CHAPTER 8 Showing Relationships Between Ideas—Part | 8-1 PARALLEL STRUCTURE and, but, or, nor.* One use of a conjunction is to connect words or phrases that have the same grammatical function in a sentence. This use of conjunctions is called parallel soructure. The conjunctions used in this pattern are: (a) Steve and his friend are coming to dinner. (b) Susan raised her hand and snapped her fingers. (©) He is waving his arms and (3) shouting at us. (d) These shoes are old but comfortable. (e) He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to some music, In (a): noun + and + noun In (®): verb + and + verb In (c): verb + and + verb (The second auxiliary may be omitted if it is the same as the first auxil- iary.) In @): adjective + but + adjective In (e): infinitive + or + infinitive (The second to may be omitted.) (£) Steve, Joe, and Alice are coming to dinner. (g) Susan raised her hand, snapped her fingers, and asked a question. colors in that fabric are red, gold, black, en. (h) The and gre A parallel structure may contain more than two parts. In a series, commas are used to separate each unit. The final comma that precedes the conjunction is optional but is customarily used. ‘(No commas are used if there are only two parts to a parallel structure.) *More specifically, and, but, of, nor are called coordinating conjunctions. (1 EXERCISE 4: Underline the parallel structure in each sentence, and give the pattern that is used, as in the examples. 1. The old man is extremely kind and generous. 2. He received a pocket calculator and a wool sweater for his birthday. adjective + and + adjective noun +and+ noun 2873. She spoke angrily and bitterly + and + about the war. 4. Ilooked for my book but + but + couldn’t find it. 5. I hope to go to that university + and + and study under Dr. Liu. 6. In my spare time, I enjoy + or + reading novels or watching television. 7. He will leave at eight and arrive +and + * atnine. 8. He should have broken his + and + engagement to Beth and married Sue instead. © EXERCISE 2: Parallel structure makes repeating the same words unnecessary.* Combine the given sentences into one concise sentence that contains parallel structure. Punctuate carefully. 1. Mary opened the door. Mary greeted her guests. —> Mary opened the door and greeted her guests. 2. Mary is opening the door. Mary is greeting her guests. 3. Mary will open the door. Mary will greet her guests. 4. Alice is kind. Alice is generous. Alice is trustworthy. 5. Please try to speak more loudly. Please try to speak more clearly. 6. He gave her flowers on Sunday. He gave her candy on Monday. He gave her a ring on Tuesday. *This form of parallel structure, in which unnecessary words are omitted but are understood, is termed ellipsis. 268 0 CHAPTERS7. While we were in New York, we attended an opera. While we were in New York, we ate at marvelous restaurants. While we were in New York, we visited some old friends. 8. He decided to quit school. He decided to go to California. He decided to find a job. 9. 1am looking forward to going to Italy. I am looking forward to eating wonderful pasta every day. 10. I should have finished my homework. I should have cleaned up my room. 11. The boy was old enough to work. The boy was old enough to earn some money. 12., He preferred to play baseball. Or he preferred to spend his time in the streets with other boys. 13. Llike coffee. I do not like tea. I like coffee but not tea.* 14. [have met his mother. I have not met his father. 15. Jake would like to live in Puerto Rico. He would not like to live in Iceland. O EXERCISE 3: In each group, complete the unfinished sentence. Then combine the sentences into one concise sentence that contains parallel structure. Punctuate carefully. 1. The country lane was narrow. The country lane was steep. The country lane was muddy. The country lane was narrow, steep, and muddy. 2. I like to become acquainted with the people of other countries. T like to become acquainted with the customs of other countries. T like to become acquainted with ____________ of other countries. 3. I dislike living in a city because of the air pollution. I dislike living in a city because of the crime. I dislike living in a city because of. *Sometimes a comma precedes but not: I like coffee, but not tea. Showing Relationships Between ideas—Part] O 2894. We discussed some of the social problems of the United States. We discussed some of the political problems of the United States. "We discussed some of the _______ problems of the United States. w . Hawaii has Hawaii has many interesting tropical trees. Hawaii has many interesting tropical flowers. Hawaii has beautiful beaches. 