible flow in the absence of a body force:
∂t 2
+
∂t
(2
) 2
( )
∇φ + ∇φ ⋅ ∇ ∇φ − c 2∇ 2φ = 0
2
where ∇φ = u , as usual. Start from the Euler equation (4.41), use the continuity equation,
assume that the flow is isentropic so that p depends only on ρ, and denote (∂p ∂ρ) s = c 2 .
b) What limit does c → ∞ imply? €
€ c) What limit does ∇φ → 0 imply?
€
Solution 4.49. a) The path to the final equation may not be obvious, so the steps listed here may
€ ∂u 1
not necessarily appear in logical sequence at first glance. Start with + (u ⋅ ∇)u = − ∇p , and
∂t ρ
use the vector identity (B3.9) for the nonlinear advective acceleration to find:
∂u $ u2' 1
+ ∇&& )) + ∇p = −ω × u = 0
∂t % 2 ( ρ €
where the final equality holds in irrotational flow. Take the time derivative of this equation to
find:
∂ 2u ∂ $ u ' ∂ $ 1 '
2
€ + ∇& ) + & ∇p) = 0 (1)
∂t 2 ∂t &% 2 )( ∂t % ρ (
Here we assume that the flow isentropic so that the density is only a function of the pressure,
ρ = ρ( p) ; this means that the final term of (1) can be rewritten:
∂ %1 ( 1 dρ ∂p 1 ∂p % 1 ( ∂p 1 ∂p % 1 ∂p (
' ∇p* €=− 2 ∇p + ∇ = '∇ * + ∇ = ∇' *.
∂t & ρ ) ρ dp ∂t ρ ∂t & ρ ) ∂t ρ ∂t & ρ ∂t )
€ Thus with ∇φ = u , (1) becomes:
& ∂ 2φ 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂p )
∇( 2 + ∇φ + + = 0.
€ ' ∂t 2 ∂t ρ ∂t *
This
€ means the quantity in parentheses is at most a function of time. Thus a suitable redefinition
of φ will produce:
∂ 2φ 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂p
€ 2
+ ∇φ + =0 (2)
∂t 2 ∂t ρ ∂t
Save this result, and start again with the Euler equation, but this time take a dot product with u:
∂ #u & # u2& 1
2

%% (( + u ⋅ ∇%% (( + u ⋅ ∇p = 0
€ ∂t $ 2 ' $ 2 ' ρ
Insert ∇φ = u into the first two terms of this equation and add it to (2)
∂ 2φ ∂ 2 &1 2) 1 ∂p 1
2
+ ∇φ + ∇φ ⋅ ∇( ∇φ + + + u ⋅ ∇p = 0
€ ∂ t ∂ t ' 2 * ρ ∂ t ρ
2
€ Now use the isentropic relationship, dp = c dρ , to eliminate p.
∂ 2φ ∂ 2 &1 2) -
2 1 ∂ρ 1 0
+ ∇ φ + ∇φ ⋅ ∇( ∇ φ + + c . + u ⋅ ∇ ρ 1=0
€ ∂t 2 ∂t '2 * / ρ ∂t ρ 2
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

From the continuity equation, ∂ρ ∂t + ρ∇ ⋅ u + u ⋅ ∇ρ = 0 , the term in {,}-braces is merely −∇ ⋅ u

= −∇ 2φ , thus:
∂ 2φ ∂ 2 &1 2)
2
+ ∇φ + ∇φ ⋅ ∇( ∇φ + − c 2∇ 2φ = 0 €
€ ∂t ∂t '2 *
€ b) As c → ∞, only the final term matters, and the equation simplifies to ∇ 2φ = 0 which
represents incompressible potential flow.
c) When ∇φ → 0, the nonlinear terms in the final result of part a) go to zero faster than the two
€ 2
∂φ
linear ones leaving: 2 − c 2∇ 2φ = 0 which is the linear wave € equation for acoustic disturbances.
∂t
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.50. Derive (4.43) from (4.42).

Solution 4.50. The entire statement of equation (4.42) is:

dx dX dx " d
u= = + = U + ( x1"e1" + x "2e"2 + x "3e"3 )
dt dt dt dt
dx1" dx 2" dx 3" de" de" de "
= U+ e1" + e"2 + e"3 + x1" 1 + x "2 2 + x "3 3 = U + u" + Ω × x " ,
dt dt dt dt dt dt
Thus, we see that dx " dt = u" + Ω × x " . Now time differentiate u, to find:
€ du dU du# d
≡a= + + (Ω × x #)
€ dt dt dt dt
€ dU d dΩ dx #
= + ( u1#e1# + u#2e#2 + u#3e#3 ) + × x# + Ω ×
dt dt dt dt
dU du1# du#2 du#3 de1# de#2 de# dΩ
= + e1# + e#2 + e#3 + u1# + u#2 + u#3 3 + × x # + Ω × (u# + Ω × x #)
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
Here the various terms written in component form may be identified. The second through fourth
terms are the fluid particle acceleration, a´, observed in the non-inertial frame of reference. The
fifth through seventh terms, which involve the time derivatives of the unit vectors, can be written
€ in terms of a cross product:
de" de " de"
u1" 1 + u"2 2 + u"3 3 = Ω × u" ,
dt dt dt
as depicted in Figure 4.7 and described in paragraph below (4.42). With these replacements, the
last equality for the fluid particle acceleration becomes:
dU dΩ
a€= + a " + Ω × u" + × x " + Ω × u" + Ω × (Ω × x ")
dt dt
dU dΩ
= + a " + 2Ω × u" + × x " + Ω × (Ω × x "),
dt dt
which matches (4.43).

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.51. Observations of the velocity u´ of an incompressible viscous fluid are made in a
frame of reference rotating steadily at rate Ω = (0, 0, Ωz). The pressure at the origin is po and g =
–gez.
a) In Cartesian coordinates with u´ = (U, V, W) = a constant, find p(x,y,z).
b) In cylindrical coordinates with u´ = –ΩzReϕ, determine p(R,ϕ,z). Guess the result if you can.

Solution 4.51. The pressure and velocity of an incompressible viscous fluid in a rotating
coordinate system both appear in (4.45).
" D!u! % , dU dΩ /
ρ$ ' = −∇!p + ρ .g − − 2Ω × u! − × x! − Ω × (Ω × x!)1 + µ∇!2 u!
# Dt &O1!2!3! - dt dt 0
a) With U = 0, Ωz = const., u´ = const., g = –gez, , this equation reduces to:
0 = −∇"p + ρ &'−ge z − 2Ω × u" − Ω × (Ω × x")() .
Using Ω = (0, 0, Ωz), u´ = (U, V, W), and x´ = (x,y,z), evaluating the cross product terms leads to:
∇!p = ρ %&−ge z + 2ΩzVe x − 2ΩzUe y + Ω2z (xe x + ye y )'( .
The three components of this equation can be written:
∂p ∂p ∂p
= 2 ρΩzV + ρΩ2z x , = −2 ρΩzU + Ω2z y , and = −ρ g .
∂x ∂y ∂z
Integrating the three equations leads to:
x2 y2
p = 2 ρΩzVx + ρΩ2z + A(y, z) , p = −2 ρΩzUy + Ω2z + B(x, z) , and p = −ρ gz + C(x, y) .
2 2
where A, B, and C are undetermined functions of integration. These three equations are
consistent when:
ρΩ2z 2 2
p(x, y, z) − po = 2 ρΩzVx − 2 ρΩzUy +
2
( x + y ) − ρ gz .
b) When u´ = –ΩzReϕ, the rotation of the flow field precisely reverses the rotation introduced by
the rotating coordinate system. Thus, the fluid is stationary in a non-rotating frame and this
leaves a hydrostatic balance for the pressure field: p = –ρgz + po.
Alternatively, this result can be shown by evaluating the terms in (4.45) with U = 0, and
Ωz = const. For convenience, convert the velocity to Cartesian coordinates: u´ = –ΩzReϕ = Ωzyex
– Ωzxey, then evaluate the remaining terms of (4.45) that involve u´ or Ωz:
" D!u! %
ρ$ ' = −Ω2z xe x − Ω2z ye y , −2Ω × u$ = −2Ω2z xe x − 2Ω2z ye y ,
# Dt &O1!2!3!
−Ω × (Ω × x$) = Ω2z (xe x + ye y ) , and ∇!2 u! = 0 .
Reassemble (4.45), to find:
ρ (−Ω2z xe x − Ω2z ye y ) = −∇#p + ρ %&g − ( 2Ω2z xe x + 2Ω2z ye y ) + Ω2z (xe x + ye y )'( .
This simplifies to: 0 = −∇"p + ρ g , which integrates to p = –ρgz + po when g = –gez.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.52. For many atmospheric flows, rotation of the earth is important. The momentum
equation for inviscid flow in a frame of reference rotating at a constant rate Ω is:
∂u ∂t + (u ⋅ ∇)u = −∇Φ − (1 ρ)∇p − 2Ω × u − Ω × (Ω × x)
For steady two-dimensional horizontal flow, u = (u, v, 0) , with Φ = gz and ρ = ρ(z), show that the
streamlines are parallel to constant pressure lines when the €fluid particle acceleration is
dominated by the Coriolis acceleration (u ⋅ ∇)u << 2Ω × u , and when the local pressure gradient
€
dominates the centripetal acceleration Ω × (Ω × x) << ∇p ρ . [This seemingly strange result
governs just about all large-scale weather phenomena like hurricanes and other storms, and it
allows weather forecasts to be made based on surface pressure measurements alone.]
€
Hints. 1. If Y(x) defines a streamline contour, then dY dx = v u is the streamline slope.
€
2. Write out all three components of the momentum equation and build the ratio v/u.
3. Using hint 1., the pressure increment along a streamline is: dp = (∂p ∂x ) dx + (∂p ∂y ) dY

Solution 4.52. Since the rotation rate is steady, choose the coordinate system so that the z-axis is
parallel to Ω: i.e. Ω = (0,0,Ωz ) . When the flow is steady, Ω × (Ω × x) << ∇p ρ .
€
(u ⋅ ∇)u << 2Ω × u , the viscous terms are neglected, and Φ = gz with ρ = ρ(z), the momentum
equation becomes:
0 = −ge z − (1 ρ)∇p − 2Ωz ue y + 2Ωzve x
€ €
Written out in terms of the coordinate directions, this equation becomes:
€
∂p ∂x = +2 ρΩzv , ∂p ∂y = −2 ρΩz u , and ∂p ∂z = −ρg
The final relationship establishes that the vertical pressure gradient will be hydrostatic and will
€
not be directly influenced by u = (u,v,0) . Let y = Y (x) be the equation of a streamline, so from
(3.7):
€ € €
dY v +(1 2 ρΩz ) ∂p ∂x ∂p ∂x
= = =− .
€ dx u −(1 2 ρΩ z ) ∂ p ∂ y ∂ p ∂ y
€
where the middle equality follows from the horizontal components of the simplified momentum
equation. Using the form on the far left and the far right of the last equation produces:
(∂p ∂x)dx + (∂p ∂y)dY = 0 = (dp) streamline
€
Thus, that p = constant on streamlines, so streamlines and isobaric lines are everywhere parallel.
The situation described in this problem leads to geostrophic flow and is considered further in Ch.
13.
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.53. Show that (4.55) can be derived from (4.7), (4.53), and (4.54).

