GRADE 12

CHEMISTRY
Structure & Properties of
Matter
Class 7
VSEPR Theory
• Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion is based on
the notion that electron pairs repel each other and
spread themselves as far apart as possible
• Developed by Gillespie and Nyholm in 1957

Strongest LP-LP > LP-BP > BP-BP Weakest

Repulsion Repulsion
• Lone pairs have a higher concentration of charge
than a bonding pair leading to more repulsion
Steps for VSEPR:
1. Draw the Lewis
structure
2. Count the number of
electron domains
around the central
atom (electron
geometry)
• Treat single, double,
triple bonds, and lone
pairs as one electron
domain
3. Use the VSEPR chart
to predict the
molecular geometry
 Checkpoint
Predict the electron geometry, molecular geometry,
and bond angles of:
a) H3O+
b) SF6
c) BrF5
Limitations of the VSEPR Theory
• Does not provide an explanation of chemical
bonding from the electronic structure of molecules
• Does not account for bond lengths, bond
strengths, or orientation

H-H = 74pm F-F = 142pm

Valence Bond Theory
• Valence bond theory
assumes that electrons
occupy atomic orbitals of
individuals atoms
• Electrons of one atom are
attracted to the nucleus of
another atom
• Attraction increases as the
atoms approach one another
until potential energy is the
lowest
Sigma Bonds (σ-bonds)
• Sigma bond is a covalent bond in which the
orbitals are overlapping along the bond axis
• Electron density is concentrated on the internuclear axis
Pi Bonds (π-bonds)
• Pi bond is a covalent bond in which the p-orbitals are
overlapping above and below the internuclear axis
• Electron density is concentrated above and below the plane

Double bond = 1σ + 1π
Triple bond = 1σ + 2π
 Checkpoint
How many σ and π-bonds are in the following
molecules?

a) b)
Hybridization
• Hybridization refers to the mixing of atomic
orbitals to produce hybrid orbitals of equal energy
sp3 Hybridization
Consider the CH4 molecule:
1) Draw the orbital filling diagram for C and H
• The 1s electron on H can only form two covalent bonds
with the p-orbitals on C

Carbon Hydrogen
2) To form four covalent bonds, excite a 2s-electron
on C to the 2p-level

Carbon Excite

• However, this will result in three bonds with higher

energies and one bond with lower energy; the bond
lengths would be different
3) To create bonds of equal energy and lengths,
hybridize the s and p-orbitals to an intermediate
energy level

Hybridize
Carbon
4) Overlap the 1s-orbital from Hydrogen on the
hybrid sp3 orbitals on Carbon

Carbon

Hydrogen X4
sp2 Hybridization
Consider the BF3 molecule:

Excite Hybridize

Boron
1) Orbital filling diagram on 2) Excite a 2s electron on B 3) Hybridize to form sp2
B shows the possibility to 2p but this leads to orbitals
of forming only one different bond energies
covalent bond with F and lengths
4) Overlap the 2p-orbital from Fluorine on the
hybrid sp2 orbitals on Boron

Boron
sp2 sp2 sp2

Fluorine X3
sp Hybridization
Consider the BeCl2 molecule:

Excite Hybridize

1) Orbital filling diagram on 2) Excite a 2s electron on 3) Hybridize to form sp

Be shows no possibility Be to 2p but this leads to orbitals
of forming covalent different bond energies
bonds with Cl and lengths
4) Overlap the 2p-orbital from Cl on the hybrid sp
orbitals on Be

Beryllium Chlorine X2
sp sp
 Electron domains
Summary of Hybridization include:
• Single bond
1) Draw the Lewis structure of the molecule • Double bond
• Triple bond
2) Count the number of electron domains and • Lone pair
find the hybridization
Electron
Hybridization Geometry
Domains
2 sp Linear (180°)
3 sp2 Trigonal planar (120°)
4 sp3 Tetrahedral (109.5°)
5 sp3d Trigonal bipyramidal (120° and 90°)
6 sp3d2 Octahedral (90°)
 Checkpoint
What is the hybridization of the carbons?

a) b)
Pi Bonds (π-bonds)
• Consider Ethene
• Hybridization on each carbon is sp2

Excite Hybridize
Pi Bonds (π-bonds)
• Consider ethyne
• Hybridization on each carbon is sp

Excite Hybridize
 Checkpoint
Using Valence Bond Theory, draw the following
molecules and indicate the number of σ-bonds and
π-bonds.
a) MgH2
b) AlCl3
c) Methanal (CH2O)
d) Benzene
Structure and Properties of Solids
Ionic Solids (Intramolecular)
• Formed from the electrostatic attraction
between oppositely-charged ions; ex: NaCl
• Physical Properties
• High melting points
• Do not conduct electricity in the solid state
• Conducts electricity in the molten or aqueous
state
• Brittle and shatters easily
Covalent Network Solids (Intramolecular)
• Giant molecular structures formed from
the electrostatic interaction between
shared bonding electrons and a positive
nucleus (covalent bonds)
• Ex: Diamond, SiO2 (quartz), Fullerene
• Physical Properties
• High melting points
• Generally do not conduct electricity
• Hard
Metallic Solids (Intramolecular)
• Formed from the electrostatic
attraction between a lattice of
cations and a sea of delocalized
electrons
• Ex: Cu(s), Fe(s), Au(s)
• Physical Properties
• Variable melting points
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
• Low ionization energies
• Malleable, ductile, lustrous
Molecular Solids (Intermolecular)
• Held together by intermolecular
forces (dispersion forces, dipole-
dipole, and hydrogen bonding)
due to electrostatic interactions
• Ex: Ice, I2(s), P4(s), S8(s)
• Physical Properties:
• Low melting points
• Nonconducting
• Soft
 INTRAMOLECULAR INTERMOLECULAR
Ionic Metallic Covalent Network Molecular
Atoms linked together
Hydrogen bonding,
Interaction

Electrostatic by electrostatic
Electrostatic dipole-dipole,
interaction between interaction between
interaction between London dispersion
lattice of cations and shared bonding
cations and anions due to electrostatic
delocalized electrons electrons and positive
interactions
nucleus
• Variable melting
• High melting point points • High melting points
Properties

• Low melting
• Nonconducting as • Good conductors • Variable
point
a solid of heat and conductance of heat
• Nonconducting
• Brittle electricity and electricity
• Soft
• Hard • Malleable • Hard
• Ductile
NaCl Fe, Mg Cdiamond, SiO2(quartz) H2O(s)
Ex
Semiconductors
• Consist of covalent crystals such as silicon or
germanium that conduct small amounts of
electricity in standard conditions
• Conductance can be amplified by doping the
semiconductors with arsenic or boron
• Types:
• N-type semiconductor
• P-type semiconductor
High temperatures cause Boron (3 valence electrons)
additional electrons in has 1 less valence electron
arsenic (5 valence electrons) than silicon which allows
to excite to another level electrons to move in and fill
the “hole”