6. Mary Hart would make a good president because she Mary Hart would make a good president because she works effectively with others. Mary Hart would make a good president because she has a reputation for integrity. Mary Hart would make a good president because she has a reputation for independent thinking. O EXERCISE 4: Choose the letter of the phrase from the list that best completes each v sentence. Use each phrase in the list only once. A. affordable health care G. provide quality education B. by leaders who are committed H. to reduce health care costs to public service and hard work I. responsible C. efficiently J. seeking practical solutions D. excellence in K. tolerant of those who are weak E. in agriculture L. who finds a way to get the FE. integrity “ important jobs done 1. Mr. Turner has had wide experience. He has worked in business, in the news media, and_£_. nN . Judge Holmes served the people of this country with impartiality, ability, and E 3. The people want safe homes, good schools, and 290 © CHAPTERSgovernment. on partisan bickering and political expediency but . Resolve to be tender with understanding of those who are wrong, and . As a taxpayer, I want my money used wisely and . Mr. Adams is respected for researching issues and . Ms. Hunter has established a record of effective and leadership in . The challenges that face us today will not be met by politicians who focus the young, compassionate with the aged, . Sometime in life, you ‘will have been all of these. and 10. ll. environment, and 12. and I will continue to fight for adequate funding of and . Carol is a hard-working personnel manager who welcomes challenges education. She has worked hard to control excess government spending, protect our I see the need to eliminate unfair taxes, to improve the business climate, 8-2 USING PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS: BOTH ... AND; NOT ONLY . . . BUTALSO; EITHER . . . OR; NEITHER . .. NOR* (a) Both my mother and my sister are here. () Not only my mother but also my sister is here. (c) Not only my sister but also my parents are here. (4) Neither my mother nor my sister is here. (e) Neither my sister nor my parents are here. ‘Two subjects connected by both . . . and take a plural verb. ‘When two subjects are connected by not only . but also, either . . . or, or . nor, subject that is ‘loser to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural. (f) The research project will take both time and (h) [’ll take either chemistry or physics next quarter. (i) That book is neither interesting nor accurate. money. (g) Yesterday it not only rained but (also) snowed. Notice the parallel structure in the examples. The same grammatical form should follow each word of the pair. In (f): both + noun + and + noun InG): not only + verb + but also + verb In (h): either + noun + or + noun In @): neither + adjective + nor + adjective *Paired conjunctions are also called correlative conjunctions. Showing Relationships Between Ideas—Part! 0 297O EXERCISE 5: Supply és or are in the following. 1. Both the teacher and the student ______ here. 2. Neither the teacher nor the student _____ here. : 3. Not only the teacher but also the student ________ here. 4. Not only the teacher but also the students ________ here. 5. Either the students or the teacher _______ planning to come. 6. Either the teacher or the students ______ planning to come. 1 EXERCISE 6—ERROR ANALYSIS: What is wrong with the following sentences? 1. Either John will call Mary or Bob. 2. Not only Sue saw the mouse but also the cat. 3. Both my mother talked to the teacher and my father. O EXERCISE 7—ORAL: Answer the questions. Use paired conjunctions. Use both . . . and. 1. You have met his father. Have you met his mother? — Yes, I have met both his father and his mother. 2. The driver was injured in the accident. Was the passenger injured in the accident? 3. Wheat is grown in Kansas: Is corn grown in Kansas? 4. He buys used cars. Does he sell used cars? 5. You had lunch with your friends. Did you have dinner with them? 6. The city suffers from air pollution. Does it suffer from water pollution? Use not only . . . but also. 7. I know you are studying math. Are you studying chemistry too? —> Yes, I’m studying not only math but also chemistry. 