Solution 4.53. Start with (4.53),

∂ ' ! 1 2 $* ∂ ' ! 1 2 $ * ∂ ∂q
) ρ #e + u j &, +
∂ t ( " 2 %+ ∂ xi ( " 2 % +
) ρ #e + u j & ui , = ρ gi ui +
∂ xi
( Tij u j ) − i ,
∂ xi
and work on the left side terms first:
∂ * $ 1 2 '- ∂ * $ 1 2 ' -
,ρ e + u j / + , ρ e + u j ui /
∂t + &% 2 )(. ∂x i + &% 2 )( .
∂* 1 - ∂ * 1 2 - * 1 2 -$∂ρ ∂ '
= ρ ,e + u 2j / + ρui ,e + u j / + ,e + u j /& + ( ρui ))
∂t + 2 . ∂x i + 2 . + 2 .% ∂t ∂x i (
D* 1 -
= ρ ,e + u 2j /.
Dt + 2 .
Here the final equality follows from the definition of D/Dt and because the terms inside [,]-
brackets on the second line are zero because of continuity equation (4.7).
Now consider the term in (4.53) involving the stress tensor, use (4.54),
€
∂ ∂u ∂T " ∂ u ∂u % " ∂p ∂τ %
( Tij u j ) = Tij j + u j ij = $$ − p j + τ ij j '' + $$ −u j + u j ij '' .
∂ xi ∂ xi ∂ xi # ∂ x j ∂ xi & # ∂ x j ∂ xi &
Substituting the left-side-term result and this result into (4.53) produces:
D! 1 $ ! ∂u ∂u $ ! ∂p ∂τ $ ∂ q
ρ # e + u 2j & = ρ gi ui + ## − p j + τ ij j && + ## −u j + u j ij && − i .
Dt " 2 % " ∂xj ∂ xi % " ∂ x j ∂ xi % ∂ xi
which is (4.55).
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.54. Multiply (4.22) by uj and sum over j to derive (4.56).

Solution 4.54. The goal here is to develop the partial differential equation that governs the
kinetic (or mechanical) energy, (1 2) ρu 2j , in a fluid flow. Start from (4.22), multiply this by uj
and consider the implied sum over j to find:
∂ ∂ ∂
u j ( ρu j ) + u j ( ρui u j ) = ρu j g j + u j (Tij ) .
€ ∂t ∂ xi ∂ xi
Expand and regroup the terms on the left side,
∂ ∂ ∂u $∂ρ ∂ ' ∂u
u j ( ρu j ) + u j ( ρui u j ) = ρu j j + u j u j & + ( ρui )) + ρu j ui j .
∂t ∂x i ∂t % ∂t ∂x i ( ∂x i
Recognizing that the contents of the [,]-brackets are zero because of (4.7), and simplify the terms
on the left to find:
∂ !u $ ∂ ! uj $
2 2
∂
€ ρ ## j && + ρui ## && = ρu j g j + u j (Tij ) .
∂t " 2 % ∂ xi " 2 % ∂ xi
Now substitute for the stress tensor from (4.27):
∂ !u $ ∂ ! uj $
2 2
∂
ρ ## j && + ρui ## && = ρu j g j + u j (− pδij + τ ij ) ,
∂t " 2 % ∂ xi " 2 % ∂ xi
use the definition of D/Dt and utilize the index-exchange property of δij, to reach
D !u $
2
∂p ∂τ
ρ ## j && = ρu j g j − u j + u j ij ,
Dt " 2 % ∂xj ∂ xi
which is (4.56).
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.55. Starting from ε = (1 ρ ) τ ij Sij , derive the right most expression in (4.58).

Solution. 4.55. First determine τij from (4.27) and (4.37),

" 1 %
τ ij = 2µ $ Sij − Smmδij ' + µυ Smm δij ,
# 3 &
then substitute this into ε = (1 ρ ) τ ij Sij to find:
1 1# # 1 & &
ε≡ τ ij Sij = % 2µ % Sij − Smmδij ( + µυ Smm δij ( Sij
ρ ρ$ $ 3 ' '
2µ # 1 & µ
= % Sij − Smmδij ( Sij + υ Smm δij Sij
ρ $ 3 ' ρ
2µ # 1 &# 1 1 & µ
= % Sij − Smmδij (% Sij − Smmδij + Smmδij ( + υ Smm S jj
ρ $ 3 '$ 3 3 ' ρ
2
2µ # 1 & 2µ # 1 &1 µ
= % Sij − Smmδij ( + % Sij − Smmδij ( Smmδij + υ Smm S jj
ρ $ 3 ' ρ $ 3 '3 ρ
2
2µ # 1 & µ 2µ # 1 &S
= % Sij − Smmδij ( + υ Smm S jj + % Sijδij − Smmδijδij ( mm .
ρ $ 3 ' ρ ρ $ 3 ' 3
The first two terms on the last line look promising since Sjj = Smm = (∂um/∂xm)2. The third term on
the last line is readily determined to be zero since δijδij = δjj = 3. Therefore the contents of the last
set of parentheses is:
1 1
Sijδij − Smmδijδij = S jj − Smm (3) = 0 .
3 3
So,
2 2
2µ & 1 ) 2 µυ & 1 ∂um ) µυ & ∂um )
ε = ( Sij − Smmδij + + Smm S jj = 2ν ( Sij − δij + + ( + ,
ρ€' 3 * ρ ' 3 ∂x m * ρ ' ∂x m *
where ν ≡ µ ρ .

€
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.56. For many gases and liquids (and solids too!), the following equations are valid:
q = −k∇T (Fourier's law of heat conduction, k = thermal conductivity, T = temperature),
e = eo + cvT (e = internal energy per unit mass, cv = specific heat at constant volume), and
h = ho + cpT (h = enthalpy per unit mass, cp = specific heat at constant pressure),
where eo and ho are constants, and cv and cp are also constants. Start with the energy equation
∂e ∂e ∂u ∂q
ρ + ρui = − p i + τ ij Sij − i
∂t ∂ xi ∂ xi ∂ xi
for each of the following items.
a) Derive an equation for T involving uj, k, ρ, and cv for incompressible flow when τij = 0.
b) Derive an equation for T involving uj, k, ρ, and cp for flow with p = const. and τij = 0.
c) Provide a physical explanation why the answers to a) and b) are different.

Solution 4.56. a) Put q = −k∇T , e = eo + cvT, and τij = 0 into the energy equation to find:
! ∂T ∂T $ ∂ u ∂ ! ∂T $
ρ cv # + ui & = −p i + #k &.
" ∂t ∂ xi % ∂ xi ∂ xi " ∂ xi %
€
DT ∂ ! ∂ T $
For incompressible flow ∂ui ∂x i = 0 , so the final equation is ρ cv = #k &.
Dt ∂ xi " ∂ xi %
b) This part is a little harder than part a) because the flow is compressible. However, the first
step is nearly the same as part b). Put q = −k∇T , and τij = 0 into the energy equation to find:
€
De ∂ui ∂ % ∂T (
ρ = −p + ' k * . Now manipulate the pressure term using the continuity equation:
Dt ∂ x i ∂x i & ∂ x i )
∂u € p Dρ 1 Dρ D(1 ρ) D( p ρ)
p i =− = − pρ 2 = pρ =ρ .
∂x i ρ Dt ρ Dt Dt Dt
€ De D( p ρ) ∂ % ∂T (
Substitute the final term into the energy equation: ρ = −ρ + ' k * . Collect like
Dt Dt ∂ x i & ∂x i )
€ Dh ∂ $ ∂T '
terms and recall that h = e + p ρ to find: ρ = & k ) . Now use h = ho + cpT to get
Dt ∂x i % ∂x i (
€DT ∂ ! ∂ T $
ρ cp = #k &.
€ Dt ∂ x i " ∂ xi %

c) The results from parts a) and € b) must be different because constant volume (incompressible)
and constant pressure (isobaric) processes involving thermal energy are fundamentally different.
When the material is compressible, it can expand (or shrink) and do (or absorb) work.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.57. Derive the following alternative form of (4.60):

DT Dp ∂ ! ∂T $
ρ cp = αT + ρε + #k & , where ε is given by (4.58) and α is the thermal expansion
Dt Dt ∂ xi " ∂ xi %
coefficient defined in (1.26). [Hint: dh = (∂ h ∂ T ) p dT + (∂ h ∂ p)T dp ]

Solution 4.57. Start from (4.60),

2
De ∂um & 1 ∂um ) & ∂um ) 2 ∂ & ∂T )
ρ = −p + 2µ( Sij − δij + + µυ ( + + (k +,
Dt ∂x m ' 3 ∂x m * ' ∂x m * ∂ x i ' ∂x i *
and use (4.58) so simplify the appearance of the middle terms on the right:
De ∂u ∂ & ∂T )
ρ = − p m + ρε + (k +.
€ Dt ∂x m ∂x i ' ∂x i *
The final two terms on the right of this equation are in the correct form so the remainder of this
effort involves the term on the left and the first term on the right. First put them on the same side
of the equation within the same parentheses:
€ $ De p ∂um ' ∂ $ ∂T '
ρ& + )=ε+ &k ) ,
% Dt ρ ∂x m ( ∂x i % ∂ x i (
then eliminate the divergence of the velocity field using the expanded continuity equation (4.8)
and use the definition of the enthapy per unit mass: h = e + p/ρ.
$ De p Dρ ' $ De D(1 ρ) 1 Dp 1 Dp ' Dh Dp ∂ $ ∂T '
ρ& − 2 €) = ρ& +p + − )=ρ − =ε+ & k ) . (&)
% Dt ρ Dt ( % Dt Dt ρ Dt ρ Dt ( Dt Dt ∂x i % ∂x i (
Now work on the thermodynamic variables. Use the hint to make the choice of T and p as
independent variables, h = h(T,p), so that:
! ∂h $ ! ∂h $ ! ∂h $
€ dh = # & dT + # & dp = c p dT + # & dp . (†)
" ∂T % p " ∂ p %T " ∂ p %T
However, the natural variables for h are s and p, h = h(s,p), so that
# ∂h & # ∂h & 1 # ∂h & # ∂s & 1 # ∂p & # ∂s & 1
dh = % ( ds + % ( dp = Tds + dp → % ( = T% ( + % ( = T% ( + .
$ ∂s ' p $ ∂p ' s ρ $ ∂p 'T $ ∂p 'T ρ $ ∂p 'T $ ∂p 'T ρ
Substitute the final equality for (∂h/∂p)T into (†) to reach:
! ! ∂s $ 1 $ ! T ! ∂ρ $ 1 $
dh = c p dT + #T # & + &dp = c p dT + # − 2 # & + &dp ,
€ " " ∂ p %T ρ % " ρ " ∂ p %T ρ %
2
( )
where the second equality follows from the Maxwell relation: (∂s ∂p)T = − 1 ρ (∂ρ ∂p)T ,which
is derived from the free enthaply (= h – Ts). Now, using (1.26) for α, the enthaply increment is:
" αT 1 % Dh DT Dp
dh = cp dT + $ − + ' dp → ρ = ρ cp + (−αT +1) ,
# ρ ρ& Dt€ Dt Dt
and inserting this into the final equality of (&) produces:
DT Dp Dp ∂ " ∂T % DT Dp ∂ ! ∂T $
ρ cp + (−αT +1) − =ε + $k ' , or ρ cp = αT + ρε + #k &.
Dt Dt Dt ∂ xi # ∂ xi & Dt Dt ∂ xi " ∂ xi %
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.58. Show that (4.68) is true without abandoning index notation or using vector
identities.

