ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

SUBJECT

Research Methods in Education

ASSIGNMENT No. 1 (Units: 1–5)

Student Name: Naji ullah

Roll No: #CE604550
Submission
Madam Sabeena Tariq
Q. 1 What are the sources of knowledge? Define scientific method and describe its different
steps.

Answer No 1

What is Knowledge?

Human body needs nutritious food for its healthy existence. Human mind also need nutritious
food for their healthy and brilliant functioning. Hence Knowledge is considered as the food of
mind. The definition of knowledge is ongoing debate among the philosophers in the field of
epistemology. According to Plato Knowledge is justified true belief. Knowledge can be defined
as a familiarity awareness or understanding of someone or something such as facts, information,
descriptions or skills, which is acquired through experiences or education by perceiving,
discovering or learning. Any new information acquired by an organism through formal, informal
or non-formal way of inquiry can be termed as knowledge. Knowledge make individuals more
strength and confident in their activity. The activity of research builds new knowledge, theory or
formulates generalization.

Ways/Source of Acquiring Knowledge

Curious to know about new things is the main motivating factor for searching new knowledge.
When a person feel disequilibrium regarding any matter of content, s/he start search for reaching
valid conclusion regarding the matter of doubt. The process of clarification leads them to
equilibration in their cognition. For the purpose of getting new information the human beings are
using following ways to accumulate new knowledge.
Ways/Source of Acquiring Knowledge

Curious to know about new things is the main motivating factor for searching new knowledge.
When a person feel disequilibrium regarding any matter of content, s/he start search for reaching
valid conclusion regarding the matter of doubt. The process of clarification leads them to
equilibration in their cognition. For the purpose of getting new information the human beings are
using following ways to accumulate new knowledge.

Sensory Perception

Senses are the gate ways of knowledge. Five senses help an individual to get primary
information regarding any object, individual or events and so forth. For example, students can
see an experiment conducted by the teacher, hear the explanation, touch the object or product,
smell the output, taste the product etc. Through this five activity (five sense organs) or any one
activity (single sense organ) students are able to construct and verify information regarding the
experiment conducted. Hence sensory perceptions are the one important source or means of
acquiring knowledge. In the case of a researcher, the sensory perceptions are important to them
to collect information and verify the authenticity and originality of acquired knowledge.

Logical Reasoning

Logical reasoning is another way of acquiring Knowledge. It is related to brainy functioning.

Ignorance and blind believes made man as a sleeping brains, later, curiosity and search for cause
and effect relationship paved the way of unfolding natural truths and facts. People become
modern and developed by the way they approached the matters through logical reasoning.
Deductive as well as inductive reasoning are emerged by the time as methods of logical
reasoning. Individuals may infer things through deductive reasoning, abstract thinking, finding
relationship between events and variables and so forth. For example, a competent person can
make valid conclusion regarding the nature and consequences of certain events by observing
behavior of individuals or analyzing chain of events, statement and attitude of national leaders
and so forth. Through the logical reasoning a researcher can deduct and infer information
regarding the research problem.

Deductive Reasoning

It is the earlier philosophical method of Logical Reasoning. Categorical syllogism is considered

as the old systematic method of logical reasoning. The famous philosopher Aristotle developed it
as Deductive method of problem solving. Moving from General assumptions to specific
application, that means the general to particular principle (DGP). It can be understood by the
explanation of categorical syllogism given below.

Categorical Syllogism

Syllogistic reasoning is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning for drawing a
valid conclusion based on two or more propositions. Categorical syllogism consists of three
components; such as Major premise, Minor Premise, Conclusion. It establishes a logical
relationship between them.

Major Premise: it is a self-evident assumption, previously established by metaphysical truth or

dogmas. For example, all men are mortal

Minor Premise: it is a particular case related to the major premise. For example, Socrates is a
man

Conclusion: based on both premises conclusion and inference could be surly possible. For
example, Socrates is mortal

Form the above example we can observe the general assumption in major premise; that is all men
are mortal. Then leads to particular observation in minor premise that Socrates is a man and
concludes that that’s why he is a mortal.

Inductive Reasoning
Later much creative criticism had been raised regarding the process drawing conclusion from
general phenomenon. Because of the reason that there might be some dogmas and myths,
baseless beliefs which had not been empirically proved but believed that, they are true and as
well as had impacted the conclusion. So it leads to creating unreliable and error information to
the people. Hence many centuries later Francis bacon advocated the inductive method of
reasoning or problem solving which had kicked back the limitation of the deductive method. It is
the process of specific observations of phenomenon which leads to generalization. Here
individuals arrive to conclusions after the empirical verification of many individual observations
of a common phenomenon. Hence there is no possibility to adopt any dogmas or myth as a
foundation of knowledge. Here the problem solver ensures the mortality of the human beings or
any organism in particular case. For example, a person analyzing the life history of great
personalities, such as Mahathma Gandhi, Nehru, Maulana Abul kalam azad, Abrahaam Lincon
and so forth. S/he could be reach a conclusion that even though these personalities had a strong
back up of the political power they could not overcome the death. And there is no organism can
be found on earth alive after a reasonable length of period. Hence it is concluded that every
organism with soul or life should breathe its last after a while.

Authority

There are several occasions where a researcher needs authoritative knowledge. All official
information can be termed as authoritative knowledge. One can get information from concern
authority regarding their concerned. Right to information act is a good example for the same. If
any individual need authentic information regarding any authority s/he can file a query regarding
his information concerned through RTI to concerned authority. This process ensures an
information seeker to get authentic knowledge from authority. For example, if a researcher needs
information regarding the enrollment, dropout rate, literacy rate, budget allocation to different
educational sector, s/he can be collect information from the concern authority regarding the
above. The information provided by the concerned authority would be the knowledge from
authority or authoritative knowledge.