8. I know his cousin is living with him. Is his mother-in-law living with him too? 9. I know your country has good universities. Does the United States have good universities too? 10. I know you lost your wallet. Did you lose your keys too? 11. I know she goes to school. Does she have a full-time job too? 12. I know he bought a coat. Did he buy a new pair of shoes too? Use either . . . or. 13. John has your book, or Mary has your book. Is that right? —» Yes, either John or Mary has my book. 292 © CHAPTERS14. You’re going to give your friend a book for her birthday, or you’re going to give her a pen. Is that right? 15. Your sister will meet you at the airport, or your brother will meet you there. Right? 16. They can go swimming, or they can play tennis. Is that right? 17. You’re going to vote for Mr. Smith, or you’re going to vote for Mr. Jones. Right? 18, You'll go to New Orleans for your vacation, or you'll go to Miami. Right? Use neither . . . nor. 19. He doesn’t like coffee. Does he like tea? * ~» No, he likes neither coffee nor tea. 20. Her husband doesn’t speak English. Do her children speak English? 21. The students aren’t wide awake today. Is the teacher wide awake today? 22. They don’t have a refrigerator for their new apartment. Do they have a stove? 23. She doesn’t enjoy hunting. Does she enjoy fishing? 24, The result wasn’t good. Was the result bad? O EXERCISE 8: Combine the following into sentences that contain parallel structure. Use appropriate paired conjunctions: both . . . and; not only . . . but also; either . . . or; neither... nor. 1. He does not have a pen. He does not have paper. — He has neither a pen nor paper. . Ron enjoys horseback riding. Bob enjoys horseback riding. . You can have tea, or you can have coffee. Arthur is not in class today. Ricardo is not in class today. . Arthur is absent. Ricardo is absent. . We can fix dinner for them here, or we can take them to a restaurant. . She wants to buy a Chevrolet, or she wants to buy a Toyota. . The leopard faces extinction. The tiger faces extinction. . The library does not have the book I need. The bookstore does not have the book I need. 10. We could fly, or we could take the train. 11. The President’s assistant will not confirm the story. The President’s assistant will not deny the story. 12. Coal is an irreplaceable natural resource. Oil is an irreplaceable natural resource. 13. Small pox is a dangerous disease. Malaria is a dangerous disease. 14. Her roommates don’t know where she is. Her brother doesn’t know where she is. 15. According to the news report, it will snow tonight, or it will rain tonight. CP RONAKAWN Showing Relationships Between Ideas—Part! 0 293C1 EXERCISE 9—ERROR ANALYSIS: Find and correct the errors in parallel structure in the following sentences. 1, By obeying the speed limit, we can save energy, lives, and it costs us less. 2. My home offers me a feeling of security, warm, and love. 3. The pioneers labored to clear away the forest and planting crops. 4. When I refused to help her, she became very angry and shout at me. 5. In my spare time, I enjoy taking care of my aquarium and to work on my stamp collection. 6. Either Mr. Anderson or Ms. Wiggins are going to teach our class today. 7. Lenjoy not only reading novels but also magazines. 8. Oxygen is plentiful. Both air contains oxygen and water. 8-3 COMBINING INDEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIONS (a) Itwas raining hard. There was a strong wind. (b) INCORRECT PUNCTUATION: Itwas raining hard, there was a strong wind. Example (a) contains two independent clauses (i.e., two complete sentences). No- tice the punctuation. A period,* NOT A COMMA, is used to separate two indepen-- dent clauses. The punctuation in (b) is not correct; the error in (b) is called a run-on sen- tence. (d) It was raining hard and there was a strong wind. (c) It was.raining hard, and there was a strong wind. (e) Itwas raining hard. And there was a strong wind. A conjunction may be used to connect two independent clauses. Punctuation: In (©): Usually a comma immediately pre- cedes the conjunction. In (d): Sometimes in short sentences the comma is omitted. In ©): Sometimes in informal writing a con- junction may begin a sentence. (£) He was tired, so he went to bed. (g) The child hid behind his mother’s skirt, for he was afraid of the dog. (h) He did not study, yet he passed the exam. In addition to and, but, or, and nor, other conjunctions are used to ‘connect two inde- pendent clauses: so (meaning therefore, as a result) for (meaning because) yet (meaning but, nevertheless) ‘A comma almost always precedes so, for, and yet when they are used as conjunctions.