Solution 4.58. Equation (4.68) is an identity for the advective acceleration. Start from ui(∂uj/∂xi)
and create the rotation tensor Rij from (3.15) by adding and subtracting ∂ui/∂xj.
∂u $ ∂u ∂u ∂ u ' ∂u
ui j = ui && j − i + i )) = −ui Rij + ui i .
∂x i % ∂x i ∂x j ∂ x j ( ∂x j
Now use (3.15), Rij = –εijkωk, for the first term on the right, and move ui inside the gradient of the
second term on the right to find:
∂u ∂ % 1 2( ∂ %1 2( ∂ %1 2(
ui j€= uiεijkω k + ' ui * = −ε jik uiω k + ' ui * = −(u × ω ) j + ' ui * .
∂x i ∂x j & 2 ) ∂x j & 2 ) ∂x j & 2 )

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.59. Consider an incompressible planar Couette flow, which is the flow between two
parallel plates separated by a distance b. The upper plate is moving parallel to itself at speed U,
and the lower plate is stationary. Let the x-axis lie on the lower plate. The pressure and velocity
fields are independent of x, and fluid has uniform density and viscosity.
a) Show that the pressure distribution is hydrostatic and that the solution of the Navier–Stokes
equation is u(y) = Uy/b.
b) Write the expressions for the stress and strain rate tensors, and show that the viscous kinetic-
energy dissipation per unit volume is µU2/b2.
c) Evaluate the kinetic energy equation (4.56) within a rectangular control volume for which the
two horizontal surfaces coincide with the walls and the two vertical surfaces are perpendicular to
the flow and show that the viscous dissipation and the work done in moving the upper surface
are equal.

y
b

Solution 4.59. In this flow is one dimensional, u = (u(y), 0), and ∂u/∂x = 0. This means that the
continuity equation is satisfied, and that the flow is incompressible. Thus, the x (horizontal) and
y (vertical) components of the constant-viscosity Navier-Stokes' momentum equation are:
∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p & ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u ) ∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂p & ∂ 2v ∂ 2v )
+u +v =− + ν ( 2 + 2 + , and +u +v =− − g − ν( 2 + 2 +.
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ' ∂x ∂y * ∂t ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ' ∂x ∂y *
Here, v is zero, ∂u/∂x = ∂u/∂t = ∂p/∂x = 0, so these equations simplify to:
∂ 2u 1 ∂p
0 = 2 , and 0 = − − g.
∂y ρ ∂y
€ €
a) The simplified vertical mometum equation can be rearranged to: ∂p/∂y = –ρg, which is the
equation of hydrostatics and is readily integrated to find p = po – ρgy, when the density is
constant. The simplified horizontal momentum equation can be integrate twice to find u = Ay +
€ €
B, and the boundary conditions on the lower plate (u = 0 on y = 0) and on the upper plate (u = U
on y = b), allow the constants A (= 0) and B (= U/b) to be determined. The final velocity result is:
u(y) = Uy b.
1 # ∂u ∂u & # (∂u ∂y + ∂v ∂x )&
1
∂u ∂x # 0 U 2b&
b) Strain rate: Sij = %% i + j (( = % 1 2
(=% (
2 $ ∂x j ∂x i ' $ 2 (∂v ∂x + ∂u ∂y ) ∂v ∂y ' $U 2b 0 '
€ " − p µU b %
For incompressible flow, the stress tensor is: Tij = − pδij + 2µ Sij = $ '
$ µU b − p '
# &
€
The viscous dissipation per unit volume is:
ρε = 2µSij Sij = 2µ[ S122 + S21
2
] = 2µ[U 2 4b2 + U 2 4b2 ] = µ U 2 b2
∂ !1 2$ ∂
c) The steady-flow kinetic energy equation, ρui # u j & = ρ gi u + u j
∂ xi " 2 % ∂ xi
(Tij ) , can be rewrittten:
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

∂ ( 12 u 2j ) ∂ (u jTij )
∂uj ∂ (u jTij ) ∂ (u jTij )
ρui = ρ gi u + − Tij
= ρ gi u + − Tij Sij = ρ gi u + + pSii − ρε .
∂ xi ∂ xi ∂ xi ∂ xi ∂ xi
Note that 12 u 2j (∂ ∂x i )( ρui ) = 0 (because of the steady continuity equation) add it the left side and
integrate the two ends of this equation in the stationary control volume described in the statement
of part c) to find:
€ ∫ ( 12 ρu2j )uini dA = ∫ ρ g j u j dV + ∫ u jTij ni dA + ∫ pSii dV − ∫ ρε dV .
A* V* A* V* V*
Here Gauss' divergence theorem has been used to covert the left side term and the second term
on the right to surface integrals. The body force term is zero because the dot product gjuj = 0 for
a horizontal flow with a vertical body force. The term involving the pressure is zero because Sii =
0 in this flow. Evaluating the remaining terms at locations x = 0 and x = L produces:
L b #
ρ b b L
µU 2 &
2 0
−( u(y)
3
∫ [ ] x=0 [ ] x=L
+ u(y)
3
dy = +
0
up)
∫ ([ ] x=0 [ ] x=L ) ∫ [ 21 ] y=b ∫ ∫ %$ b2 ('dxdy .
− up dy +
0
uT dx −
0 0
where the dimension of the control volume into the page, which is common to all terms, has been
divided out, and ρε has been evaluated with the result of part b). There is no contribution to the
surface work term from the lower plate because u = 0 on y = 0. The flow field is independent of
x, so the left-side integrand terms cancel, as do the integrand terms in the first right-side integral.
This leaves a balance of surface work and dissipation rate terms. On the upper plate at y = b, u =
U and T21 = τ21 = µU/b; thus
L b "
L
" µU % µU 2 % µU 2 µU 2
0 = + ∫ U$ 'dx − ∫ ∫ $ 2 'dxdy → 0 = L − 2 Lb = 0,
0 # b & 0 0# b & b b
and the energy balance is verified.

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.60. Determine the outlet speed, U2, of a chimney in terms of ρo, ρ 2, g, H, A1, and A2.
For simplicity, assume the fire merely decreases the density of the air from ρo to ρ 2 (ρo > ρ 2) and
does not add any mass to the airflow. (This mass flow assumption isn’t true, but it serves to keep
the algebra under control in this problem.) The relevant parameters are shown in the figure. Use
the steady Bernoulli equation into the inlet and from the
outlet of the fire, but perform a control volume analysis
across the fire. Ignore the vertical extent of A1 compared
to H, and the effects of viscosity.

Solution 4.60. Start from the stagnant air (Uo ≈ 0) on

the suction side of the chimney and use the steady
Bernoulli equation and a CV analysis to follow the flow
all the way to the chimney exit. The effects of viscosity
are ignored throughout this problem.
Suction flow into the fireplace opening: Po = P1 + 12 ρ oU12 (1)
Cons. of mass through the fireplace: ρ oU1 A1 = ρ 2U1a A1 = ρ 2U 2 A2 (2,3)
2 2
Cons. of horiz. mom through the fire: −ρ oU1 A1 + ρ 2U1a A1 = P1 A1 − P1a A1 (4)
1 2 1 2
Outflow from the fire: € P1a + 2 ρ 2U1a = P2 + 2 ρ 2U 2 + ρ 2 gH (5)
Static pressure outside the chimney: € P2 + ρ o gH = Po (6)
All of the velocities and pressures subscripted€ “1” and “1a” need to be eliminated along with Po
and P2 to find a single equation for U2. First, divide (4) by A1 and use (2,3) to substitute for the
unwanted velocities. €
€
$ ρ 2U 2 A2 ' 2 $ ρ 2U 2 A2 ' 2 ρ 2U 22 A22 $ ρ 2 '
−ρ o & ) + ρ 2& ) = P 1 − P1a , or &1− ) = P1 − P1a (7)
% ρ o A1 ( % ρ 2 A1 ( A12 % ρ o (
Use (1), (2,3), and (7) to find:
2
ρ 2U 22 A22 $ ρ 2 ' 1 $ ρ 2U 2 A2 ' ρ 2U 22 A22 $ ρ2 '
&1− ) = P o − ρ o& ) − P 1a , or P o − P1a = &1− ). (8)
€ A12 % ρ o ( 2 % ρ o A1 ( € A12 % 2 ρ o (
Combine (2,3), (5), (6), and (8):
ρ 2U 22 A22 $ ρ 2 ' ρ 2U 22 A22
Po − 2 &1− )+ 2
= Po − ρ o gH + 12 ρ 2U 22 + ρ 2 gH
€ A1 % 2 ρ o ( 2A1 €
Cancel Po’s, divide by ρ2, and collect all the terms with U2 to one side of the equation.
$ A2 $ ρ ' A 2 1 ' ρ − ρo
U 22 & − 22 &1− 2 ) + 22 − ) = 2 gH
€ % A1 % 2 ρ o ( 2A1 2 ( ρ2
Change signs on both sides of the equation, simplify terms involving the area ratio, and solve for
U2 to find:
2( ρ o ρ 2 −1) gH
€ U2 =
1+ ( A22 A12 )(1− ρ 2 ρ o )
Thus, for inviscid flow, U2 increases with increasing g, H, and A1, and with decreasing ρ2 and A2.

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.61. A hemispherical vessel of radius R containing an inviscid constant-density liquid

has a small rounded orifice of area A at the bottom. Show that the time required to lower the
level from h1 to h2 is given by
2π $ 2R 3 2 1 52 52 '
& ( h1 − h2 ) − ( h1 − h2 ))
32
t 2 − t1 =
A 2g % 3 5 (

Solution 4.61. Let z denote the height of the

liquid in the vessel. Although there is slight R
€ 2
unsteadiness even when πR >> A, use the
steady Bernoulli equation between the free h1 r
surface and the orifice at the bottom of the dz
tank: h2
2
z
1 # dz & 1 A
patm + ρ% ( + ρgz = patm + ρU e2 , (1)
2 dt$ ' 2
where Ue is the flow speed exiting the tank.
For an incompressible liquid, conservation
of mass reduces to conservation of volume:
€ πr 2 ( dz dt ) = AU e . (2)
Eliminate Ue from (1) and (2) to find:
$ π 2 r 4 '$ dz ' 2 $ π 2 r 4 '1 2 $ dz '
2gz = & 2 −1)& ) , or −& 2 −1) & ) = 2gz ,
€ % A (% dt ( % A ( % dt (
where the minus sign arises because z decreases as the tank empties. When πr2 >> A, this relationship
can be simplified to −πr 2 ( dz dt ) = A 2gz . From the geometry shown, (R − z) 2 + r 2 = R 2 , so
r 2 = 2Rz − z€2 . Thus, the simplified conservation
€ of mass relationship becomes:
−π (2Rz − z )( dz dt ) = A 2gz .
2

Separate the
€ differentials and integrate. €
h2
€ t2
π h2
π & z3 2 z5 2 )
∫ dt = − ∫ (2Rz − z )dz → t2 − t1 = −
12 32
( 2R − + .
t1 A €2g h1 A 2g ' 3 2 5 2 * h1
Evaluate and simplify.
2π $ 2R 3 2 1 52 52 '
& ( h1 − h2 ) − ( h1 − h2 )) .
32
t 2 − t1 =
€ A 2g % 3 5 (

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.62. Water flows through a pipe in a gravitational field as shown in the accompanying
figure. Neglect the effects of viscosity and surface tension. Solve the appropriate conservation
equations for the variation of the cross-sectional area of the fluid column A(z) after the water has left
the pipe at z = 0. The velocity of the fluid at z = 0 is uniform at Vo and the cross-sectional area is A0.

Solution 4.62. Using the z coordinate shown and the steady Bernoulli
equation between the pipe exit and the vertical location z:
1 1
patm + ρVo2 = patm + ρu 2 (z) + ρgz , (1)
2 2
where u(z) is the flow speed at vertical location z. For an incompressible
liquid, conservation of mass reduces to conservation of volume:
Vo Ao = u(z)A(z) , (2)
€ u(z) from (1) and (2) to find:
Eliminate
2
Vo2 = (Vo Ao A(z)) + 2gz .
Solve for A(z) to find:
€
Vo Ao
A(z) = .
2
€ Vo − 2gz

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.63. Redo the solution for the orifice-in-a-tank problem allowing for the fact that in
Fig. 4.16, h = h(t) but ignoring fluid acceleration. Estimate how long it takes for the tank take to
empty.

Solution 4.63. Let h(t) denote the height of the liquid in the vessel. Let the tank and orifice cross
sectional areas be At and Ao, respectively. Although there is slight unsteadiness even when At >> Ao,
use the steady Bernoulli equation between the free surface and the orifice at the bottom of the tank:
2
1 $ dh ' 1
patm + ρ&− ) + ρgh = patm + ρU o2 (1)
2 % dt ( 2
where Uo is the flow speed exiting the tank throught the orifice, and the minus sign appears because
the water level is decreasing. For an incompressible liquid, conservation of mass reduces to
conservation of volume:
€ At (−dh dt ) = AoU o . (2)
Eliminate Uo from (1) and (2) to find:
# At2 &# dh & 2 # At2 &−1 2 1 dh
2gh = % 2 −1(%− ( , or 2g % 2 −1( = − ,
$ A€o '$ dt ' $ Ao ' h dt
which is a differential equation for h(t). The left side is merely a constant. Integrate this equation
from t = 0 when h = h0 to t = tf when h = 0 to find:
# At2 &−1 2 # h1 2 & 0
€ 2g % 2€−1( t f = −% 12
( = 2h0 ,
$ Ao ' $ 1 2 ' h0
which can be rearranged to yield:
12
2h0 # At2 &
tf = % −1( .
€ g $ Ao2 '

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.64. Consider the planar flow of Example 3.5, u = (Ax,–Ay), but allow A = A(t) to
depend on time. Here the fluid density is ρ, the pressure at the origin or coordinates is po, and
there are no body forces.
a) If the fluid is inviscid, determine the pressure on the x-axis, p(x,0,t) as a function of time from
the unsteady Bernoulli equation.
b) If the fluid has viscosities µ and µυ, determine the pressure throughout the flow field, p(x,y,t),
from the x-direction and y-direction differential momentum equations.
c) Are the results for parts a) and b) consistent with each other? Explain your findings.

2
∂u #1 2 p& #1 2 p&
Solution 4.64. a) Use (4.82): ∫ ∂ t ⋅ ds + %$ 2 u + gz + ( = % u + gz + ( , and choose the
ρ '2 $ 2 ρ '1
1

streamline along the x-axis from the origin to the location x:

x
∂u "1 2 p% "1 2 p% x
dA "1 p(x, 0, t) % p
∫ ∂ t $# 2
dx + u + =
' $ u + ' or ∫ x dx + $ A 2 x 2 + '= 0+ o .
0 ρ &x # 2 ρ &0 0 dt #2 ρ & ρ
The integral is elementary, so after some rearrangement the last equation implies:
p(x, 0, t) − po " dA % x2
= −$ + A2 ' .
ρ # dt &2
b) For this velocity field ∇ ⋅ u = 0 , so the flow is incompressible. Thus, the relevant version of
the Navier-Stokes momentum equation is (4.39b) with g = 0:
Du
ρ = −∇p + µ∇ 2 u .
Dt
Using u = (Ax,–Ay) in this equation leads to:
(! dA $ ! dA $ + ∂p ∂p
ρ *# x + A 2 x & e x + # − y + A 2 y & e y - = − e x − e y + 0 .
)" dt % " dt % , ∂x ∂y
Separating this into two component equations and integrating yields:
" dA % x2 " dA % y2
p = −ρ $ + A 2 ' + B(y, t) and p = −ρ $ − + A 2 ' + C(x, t) ,
# dt &2 # dt &2
where B and C are functions of integration. These two equations are consistent and match the
origin condition p(0,0,t) = po when
p(x, y, t) − po " dA % x 2 " dA % y2
= −$ + A2 ' − $− + A2 ' .
ρ # dt & 2 # dt &2
c) The results of parts b) and c) are consistent. Fluid viscosity does not influence the pressure in
this flow field because there is no net viscous force on fluid particles.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.65. A circular plate is forced down at a steady velocity Uo against a flat surface.
Frictionless incompressible fluid of density ρ fills the gap h(t). Assume that h << ro, the plate
radius, and that the radial velocity ur(r,t) is constant across the gap.
a) Obtain a formula for ur(r,t) in terms of r, Uo, and h.
b) Determine ∂ur(r,t)/∂t.
c) Calculate the pressure distribution under the plate assuming that p(r = ro) = 0.

Solution 4.65. a) Choose a cylindrical control volume that fits under the moving disk, and has
radius r and height h. Conservation of mass for this control volume implies:
dM d dh
= 0 = ( ρπr 2 h ) + ρur ⋅ 2πrh , or 0 = r 2 + 2rhur
dt dt dt
In this problem, dh dt = −U o , so the above conservation of mass equation requires: ur = rU o 2h .
∂u rU dh rU o2
b) Differentiate the part a) result: r = − 2o =
€ ∂t 2h dt € 2h 2
c) Use €this result in the unsteady Bernoulli equation. The streamlines are€radial so the unsteady
term can be evaluated on paths directed through the origin from a radial distance r to the radial
distance ro.
€
ur2 (r) p(r) ro ∂ur u 2 (r ) p(ro )
+ =∫ dr + r o + .
2 ρ r ∂t 2 ρ
Now substitute p(r = ro) = 0, and the results of parts a) and b) to find:
r 2U o2 p(r) U o2 $ ro2 r 2 ' ro2U o2
+ = 2 & − )+
€ 8h 2 ρ 2h % 2 2 ( 8h 2
3ρU o2 2 2
Solve for the pressure at distance r: p(r) =
8h 2
(ro − r ) . Such a distribution is reasonable
because it is highest at r = 0 and drops toward the edges of the disk; thus, the pressure gradient
€
pushes fluid out from underneath the disk.
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.66. A frictionless, incompressible fluid with density ρ resides in a horizontal nozzle
of length L having a cross sectional area that varies smoothly between Ai and Ao via:
A(x) = Ai + ( Ao − Ai ) f ( x L) , where f is a function that goes from 0 to 1 as x/L goes from 0 to 1.
Here the x-axis lies on the nozzle’s centerline, and x = 0 and x = L are the horizontal locations of
the nozzle’s inlet and outlet, respectively. At t = 0, the pressure at the inlet of the nozzle is raised
to pi > po, where po is the (atmospheric) outlet pressure of the nozzle, and the fluid begins to flow
€ horizontally through the nozzle.
a) Derive the following equation for the time-dependent volume flow rate Q(t) through the
nozzle from the unsteady Bernoulli equation and an appropriate conservation-of-mass
relationship.
Q˙ (t) x= L Ai Q2 (t) $ 1 1 ' $ pi − po '
∫
Ai x= 0 A(x)
dx + & 2 − 2)=&
2 % Ao Ai ( % ρ (
)
b) Solve the equation of part a) when f ( x L) = x L .
c) If ρ = 103 kg/m3, L = 25 cm, Ai = 100 cm2, Ao = 30 cm2, and pi – po = 100 kPa for t ≥ 0, how
long does it take for the flow rate to reach 99% of its steady-state value?
€
Solution 4.66. a) A conservation € of mass equation and the unsteady Bernoulli equation are
needed here. Considering inflow and outflow at the inlet and outlet of the nozzle produces:
volume flux = Q(t) = Ui(t)Ai = Uo(t)Ao, where the ‘o’ and ‘i’ subscripts stand for outlet and inlet,
respectively. Now consider the streamline that follows a horizontal path along the centerline of
the nozzle:
pi U i2 x= L
∂u p U2
+ + gzi = ∫ ⋅ ds + o + o + gzo .
ρ 2 x= 0 ∂t ρ 2
This streamline lies on the x-axis so that ds = e x dx and [u(x,t)] centerline = e xU i (t) Ai A(x) . In
addition, zi = zo, so
€ pi − po x= L ∂ % Ai ( U i2 % Ai2 (
= ∫ 'U i (t) e x * ⋅ e x dx + ' −1* .
ρ € x= 0 ∂t & A(x)
€ ) 2 & Ao2 )
Perform the dot product, set Q(t) = U i (t)Ai , and rearrange:
Q˙ (t) x= L Ai Q2 (t) $ 1 1 ' pi − po
∫
Ai x= 0 A(x)
dx + & 2 − 2)=
2 % Ao Ai ( ρ
.
€
where the over-dot€signifies a time derivative. This is a first-order nonlinear differential
equation for Q(t).
# ( A − Ai ) x &
b) When A(x) =€Ai + ( Ao − Ai ) f ( x L) = Ai %1+ o ( , then
$ Ai L'
x= L$ −1
x= L
Ai ( Ao − Ai ) x ' L
∫ A(x)dx = ∫ &%1+ A L )( dx = β ln(1+ β )
x= 0 x= 0 i