** *In British English, a period is called a full stop. **So, for, and yet have other meanings in other structures: e.g., He is not so tall as his brother. (so = as) We waited for the bus. (for = a preposition) She hasn’t arrived yet. (yet = an adverb meaning up to this time). .(2 EXERCISE 10: Punctuate the following sentences by adding commas or periods as necessary. Do not add any words. Capitalize letters where necessary. 1. The boys walked the girls ran. + The boys walked. The girls ran. 2. The teacher lectured the students took notes. 3, The teacher lectured and the students took notes. 4, Jessica came to the meeting but Ron stayed home. 5. Jessica came to the meeting her brother stayed home. 6. Her academic record was outstanding yet she was not accepted by the + university. 7. Uhave not finished writing my term paper yet I will not be finished until sometime next week. 8. We had to go to the grocery store for some milk and bread. 9. We had to go to the grocery store for there was nothing in the house to fix for dinner. 10. Frank did not have enough money to buy an airplane ticket so he couldn’t fly home for the holiday. © EXERCISE 44: Punctuate the following sentences by adding commas or periods as necessary. Do not add any words. Capitalize letters where necessary. 1. A thermometer is used to measure temperature a barometer measures air pressure. 2. Daniel made many promises but he had no intention of keeping them. 3. I always enjoyed studying mathematics in high school so I decided to major in it in college. 4, The ancient Egyptians had good dentists archaeologists have found mummies that had gold fillings in their teeth. Showing Relationships Between Ideas—Part! C2965. Both John and I had many errands to do yesterday John had to go to the post office and the bookstore I had to go to the drugstore the travel agency and the bank. 6. Anna is in serious legal trouble for she had no car insurance at the time of the accident. 7. Last night Martha had to study for a test so she went to the library. 8. I did not like the leading actor yet the movie was quite good on the whole. 9.- The team of researchers has not finished compiling the statistics yet their work will not be made public until later. 10. We have nothing to fear for our country is strong and united. 1. He slapped his desk in disgust he had failed another examination and had ruined his chances for a passing grade in the course. 2. I struggled to keep my head above water I tried to yell for help but no sound came from my mouth. 3. The earthquake was devastating tall buildings crumbled and fell to the earth. 14. It was a wonderful picnic-the children waded in the stream collected rocks and insects and flew kites the teenagers played an enthusiastic game of baseball the adults busied themselves preparing the food supervising the children and playing a game or two of volleyball. 5. The butterfly is a marvel it begins as an ugly caterpillar and turns into a work of art. 16. Caterpillars eat plants and cause damage to some crops but adult butterflies feed principally on nectar from flowers and do not cause any harm. 296 O CHAPTER 817. Some people collect butterflies for a hobby these collectors capture them with a net and put them in a jar that has poison in it the dead butterflies are then mounted on a board. 18. The sight of a butterfly floating from flower to flower on a warm sunny day brightens anyone’s heart a butterfly is a charming and gentle creature. 19. When cold weather comes some butterflies travel great distances to reach tropical climates. 20. Butterflies are admired throughout the world because they are beautiful they can be found on every continent except Antarctica. 