€where β = ( Ao − Ai ) Ai . Thus, the differential equation for the volume flux becomes:
βAi $ 1 1' 2 βAi $ pi − po '
Q˙ (t) + & 2 − 2 )Q (t) = & ).
€ 2L ln(1+ β ) % Ao Ai ( L ln(1+ β ) % ρ (
€ The coefficients are clumsy, but they are constants so the above equation can be rewritten:
Q˙ (t) + BQ 2 (t) = C
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

where B and C are constants. This is a first-order nonlinear differential equation, a Ricatti
equation. Its steady state solution is Qss = C B , so look for a general solution of the form
Q(t) = q(t) + Qss . Substitute this into the differential equation above to find:
q˙ 2BQss
q˙ + B(q 2 + 2qQss + Qss2 ) = C , or q˙ + B(q 2 + 2qQss ) = 0 , or − 2 − =B
€ q q
€ Now let y(t) = 1 q(t) , to find a first-order linear differential equation, y − 2BQss y = B , which has
solution: y(t) = Dexp{+2BQsst} −1 (2Qss ) where D is an undetermined constant, so
€ € 1 1
Q(t) = Qss + q(t) = Qss + = Qss + € .
€ y(t) Dexp{2BQsst} −1 (2Qss )
€Here the fluid starts from rest, so the initial condition Q(0) = 0 allows D to be determined:
D = −1 (2Qss ) , thus
# &
€ C% 2 (
Q(t) = 1−
B % 1+ exp{2 BCt} (
$ '
€
C 2Ai2 Ao2 $ pi − po ' βAi Ai2 − Ao2 % pi − po (
where = Qss = & ) , and BC = ' *.
B Ai2 − Ao2 % ρ ( L ln(1+ β ) 2Ai2 Ao2 & ρ )
€ rate will be reached when: exp{+2 BCt} = 199 . Thus for
c) 99% of the steady flow
β = (Ao − Ai ) Ai = (30cm 2 −100cm 2 ) 100cm 2 = −0.7 , the requisite time is:
€ € ln(1− 0.7) $ 2(0.01m 2 ) 2 (0.003m 2 ) 2 10 3 kg /m 3 '1 2
ln(199) ln(199) 0.25m
t= = & ⋅ ) .
2 BC 2 €2 ) %(0.01m 2 ) 2 − (0.003m 2 ) 2 10 5 Pa (
(−0.7)(0.01m
€ = (2.64665)(42.999)(4.4475x10–4) = 0.051 seconds.

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.67. For steady constant-density inviscid flow with body force per unit mass
1 2
g = −∇Φ , it is possible to derive the following Bernoulli equation: p + 2 ρ u + ρΦ = constant
along a streamline.
a) What is the equivalent form of the Bernoulli equation for constant-density inviscid flow that
appears steady when viewed in a frame of reference that rotates a constant rate about the z-axis,
i.e. when Ω = (0,0,Ωz ) with Ωz constant? €
b) If the extra term found in the Bernoulli equation is considered a pressure correction. Where
on the surface of the earth (i.e. at what latitude) will this pressure correction be the largest?
What is the absolute size of the maximum pressure correction when changes in R on a streamline
€
are 1 m, 1 km, and 103 km.

Solution 4.67. a) The steady-flow Bernoulli equation can be derived from a dot product of the
fluid velocity, u, with the momentum equation. For this problem, the flow appears steady in a
frame of reference rotating at a constant rate, so the point of departure for this problem is the
momentum equation (4.45) in a non-interial frame of reference (the primes denote quantities in
the non-inertial frame):
D#u# ( dU dΩ +
ρ = −∇ #p + ρg + µ∇ #2u# − ρ* + × x # + 2Ω × u# + Ω × (Ω × x #)-.
Dt ) dt dt ,
This equation can be simplified for steady (∂/∂t = 0) inviscid (µ = 0) flow in a steadily rotating (
∂Ω ∂t = 0 ) co-ordinate system that does not accelerate ( dU dt = 0 ).
ρ(u# ⋅ ∇)u# = −∇ #p + ρg + µ∇ #2u# − ρ [2Ω × u# + Ω × (Ω × x #)] .
€
The term on the left can be rewritten using a vector identity (B3.9), the body force term can be
replaced with the gradient of the body-force potential g = −∇Φ , and the last term on the right can
€ €
be evaluated when Ω = (0,0,Ωz ) :
€
%1 2(
[ ]
ρ∇ #' u# * + ρ(∇ # × u#) × u# = −∇ #p − ρ∇ #Φ − ρ 2Ω × u# − Ω2z ( x #e#x + y #e#y ) .
&2 ) €
The terms€containing Ω2z can be combined and put under a gradient:
&1 )
−Ω2z ( x $e$x + y $e$y ) = −∇ $( Ω2z ( x $2 + y $2 )+ .
€ '2 *
Collect all the
€ terms involving a gradient together on the left side of the equation:
(ρ 2 1 +
∇ "* u" + p + ρΦ − ρΩ2z ( x "2 + y "2 )- = −2 ρΩ × u" − ρ (∇ " × u") × u"
)2 2 ,
€
Now take the dot product of this equation with u´ noting that this will zero the right side of the
equation because of the properties of the cross product:
)ρ 2 1 ,
€ u" ⋅ ∇ "+ u" + p + ρΦ − ρΩ2z ( x "2 + y "2 ). = 0
*2 2 -
ρ 2 1
This implies that u# + p + ρΦ − ρΩ2z ( x #2 + y #2 ) = constant along a streamline in the rotating
2 2
frame. The sign of the new term can be checked by considering u´ = 0 with Φ = 0 (standard
€
solid body rotation viewed from the inertial frame of reference) and computing the pressure
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

∂p ρ
gradient in the direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation, = + Ω2z r# where
∂r# 2
2 2
r" = x " + y " . This result is correct so the sign of the new term is correct.
b) At any latitude, the local rotation rate at the surface of the earth is Ωzcosθ where θ is zero at
€ ρ
the pole and 90° at the equator. Thus, the pressure correction term is: Ω2z R 2 cos2 θ where R
2
€ represents the distance from the local origin of coordinates. Thus, the largest value of the
correction term will occur at θ = 0, but it will depend on the path length. For example, consider
two points along a streamline where the first point lies at the origin of coordinates and the second
lies a distance R away. The maximum value of the pressure € correction will be:
ρ 2 2 (1.2kg /m )(2π /day) (day /24hr) 2 (hr /3600s) 2 R 2
3 2
Ωz R =
2 2
–9
= 3.2x10 Pa for R = 1 m
= 3.2x10–3 Pa for R = 1 km
= 3.2 kPa for R = 103 km
Given that€ 1 atmosphere of pressure is approximately 100 kPa, this pressure correction is only
likely to be important on streamlines that traverse an appreciable fraction of the earth’s surface.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.68. Starting from (4.45) derive the following unsteady Bernoulli equation for inviscid
incompressible irrotational fluid flow observed in a non-rotating frame of reference undergoing
acceleration dU/dt with its z-axis vertical.
2
∂u $ u2 p dU ') $& u
2
p dU '
∫ ∂t ⋅ ds + & 2 + ρ + gz + x ⋅ dt ) = & 2 + ρ + gz + x ⋅ dt )) .
&
1 % (2 % (1

Solution 4.68. Start from (4.45) with Ω = 0, work in the accelarting frame of reference, and drop
the “primes” from the coordinates.
! Du $ ) dU ,
ρ# & = −∇p + ρ +g − . + µ∇ 2 u (1)
" Dt % * dt -
Here the acceleration of the coordinate system is dU/dt and fluid is frictionless so µ = 0. Thus,
(1) becomes:
& ∂u 1 ) , dU / & dU )
' ∂t 2 ( ) 2
ρ ( + ∇ u − u × ω + = −∇p + ρ .g − 1 = −∇ ( p + ρ gz + ρ x ⋅
* - dt 0 '
+,
dt *
(2)

where the z-axis is vertical, g = –gez, Du/Dt has been expanded using its definition and vector
identities, and the body force and the apparent acceleration have been drawn inside the gradient
on the right using: −ge z = −∇ ( gz ) and − dU dt = −∇ ( x ⋅ dU dt ) . For irrotational flow ω = 0, so
(2) can be rewritten:
∂u $ u2 p dU ')
+ ∇ && + + gz + x ⋅ =0, (3)
∂t % 2 ρ dt )(
when the density is constant. Now integrate this equation along a streamline that starts at location
"1" and ends at location "2" to find
2
∂u $ u2 p dv(t) ') $& u
2
p dv(t) ')
∫ ∂t ⋅ ds + &
& 2 ρ + + gz + x
dt
=
) & 2 ρ + + gz + x
dt ) . (4)
1 % (2 % (1
were ds is the the differential path-length increment tanget to the streamline.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.69. Using the small slope version of the surface curvature 1 R1 ≈ d 2ζ dx 2 , redo
Example 4.7 to find h and ζ(x) in terms of x, σ, ρ, g and θ. Show that the two answers are
consistent when θ approaches π/2.
€
Solution 4.69. Pressure matching between the air just above and the liquid just beneath the free
surface where the deflection is ζ(x) produces:
#1 1& #1 1&
patm = ( p) air = ( p) liquid + σ % + ( = patm − ρgζ + σ % + ( ,
$ R1 R2 ' $ R1 R2 '
where the Laplace pressure must be added to the liquid pressure, and the radii of curvature are
presumed to emanate from points in the air above the liquid. When 1/R1 ≈ d2ζ/dx2 and 1/R2 = 0,
the extreme members of this equality imply:
€ 1 d 2ζ & ρg )
0 = −ρgζ + σ , or − ( +ζ = 0 .
R1 dx 2 ' σ *
Defining δ ≡ σ ρg , the solutions to the differential equation for ζ are:
ζ (x) = A+ exp{+ x δ} + A− exp{−x δ} .
In the present situation,
€ we must have ζ € → 0 as x → ∞ , and z = h at x = 0. These conditions are
satisfied when A+ = 0 and A– = h, so that
€
ζ (x) = h exp{−x δ} = h exp{−x ρg σ } .
€
There is also a slope condition
€ € vertical wall (see Figure 4.20) that allows h to be
at the
determined in terms of the contact angle θ:
# dζ & h
€ % ( = −cot θ = − , or h = − ρg σ cot θ .
$ dx ' x= 0 δ
The exact solution given in Example 4.7 is in implicit form,
−1 2 2 1/2 −1 2 2 1/2
cosh (2δ/ζ ) − (4 − ζ /δ ) − cosh (2δ/h) + (4 − h /δ ) = x/δ ,
and must be simplified for θ approaching π€/2. The complexity here comes from the cosh-inverse
€
function which can be written in terms of a natural logarithm:
€ ( )
cosh−1 (y) = ln y ± y 2 −1 .
When θ → π 2 , then cot θ → 0 . Thus, in this limit h/δ << 1 and ζ/δ << 1. Therefore, the exact
solution can be simplified using:
cosh−1 (2δ ζ ) ≈ ln( 4δ ζ ) + ... and cosh−1 (2δ h) ≈ ln( 4δ h ) + ..., and
€
€ € (4 − ζ 2 /δ 2 )1/2 ≈ 2 + ..., and (4 − h 2 /δ 2 )1/2 ≈ 2 + ...
Substituting these replacements into the exact solution produces:
ln( 4δ ζ ) − 2 − ln( 4δ h ) + 2 + ... = x/δ , or ln( h ζ ) + ... = x/δ .
€ €
Exponentiating both sides of the last expression and solving for z produces
€ €
ζ = h exp{−x/δ} ,
which the same as the small-slope solution. Thus, the exact and small-slope solutions are
€ €
consistent.
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.70. An spherical bubble with radius R(t), containing gas with negligible density,
creates purely radial flow, u = (ur(r,t), 0, 0), in an unbounded bath of a quiescent incompressible
liquid with density ρ and viscosity µ. Determine ur(r,t) in terms of R(t), its derivatives. Ignoring
body forces, and assuming a pressure of p∞ far from the bubble, find (and solve) an equation for
the pressure distribution, p(r,t), outside the bubble. Integrate this equation from r = R to r → ∞ ,
and apply an appropriate boundary condition at the bubble's surface to find the Rayleigh-Plesset
equation for the pressure pB(t) inside the bubble:
2
pB (t) − p∞ d 2 R 3 # dR & 4µ dR 2σ
=R 2 + % ( + + ,
ρ dt 2 $ dt ' ρ R dt ρ R
where µ is the fluid's viscosity and σ is the surface tension.

Solution 4.70. The flow of the liquid is purely radial and incompressible so the continuity
equation and radial momentum equation in spherical coordinates are:
1 ∂ 2 ∂ur ∂u 1 ∂p µ # 1 ∂ # 2 ∂ur & 2ur &
2
r ∂r
( r ur ) = 0 and
∂t
+ ur r = −
∂r
+ % %r
ρ ∂r ρ $ r 2 ∂r $ ∂r ' r 2 '
(− (.
The first equation is readily integrated to find: ur = A(t)/r2. The function of integration, A(t), can
be evaluated by requiring ur(R,t) = dR/dt, and this leads to:
R 2 (t) dR
ur (r, t) = 2 .
r dt
Substituting this relationship into the radial momentum equation leads to:
∂ " R 2 (t) dR % " R 2 (t) dR % ∂ " R 2 (t) dR % 1 ∂p µ " 1 ∂ " 2 ∂ " R 2 (t) dR %% 2 " R 2 (t) dR %%
$ 2 '+$ 2 ' $ 2 '=− + $ $r $ '' − $ '' ,
∂t # r dt & # r dt & ∂r # r dt & ρ ∂r ρ $# r 2 ∂r # ∂r # r 2 dt && r 2 # r 2 dt &'&
and this is an equation for the pressure. Carefully evaluate derivatives and simplify the various
terms:
2 2
2R(t) ! dR $ R 2 (t) d 2 R R 4 (t) ! dR $ 1 ∂p µ
2 # & + 2 2
−2 5 # & =− + ( 0!) .
r " dt % r dt r " dt % ρ ∂r ρ
Interestingly, the viscous terms cancel out at this point. Rearrange this equation and integrate in r
from R to ∞:
2 2
∞
dp p∞ − p(R) $ dR ' ∞ dr 2 d 2 R ∞ dr 4 $ dR ' ∞ dr
∫ = = −2R(t) & ) ∫ 2
% dt ( R r
− R (t) ∫
dt 2 R r 2
+ 2R (t) & ) ∫ 5
% dt ( R r
p( R) ρ ρ
2 ∞ ∞ 2 ∞
$ dR ' * 1- 2 d 2 R * 1- $ dR ' * 1 -
= −2R(t) & ) −
,+ /. − R (t) 2 ,
− / + 2R 4 (t) & ) ,+− 4 /.
% dt ( r R dt + r .R % dt ( 4r R
2 2 2
$ dR ' d 2 R 1 $ dR ' d 2 R 3 $ dR '
= −2 & ) − R(t) 2 + & ) = −R(t) 2 − & ) .
% dt ( dt 2 % dt ( dt 2 % dt (
This produces an equation for the pressure p(R) in the liquid at r = R, but the pressure pB(t) inside
the bubble is sought.
Equation (4.93) provides the means to jump from the liquid to the gas side of the bubble's
surface. Here we assume that no mass is transfered and that "1" indicates the inside the bubble
while "2" indicates the outside of the bubble. In this case (4.93) reduces to:
0 = − ( p2 − p1 ) + ((τ rr )2 − (τ rr )1 ) − 2 σ R ,
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

where τrr = 2µ(∂ur/∂r) is the normal viscous stress, and the sign of the surface tension term is set
by the fact that the center of bubble surface curvature lies at the center of the bubble (in region
"1"). Recasting this boundary condition using p2 = p(R) and p1 = pB, leads to
# ∂u & 2σ
pB = p(R) − 2µ % r ( + ,
$ ∂r 'r=R R
where the viscous stress in the gas, (τrr)1, has been neglected. Inserting p(R) and ur from above
leads to:
2
d 2 R 3 ! dR $ ! ∂ ! R 2 (t) dR $$ 2σ
pB = ρ R 2 + ρ # & + p∞ − 2µ # # 2 && +
dt 2 " dt % " ∂r " r dt %%r=R R
2
d 2 R 3 ! dR $ 4µ dR 2σ
= ρ R 2 + ρ # & + p∞ + + ,
dt 2 " dt % R dt R
and this can be rearranged to reach the form provided in the question statement:
2
pB − p∞ d 2 R 3 # dR & 4µ dR 2σ
=R 2 + % ( + + .
ρ dt 2 $ dt ' ρ R dt ρ R
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.71. Redo the dimensionless scaling leading to (4.101) by choosing a generic viscous
stress, µU/l, and then a generic hydrostatic pressure, ρgl, to make p − p∞ dimensionless. Interpret
the revised dimensionless coefficients that appear in the scaled momentum equation, and relate
them to St, Re, and Fr.

Solution 4.71. (i) Viscous scaling of the pressure.

& ∂u )
Start from ρ( + (u ⋅ ∇ )u+ = −∇p + ρg + µ∇ 2u , and render it dimensionless using the
' ∂t *
dimensionless variables: x i = x i l , t ∗ = Ωt , u∗j = u j U , p∗ = ( p − p∞ )l µU , and g∗j = g j g .
∗

The result is:

€ ∂u* U 2 * * * 1 µU * * µU 2
UΩ * +
∂t€ l €
( u ⋅ ∇ )u = − ∇ p + gg* + 2 ∇ * u* ,
€ €ρl l ρl €
2
which can be simplied by dividing all terms by µU/ρl and using ν = µ/ρ:
$ Ωl Ul ' ∂u* $ Ul ' * * * $ gl Ul ' * *2 *
) * + & )(u ⋅ ∇ )u = −∇ p + & 2 )g + ∇ u .
* *
&
€ % U ν ( ∂t % ν ( %U ν (
Here the coefficients are the Strouhal number-Reynolds number product, the Reynolds number,
and the product of the inverse square of the Froude number and the Reynolds number. This
scaling is useful for low Reynolds number flow where it naturally produces a pressure gradient-
€ balance.
viscous force

(ii) Hydrostatic scaling of the pressure.

& ∂u )
Start from ρ( + (u ⋅ ∇ )u+ = −∇p + ρg + µ∇ 2u , and render it dimensionless using the
' ∂t *
dimensionless variables: x i = x i l , t ∗ = Ωt , u∗j = u j U , p∗ = ( p − p∞ ) ρgl , and g∗j = g j g .
∗

The result is:

€ ∂u* U 2 * * * 1 µU 2
UΩ * +
t
(
l €
u ⋅ ∇ )u = − ρgl∇ * p* + gg* + 2 ∇ * u* ,
€ ∂€ €ρl ρl €
which can be simplied by dividing all terms by g and using ν = µ/ρ:
# Ωl U 2 & ∂u* # U 2 & * * * # ν U 2 & *2 *
€
%
$ U gl ' ∂t $ gl '
( )
( * + % ( u ⋅ ∇ u = −∇ p + g + %
* * *
(∇ u .
$ Ul gl '
Here the coefficients are the product of the Strouhal number and the square of the Froude
number, the square of the Froude number, and the product of the inverse of the Reynolds number
and the square of the Froude number. This scaling is useful for low Froude number flow where it
naturally€produces a hydrostatic balance.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.72. A solid sphere of mass m and diameter D is released from rest and falls through
an incompressible viscous fluid with density ρ and viscosity µ under the action of gravity g.
When the z coordinate increases downward, the vertical component of Newton’s second law for
du
the sphere is: m z = +mg − FB − FD , where uz is positive downward, FB is the buoyancy force on
dt
the sphere, and FD is the fluid-dynamic drag force on the sphere. Here, with uz > 0, FD opposes
the sphere’s downward motion. At first the sphere is moving slowly so its Reynolds number is
low, but Re D = ρuz D µ increases with time as the sphere’s velocity increases. To account for
this variation in ReD, the sphere’s coefficient of drag may be approximated as: CD ≅ 12 + 24 Re D .
For the following items, provide answers in terms of m, ρ, µ, g and D; do not use z, uz, FB, or FD.
a) Assume the sphere's vertical equation of motion will be solved by a computer after being put
into dimensionless form. Therefore, use the information provided and the definition t * ≡ ρ gtD µ
d Re D
to show that this equation may be rewritten: *
= A Re 2D + B Re D + C , and determine the
dt
coefficients A, B, and C.
b) Solve the part a) equation for ReD analytically in terms of A, B, and C for a sphere that is
initially at rest.
c) Undo the dimensionless scaling to determine the terminal velocity of the sphere from the part
c) answer as t → ∞ .

g!
z!