8-4 ADVERB CLAUSES: INTRODUCTION ~*~ -“% * : (a) When we were in New York, we saw several plays. (b) We saw several plays when we were in New York. When we were in New York is an adverb clause. It is a dependent clause. It cannot stand alone as a sentence. It must be con- nected to an independent clause. Punctuation: When an adverb clause pre- cedes an independent clause, as in (a), a comma is used to separate the clauses. When the adverb clause follows, as in (b), usually no comma is used. (c) Because he was sleepy, he went to bed. (d) He went to bed because he was sleepy. Like when, because introduces an adver | clause. Because he was sleepy is an adverb clause. SUMMARY LIST OF WORDS USED TO INTRODUCE ADVERB CLAUSES* TIME CAUSE AND EFFECT after because before since tohen now that while as as as/so long as by the time (that) inasrauch as since until {as soon as 0 (that) once in order that as/o long-as whenever every time (that) the first time (that) the last time (that) the next time (that) : OPPOSITION even though *Words that introduce adverb clauses are called subordinating conjunctions. ‘Showing Relationships Between Ideas—Part!| 0 2978-5 USING ADVERB CLAUSES TO SHOW TIME RELATIONSHIPS after (a) After she graduates, she will get a job. (b) After she (had) graduated, she got a job. A present tense, not a future tense, is used in an adverb clause of time. Notice exam- before (c) Iwill leave before he comes. re (b) and (d). (See eee 1 for tense usage in future (d) I (had) left before he came. aaa) when (¢) When I arrived, he was talking on the phone. | when = at that time (£) When I got there, he had already left. (Notice the different time re- (&) When it began to rain, I stood under a tree. peta fe expressed by the (h) When Iwas in Chicago, I visited the museums. | ‘S¢S- (i) When I see him tomorrow, I will ask him. while (i) While Iwas walking home, it began to rain. while, as = during that time as (k) As Iwas walking home, it began to rain. by the time | (1) By the time he arrived, we had already left. by the time = one event is com- (m) By the time he comes, we will already have left. | Pleted before another event (Notice the use of the past perfect and future perfect in the main clause.) since (n) Thaven’t seen him since he left this morning. since = from that time to the present (Notice: The present perfect tense is used in the main clause. until (0) We stayed there until we finished our work. until, rill = 10 that time and will (p) We stayed there till we finished our work. then no longer (Till is used pri- marily in speaking rather than writing.) assoonas | (q) As soon as it stops raining, we will leave. ‘as soon as, once = when one once (1) Once it ing, we will leave. event happens, another event ees happens soon afterwards aslongas | (s) Iwill never speak to him again as long as I live. | as long as, so long as = during solongas | (+) Twill never speak to him again so long as Tlice, | all that time, from beginning 10 whenever | (uw) Whenever I see her, I say hello. whenever = every time everytime | (v) Boery time I see her, I say hello. the firsttime | (w) The first time I went to New York, Iwent toan | Adverb clauses can be intro- opera. duced by the following: the last time | (x) I saw two plays the last time I went to New York. (first the next time | (y) The next time I go to New York, I’m going to see second ( aballet. the shied time next© EXERCISE 412: Complete the following. Pay special attention to verb tenses. 1. Last night I went to bed after I__, my homework. 2. Tonight I will go to bed after ] _______________ my homework. 3. Ever since I was a child, I ________________afraid of dogs. 4. Jane’s contact lens popped out while she basketball. 5. Be sure to reread your composition for errors before you it in to the teacher tomorrow. 6. By the time I left my apartment this morning, the mail carrier the mail. 7. Ihave known Jim Bates since he ______ ten years old. 8. A black cat ran across the road as I my car to work this morning. 9. By the time I leave this city, I here for four months. 10. Whenever Mark __________ angry, his nose gets red. 11. I_____________to the beach whenever the weather was nice, but now I don’t have time to do that because I have to study. 12. We will have a big party when 13. The next time ] ________________ to Hawaii, I’m going to visit Mauna Loa, the world’s largest volcano. 14, [had fried chicken the last time I _____________at that restaurant. Showing Relationships Between Ideas—Part! C1 2990 EXERCISE 43: Make sentences with until from the given situations. 