D!

m!

µ, ρ!
vz!

Solution 4.72. a) The buoyant and drag forces on the sphere will be:
π 1 π 1 π ! 1 24 $
FB = ρ D 3g and FD = ρuz2 D 2CD = ρuz2 D 2 # + &.
6 2 4 2 4 " 2 Re D %
Thus, the approximate equation for the sphere’s velocity is:
du π 1 π " 1 24 %
m z = mg − ρ D 3g − ρuz2 D 2 $ + '.
dt 6 2 4 # 2 Re D &
Now introduce the dimensionless scalings one at a time. First use uz = µ Re D ρ D to eliminate uz.
2
duz µ d Re D π 3 1 " µ Re D % π 2 " 1 24 %
m =m = mg − ρ D g − ρ $ ' D $ + '.
dt ρ D dt 6 2 # ρ D & 4 # 2 Re D &
Simplify the right side:
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

mµ d Re D " π % π " 1 24 %
= $ m − ρ D 3 ' g − µ 2 Re 2D $ + '.
ρ D dt # 6 & 8ρ # 2 Re D &
Switch to the dimensionless time t* using the chain rule for differentiation and t * = ρ gtD µ :
mµ d Re D mµ ! d Re D dt * $ mµ ! d Re D ρ gD $
= # &= # &
ρ D dt ρ D " dt * dt % ρ D " dt * µ %
d Re D ! π $ π ! 1 24 $
= mg *
= # m − ρ D 3 & g − µ 2 Re 2D # + &.
dt " 6 % 8ρ " 2 Re D %
Divide both sides of the final equality by mg, and rearrange the right side:
d Re D π " µ2 % 2 " µ2 % " π ρ D3 %
= − $ ' Re D − 3 π $ ' Re D $1−
+ '.
dt * 16 # ρ mg & # ρ mg & # 6 m &
π " µ2 % " µ2 % π ρ D3
Thus: A=− $ ' , B = −3 π $ ' , and C = 1− .
16 # ρ mg & # ρ mg & 6 m
b) Assuming C is positive, the scaled equation found for part a) can be separated and integrated:
d Re D 2 # 2A Re + B &
∫ A Re2 + B Re = ∫ dt * , or t ∗ + const. = − tanh −1 $ D
'.
D+ C
2 2
D B − 4AC % B − 4AC (
This integrated result can be algebraically inverted:
1 ) # 1 &,
Re D = *−B + B 2 − 4AC tanh %− B 2 − 4AC (t ∗ + const.)(- .
2A + $ 2 '.
The constant can be evaluated with the initial condition ReD = 0 at t = 0 to find:
/ ) B 2 − 4AC # &,31
1 1 B
Re D = 0−B + B 2 − 4AC tanh +− t ∗ + tanh −1 % (.4 ,
2A 12 +* 2 $ B 2 − 4AC '.-15
which is a formal solution to the problem.
c) Terminal velocity will occur when dReD/dt* = 0. Use this fact and the result of part a) to find:
π " µ2 % 2 " µ2 % " π ρ D3 %
0=− $ Re
' T − 3π $ ' T $1−
Re + ',
16 # ρ mg & # ρ mg & # 6 m &
where ReT is the Reynolds number at terminal velocity. Divide by the leading coefficient:
16 " ρ mg %" π ρ D 3 %
0 = ReT2 + 48ReT − $ 2 '$1− '.
π # µ &# 6 m &
Thus, using the quadratic formula and choosing the appropriate sign to ensure ReT > 0, yields:
" " 16 " ρ mg %" π ρ D 3 %% %
1$ 16 " ρ mg %" π ρ D 3 %
2
ReT = −48 + 48 − 4(1) $ − $ 2 '$1− ' ' ' = −24 + 24 2 + $ 2 '$1− '.
2 $# # π # µ &# 6 m && '& π # µ &# 6 m &
" %
µ "$ %
2
µ $ −B " B % C 16 " ρ mg %" π ρ D 3 % '
so: (uz )T = + $ ' − '= −24 + 24 2 + $ 2 '$1− ' .
ρ D $# 2A # 2A & A '& ρ D $# π # µ &# 6 m & '&
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.73. a) From (4.101), what is the dimensional differential momentum equation for
steady incompressible viscous flow as Re → ∞ when g = 0.
b) Repeat part a) for Re → 0 . Does this equation include the pressure gradient?
c) Given that pressure gradients are important for fluid mechanics at low Re, revise the pressure
scaling in (4.100) to obtain a more satisfactory low-Re limit for (4.39b) with g = 0.

Solution 4.73. Equation (4.101) with g = 0 is a scaled equation that involves the Strouhal
number St = Ωl/U, and the Reynolds number Re = ρUl/µ.
∂ u∗ 1
( )
St ∗ + u∗ ⋅ ∇* u∗ = −∇* p∗ + ∇∗2 u∗ .
∂t Re
a) When Re → ∞ , the viscous terms drop out. In dimensional terms, the result is the Euler
equation:
∂u 1
+ ( u ⋅ ∇) u = − ∇p ,
∂t ρ
which does apply to high-speed flows with weak viscous effects.
b) Multiply (4.101) by Re to find:
∂ u∗
( )
ReSt ∗ + Re u∗ ⋅ ∇* u∗ = −Re ∇* p∗ + ∇∗2 u∗ .
∂t
Taking the limit as Re → 0 leads to: ∇ 2 u = 0 , which does not include the pressure gradient and
is not correct.
c) The problem is the assumed scaling for the pressure that went into creating (4.101). As an
alternative, assume that pressure p should be scaled by a viscous stress ~ µU/l; p* = pl/µU. In this
case, the dimensionless version of (4.39b) with g = 0 becomes:
" Ωl % ∂ u∗ " µ % * ∗ " µ % *2 ∗
( ∗ *
$# '& ∗ + u ⋅ ∇ u = −$
U ∂t
) ∗
'∇ p + $
# ρUl &
' ∇ u , or
# ρUl &
∂ u∗ 1 1
St ∗
+ ( u∗ ⋅ ∇* ) u∗ = − ∇* p∗ + ∇*2 u∗ ,
∂t Re Re
where the scalings for all the other dependent variables (and not the pressure) are given by
(4.100). As Re → 0 with this pressure scaling, the dimensional momentum equation becomes:
∇p = µ∇ 2 u ,
which is the correct equation for low-Reynolds number creeping flow.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.74. a) Simplify (4.45) for motion of a constant-density inviscid fluid observed in a
frame of reference that does not translate but does rotate at a constant rate Ω = Ωez.
b) Use length, velocity, acceleration, rotation, and density scales of L, U, g, Ω, and ρ to
determine the dimensionless parameters for this flow when g = –gez and x = (x, y, z). (Hint:
subtract out the static pressure distribution.)
c) The Rossby number, Ro, in this situation is U/ΩL. What are the simplified equations of
motion for horizontal constant-density inviscid flow, u = (u, v, 0), observed in the rotating frame
of reference when Ro << 1.

Solution 4.74. a) For no translation, a constant rotation rate, and inviscid flow, (4.45) simplifies
to:
$ ∂u '
ρ & + (u ⋅ ∇)u ) = −∇p + ρ g − ρ -.2Ω × u + Ω × (Ω × x )/0 ,
% ∂t (
where the primes have been dropped. When Ω = Ωez, g = –gez, and x = (x, y, z), several terms in
the equation can be evaluated:
∂u 1
+ (u ⋅ ∇)u = − ∇p − ge z − 2 (−Ωve x + Ωue y ) + Ω2 ( xe x + ye y ) ,
∂t ρ
where u = (u, v, w) and whole equation has been divided by ρ.
b) The primary point of difficulty here is figuring out how to scale the pressure. One way to
begin is to set u = 0 in the momentum equation, to determine the equation for ps, the static
pressure distribution.
1
0 = − ∇ps − ge z + Ω2 ( xe x + ye y )
ρ
Subtract this equation from the full momentum equation to find:
∂u 1
+ (u ⋅ ∇)u = − ∇( p − ps ) − 2 (−Ωve x + Ωue y ) .
∂t ρ
Now continue the scaling task using p – ps. For this equation, use the following definitions of
dimensionless variables:
xi∗ = xi L , t ∗ = Ωt , u∗j = u j U , and p∗ = ( p − ps ) ρΩUL .
This scaling for the pressure should apply when both fluid motion and rotation of the coordinate
frame play a role. Inserting these into the revised version of (4.45) produces:
∂u∗ U 2 ∗ ∗ ∗ ρΩUL ∗ ∗
ΩU ∗ + (u ⋅ ∇ )u = − ∇ p − 2ΩU (−v∗e x + u∗e y ) .
∂t L ρL
Divide the whole equation by ΩU to find:
∂u∗ U ∗ ∗ ∗
∗
+ (u ⋅ ∇ )u = −∇∗ p∗ − 2 (−v∗e x + u∗e y ) .
∂t ΩL
Thus, the dimensionless parameter that governs this flow is U/ΩL.
c) When U/ΩL = Ro << 1, the non-linear advective accleration terms may be dropped, and this
leaves:
∂u 1 ∂p ∂v 1 ∂p
=− + 2Ωv and =− − 2Ωu .
∂t ρ ∂x ∂t ρ ∂y
These equations are commonly used in the study of large-scale atmospheric flows (see Ch. 13).
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.75. From Figure 4.23, it can be seen that CD ∝ 1/Re at small Reynolds numbers and
that CD is approximately constant at large Reynolds numbers. Redo the dimensional analysis
leading to (4.99) to verify these observations when:
a) Re is low and fluid inertia is unimportant so ρ is no longer a parameter.
b) Re is high and the drag force is dominated by fore-aft pressure differences on the sphere and µ
is no longer a parameter.

Solution 4.75. Overall there are 5 parameters D = drag force, U, d, ρ, and µ.

a) When ρ is not a parameter, the dimensional analysis proceeds a follows. The parameter &
units matrix is:
D U d µ
M 1 0 0 1
L 1 1 1 -1
T -2 -1 0 -1

This rank of this matrix is three. There are 4 parameters and 3 independent units, so there will be
1 dimensionless group:
D
Π1 = = const., or D = (const.)µUd .
µUd
Divide both sides of the last equation by 12 ρU 2 d 2π /4 to find:
D (const.)µUd µ const.
1 2 2
= CD = 1 € 2 2 = const. = ,
€ 2 ρU d π /4 2
ρU d π /4 ρUd Re
where the 2, 4, and π have been€absorbed into the undetermined constant.
b) When µ is not a parameter, the dimensional analysis proceeds a follows. The parameter &
units matrix is:
€
D U d ρ
M 1 0 0 1
L 1 1 1 -3
T -2 -1 0 0

This rank of this matrix is three. There are 4 parameters and 3 independent units, so there will be
1 dimensionless group:
D
Π1 = 2 2
= const., or D = (const.) ρU 2 d 2 .
ρU d
Divide both sides of the last equation by 12 ρU 2 d 2π /4 to find:
D (const.) ρU 2 d 2
1 2 2
= C€D = 1 2 2
= const.,
€ 2
ρU d π /4 2
ρU d π /4
where the 2, 4, and π have again
€ been absorbed into the undetermined constant.

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.76. Suppose that the power to drive a propeller of an airplane depends on d (diameter
of the propeller), U (free-stream velocity), ω (angular velocity of propeller), c (velocity of
sound), ρ (density of fluid), and µ (viscosity). Find the dimensionless groups. In your opinion,
which of these are the most important and should be duplicated in a model testing?

Solution 4.76. Start with dimensional analysis. The using P = power, the parameter & units
matrix is:
P U d ω ρ µ c
M 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
L 2 1 1 0 -3 -1 1
T -3 -1 0 -1 0 -1 -1

This rank of this matrix is three. There are 7 parameters and 3 independent units, so there will be
P ρUd
4 dimensionless groups. By inspection these are: Π1 = 3 2
= a power coefficient, Π 2 =
ρU d µ
ωd U
= Reynolds number, Π 3 = = Strouhal number, and Π 4 = = Mach number.
U c
At low speeds the Mach number should not matter so, but the Reynolds number will
determine boundary layer characteristics, € and the Strouhal number will set €the effective angle of
attack along the propeller's blades; therefore:
€ P € ωd '
$ ρUd U
3 2
= f& , ) for << 1 .
ρU d % µ U( c
At higher speeds where the impact of compressibility is felt, vicous effects may be irrelevant, so:
P $ ωd U ' U
3 2
= f & , ) for near unity or higher.
ρU d % U c ( €c
€

€ €
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.77. A 1/25 scale model of a submarine is being tested in a wind tunnel in which p =
200 kPa and T = 300 K. If the prototype speed is 30 km/hr, what should be the free-stream
velocity in the wind tunnel? What is the drag ratio? Assume that the submarine would not
operate near the free surface of the ocean.

Solution 4.77. Since submarine are not designed for extended operations on the sea surface,
gravity is unimportant. Therefore the coefficient of drag depends only on the Reynolds number
which should be duplicated in model test. Equating Reynolds numbers between the model
(subscript "m") and the full-size submarine (subscript "s") produces:
U m Lm U s Ls L ν
= , or U m = U s s m .
νm νs Lm ν s
Using the numbers from the problem statement leads to:
ρ m = pm Rm Tm =200,000Pa (287m 2 s−2K)(300K) = 2.32kgm−3
−5 −1 −1
€ν m = µm = 1.85 ×10 € kgm −3
s
= 7.97 ×10−6 m 2 s−1, and
ρm 2.32kgm
€ 7.97 ×10−6 m 2 /s
U m = ( 30kph )(25) = 5,980kph !
10−6 m 2 /s
This speed is not reasonable because it is so high, and because it corresponds to a Mach number
€
of nearly 5 in air while the Mach number of the submarine in water will be ~0.006. Thus, all the
critical dimensionless numbers cannot be matched, and this exercise illustrates a leading
€ model testing: Reynolds numbers typically cannot be matched without
difficulty of scale
introducing other (possibly significant) problems.
If the coefficient of drag were the same in both cases (it will not be!), then the force ratio
would be:
Dm
=
[ ]
CD 12 ρU 2 ⋅ Area
m
=
ρ m U m2 Aream 2.32 5,980 2 1
= = 0.147 .
Ds [ ]
CD 12 ρU 2 ⋅ Area
s
ρ s U s2 Areas 10 3 30 2 25 2
which suggests that the tiny model must be very robust! The drag it will experience is 15% of the
drag on the full size submarine but its surface area will be 625 times smaller. This calculation
shows that small size models designed for large Reynolds number testing must be exceptionally
€
sturdy.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.78. The volume flow rate Q from a centrifugal blower depends on its rotation rate Ω,
its diameter d, the pressure rise it works against Δp, and the density ρ and viscosity µ of the
working fluid.
a) Develop a dimensionless scaling law for Q in terms of the other parameters.
b) Simplify the result of part c) for high Reynolds number pumping where µ is no longer a
parameter.
c) For d = 0.10 m and ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, plot the measured centrifugal blower performance data
from the table in dimensionless form to determine if your result for part b) is a useful
simplification. Here RPM is revolutions per minute, Q is in liter/s, and Δp is in kPa.
RPM = 5000 8000 11,000
Q ΔP Q ΔP Q ΔP
0.3 0.54 0.5 1.4 0.9 2.6
1.1 0.51 2.0 1.3 4.1 2.2
1.5 0.48 3.3 1.1 6.2 1.8
2.8 0.37 5.0 0.84 7.7 1.3
3.8 0.24 6.5 0.49 9.5 0.81
d) What maximum pressure rise would you predict for a geometrically similar blower having
twice the diameter if it were spun at 6,500 RPM?

Solution 4.78. a) As in Example 4.17, the six parameters Q, Ω, d, Δp, ρ and µ lead to three
dimensionless groups. These are:
Q Δp ρΩd 2
The flow coefficient = , The head coefficient = , and Re = .
Ωd 3 ρΩ2 d 2 µ
Q $ Δp ρΩd 2 '
Thus, the scaling law is: = Ψ & 2 2, ) , where Ψ is an undetermined function.
Ωd 3 % ρΩ d µ (
b) At high Reynolds number where µ is no longer a parameter, the Reynolds number is no longer
a parameter and this scaling law simplifies to:
Q $ Δp '
3
= Φ& 2 2 ) ,
Ωd % ρΩ d (
where Φ is an undetermined function.
c) The task here is to plot the data provided in dimensionless form. Converting RPM to radians
per second and liters per second to (meters)3 per second, and then moving to dimensionless
parameters leads to the following dimensionless tabulations:

Ω= 523.6 rad/s 837.8 rad/s 1152 rad/s

Coefficients: flow head flow head flow head
0.000573 0.1641 0.000597 0.1662 0.000781 0.1633
0.002101 0.1550 0.002387 0.1544 0.003559 0.1382
0.002865 0.1459 0.003939 0.1306 0.005382 0.1130
0.005348 0.1125 0.005968 0.0997 0.006685 0.0816
0.007257 0.0730 0.007759 0.0582 0.008247 0.0509

These are plotted below, and to follow standard engineering practice the flow coefficent is
plotted on the horizontal axis.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

0.18"
0.16" 5000"RPM"

0.14" 8000"RPM"

11000"RPM"

0.12"
Δp
0.1"
ρΩ2 d 2
0.08"
0.06"
0.04"
0.02"
0"
0" 0.002" 0.004" 0.006" 0.008" 0.01"
Q
Ωd 3

The data provided in the tabulations collapse well eventhough the Reynolds number varies by
more than a factor of two; Re increases in direct proportion to the rotational speed. Thus, the
conclusion from this plot is that the assumption leading to the part b) result is a justified
simplification for this data set.
d) From the first row of entries in the dimensionless tabulations of part c) the average highest
head coefficient value is 0.1645. The data collapse shown then suggests that
Δp
= 0.1645 ,
ρΩ2 d 2
is valid for finding the peak pressure rise of any geometrically similar blower, independent of the
Reynolds number. Thus, the predicted peak pressure rise for a geometrically similar blower
having twice the diameter (0.2 m) and spinning at 6,500 RPM (680.7 rad/s) is:
Δp = 0.1645ρΩ2 d 2 = 0.1645(1.2kg / m 3 )(680.7rad / s)2 (0.2m)2 = 3.66kPa .
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 4.79. A set of small-scale tank-draining experiments are performed to predict the liquid
depth, h, as a function of time t for the draining process of a large cylindrical tank that is
geometrically similar to the small-experiment tanks. The relevant parameters are gravity g,
initial tank depth H, tank diameter D, orifice diameter d, and the density and viscosity of the
liquid, ρ and µ, respectively.
a) Determine a general relationship between h and the other parameters.
b) Using the following small-scale experiment results, determine whether or not the liquid’s
viscosity is an important parameter.
H = 8 cm, D = 24 cm, d = 8 mm H = 16 cm, D = 48 cm, d = 1.6 cm
h (cm) t (s) h (cm) t (s)
8.0 0.00 16.0 0.00
6.8 1.00 13.3 1.50
5.0 2.00 9.5 3.00
3.0 3.00 5.3 4.50
1.2 4.00 1.8 6.00
0.0 5.30 0.0 7.50
c) Using the small-scale-experiment results above, predict how long it takes to completely drain
the liquid from a large tank having H = 10 m, D = 30 m, and d = 1.0 m.

Solution 4.79. a) The required relationship can be obtained from dimensional analysis. The
parameter & units matrix is:
h t g H D d ρ µ
M 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
L 1 0 1 1 1 1 -3 -1
T 0 1 -2 0 0 0 0 -1

This rank of this matrix is three. There are 8 parameters and 3 independent units, so there will be
5 dimensionless groups. All are readily
h D
found by inspection: Π1 = , Π 2 = ,
H H
2 12 32
d gt ρg H
Π3 = , Π4 = , and Π 5 = .
H H µ
Thus, the general
€ relationship
€ is: h/H
h # D d gt ρg H &
2 1 2 3 2
= f% , , , (.
€ € H $€H H H µ '
b) If the effects of viscosity are unimportant,
then a plot of h/H vs gt2/H will be the same
for both tests. Such a plot is shown here, and
€ the two data sets are essentially identical.
Thus, there is no influence of the viscosity
for the tested geometry. gt2/H
c) From the experimental data the tank is
empty when gt2/H ≈ 3500. Thus, the time to drain the large tank will be:
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

3450H 3500(10m)
t= = = 59.8s ≈ 1.0 minute.
g 9.8ms−2