1. Ican’t pay my bills. I haven’t gotten my paycheck yet. 1 can't pay my bills until mi check comes ny . We can’t leave yet. We have to wait for Nancy. until w . Tell me the truth, or I am not going to leave this room. until “ 4. Finally, Donald arrived. Before that, it had been a dull party. until 5. Dinner won’t be ready for a while. I think we should just sit here by the fire. ‘Let’s —__ nti) 6. When I go to bed at night, I like to read. After a while, I get sleepy. until © EXERCISE 14: Combine the ideas by using either as soon as or once. (As soon as and once basically have the same meaning, but as soon as is more immediate. Often, just is used with as soon as to emphasize the idea of “immediately”: 1’. call him just as soon as I get home.) 1. The taxi will get here in five minutes or so. Then we can leave for the airport. As soon as the taxi gets here, we can leave for the airport. 2. The rice will be done in about ten minutes. Immediately after that, we can eat. 3. First, I have to graduate. Then I can return home. 4. Spring will come and the weather will be nice again. Then we can start playing tennis every morning before class. 5. My roommate walked into the room. Immediately, I knew that SU something was wrong. 7 eo 300 0 cHaPreRs6. Your English will get better. Then you will begin to feel more comfortable living in the United States. 7. Immediately after the singer finished her song, the audience burst into applause. 8. I’m watching a baseball game on TV, but it will be over in a few minutes. Then I’ll take out the garbage. (1 EXERCISE 15: Using the given information, make a sentence in which you use just after, just before, or just as. Notice that just adds the idea of “immediately.” 1. I got to the airport at 8:15. My plane left ten minutes later. 1 got to the airport just before my plane left. 2. You shouldn’t eat a heavy meal and then go to bed immediately afterwards. 3. I went to bed at 11:00. The phone rang at 11:05. 4, We were sitting down to eat. At that moment, someone knocked on the door. 5. I was getting on the bus. At that moment, I remembered that I had left my briefcase at home. 6. I got up to give my speech. Immediately before that, I got butterflies in my stomach. 7. The guests will come at 7:00. At 6:55, I’ll light the candles. 8. I was bending over to pick up my pencil. My pants split. Showing Relationships Between Ideas—Part| O 3OT0 EXERCISE 46: Compare after and afterwards. (a) After I ate dinner, I took a walk. After can be used to introduce an adverb clause. Ttook a walk after I ate dinner. (b) Late dinner. Afterwards, I took a walk. | Afterwards* is an adverb meaning “later, after that.” Tate dinner. J took a walk afterwards. : *Afterwards can also be spelled without -s: afterward. Combine the sentences by using after and afterwards, as in the previous examples. Punctuate carefully. 1. First; I studied. Then: I went to bed. 2. First: We went to the museum. Then: We had some lunch. 3. First: He was in an automobile accident. Then: He had to walk on crutches for two months.8-6 USING ADVERB CLAUSES TO SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS because (a) Because he was sleepy, he went to bed. ‘An adverb clause may precede (b) He went to bed because he was sleepy. or follow the independent clause. Notice the punctuation in (a) and (b). since (c) Since he’s not interested in classical music, he In (©): since means because. decided not to go to the concert. now that | (4) Now that the semester is finished, ’m goingto _| In (4): now that means because rest a few days and then take a trip. now. Now that is used for present and future situations. as (e) As she had nothing in particular to do, she called | In (¢): as means because. up a friend and asked her if she wanted to take in a movie. cas/s0 long as | (£) As long as (So long as) you're not busy, could | In(f): as Jong as means because. you help me with this work? inasmuch as | (g) Inasmuch as the two government leaders could not | In (g): inasmuch as means be- reach an agreement, the possibilities for peace | cause. Inasmuch as is usually are still remote. found only in formal writing and speech. O EXERCISE 18: Using the given information, make sentences using now that. 1. Peggy used to take the bus to school, but last week she bought a car. Now she can drive to school. Now that Peggy has a car, she can drive to school. 2. You just had your sixteenth birthday. Now you can get a driver’s license. Now that you are 3. We have to wear warm clothes. It’s winter now. 4. Bob used to live in the dorm, but a couple of weeks ago he moved into an apartment. Now he can cook his own food. 5. Whew! I’ve finally finished painting the house. Now I can go fishing. Showing Relationships Between Ideas—Part! 1 303