Traditions
Traditions are another important source of knowledge. Much social related knowledge is
preserved and transmitted through traditions. For example, social skills, values, social functions
are entirely routed in traditions of the society. Traditions have local as well as national impact. A
researcher can get information regarding the indigenous treatment system, folklore arts, skilled
based traditional social class are available from social traditions. There much information which
is largely depends on traditions.

Experience

Personal as well as professional experience of an individual contributes much in his knowledge.

Personal experience in family, society, and neighborhood taught humans many lessons regarding
the behavior, adjustment, social dealings, patience and so forth. Professional experiences make
an individual perfectly professional. Knowledge of matters regarding to be performed or not to
be do in personal as well as professional situation create through experiences. Learning by doing
is also come under this category.

Naturalistic Inquiry

Thirst for knowledge is the uniqueness of human being. When s/he wants to solve a certain
problem or confront a curious situation. S/he starts searching for the solution of the problem in
naturalistic way. The final solution will be found out by getting new information regarding the
problem through the inquiry. For example, a researcher felt a problem of why the students of
backward areas are less enrolled in higher education. The researcher may formulate possible
reasons and possibilities of the problem. Empirically collect information from the original
sources, s/he may go to the community location and approach the concerned subject of the study
and their social situation. Through this inquiry process the researcher get much valuable
information and thereby infer the solution of the problem. The knowledge construction through
this process can be termed as naturalistic Inquiry.

Trial and Error

Trial and error is one of the ways of acquiring new knowledge. The term trial and error is
contributed by famous psychologist E.L. Thorndike. Individuals learn more things through trial
and error process. Knowledge related to practical, professional, skilled and semi-skilled
professions are largely depends on this source of knowledge. For example, knowledge of use of
computer, smart phone, driving, playing cricket, football, teaching etc can be acquired through
trial and error.

Scientific approach

Knowledge can be created or accumulated through various means. Scientific approach is very
important means of knowledge acquisition. Scientific approach ensures the reliability and
rationality of the information or knowledge acquired. The knowledge constructed through
scientific approach has following features.

1. Body of Knowledge

2. Universal application

3. Empirically proved

4. Experimental

5. Measurable

6. Observable

7. Trustworthiness

8. Objectivity

9. Validity
10. Reliability

11. Predictability

Scientific Method in Developing Knowledge

Scientific method ensures the reliability and validity of the knowledge constructed through its
process. The adoption of the scientific method eliminates the biasness as well as the fake
information regarding the matter of concern. John Dewey (1938) identified the following steps
for scientific method which constitute the elements of deductive and inductive reasoning.

1. Identification and definition of problems

2. Formulation of hypotheses

3. Collection, organization and Analysis of data

4. Formulation of conclusion

5. Verification, Rejection, or Modification of hypotheses

Intuition

Knowledge revealed from insight is another means of knowledge acquisition. Archimedes’s

Principles, Lord Buddha are the living examples of acquired knowledge through intuitions. Many
of the life situations we also had experienced intuitive knowledge to solve our life problems.
Intuitive knowledge can be acquired through following process.

1. Preparation

In this step all available information regarding the problem to be solved must be
assembled and analyzed in depth. Continuous attempts are made to found out solutions

and the process is set aside.

2. Incubation

No intentional attempt mad e to solve the problem. It come to mind while playing,

cooking or at bathroom and so forth.

3. Illumination

Illumination is the process of intuiting many ideas in the mind of the problem solver

unexpectedly. It may be the result of preparation as well as the relaxed mood of

incubation period. The script writers, poets, writers, scientist are getting ideas or

knowledge in this manner.

4. Verification

After receiving the idea, the problem solver should verify or test the validity and

reliability of the information empirically.

The level of attaining knowledge through intuition must be depends on the motivation as

well as the intelligence level of problem solver.

Learning
Learning from the original sources is another method of acquiring knowledge. In modern era Lot
of information are available at finger tips. Learning can be done through online as well as off line
mode. One can depend the formal classroom as well as non-formal way of learning for acquiring
knowledge. Stream wise systematic knowledge are disseminating in formal classrooms. For
example, the subjects like engineering, medicine, education, psychology, statistics and so forth
are studying in formal classrooms. If an individual is not able to attend the regular classroom for
his educational purpose he can avail knowledge through distance learning. However, there are
many doors are opens for accessing knowledge throughout the world. Learner can search
primary sources or secondary sources of information for accumulating knowledge. Learning can
be done selectively as per the requirements of the knowledge seeker.

Research

Research is another way of acquiring knowledge. It is the dependable as well as means of

acquiring reliable knowledge of concerned. That is why research is called as search for truth or
developing knowledge, theory. From the human history, as result of research a series invention
has been taken place from the dawn of human generation. It directly impacted the lifestyles of
human beings. Hence, nowadays days several authority people are depend on research to collect
necessary knowledge of their issues are concerned.

What is Scientific Method?

The Scientific method is a process with the help of which scientists try to investigate, verify, or
construct an accurate and reliable version of any natural phenomena. They are done by creating
an objective framework for the purpose of scientific inquiry and analyzing the results
scientifically to come to a conclusion which either supports or contradicts the observation made
at the beginning.

Scientific Method Steps

The aim of all scientific methods is the same, that is, to analyze the observation made at the
beginning but there are various steps adopted as per the requirement of any given observation.
However, there is a generally accepted sequence of steps of scientific methods.

1. Observation and formulation of a question: This is the first step of a scientific method.
In order to start one, an observation has to be made into any observable aspect or
phenomena of the universe and a question needs to be asked pertaining to that aspect. For
example, you can ask, “Why is the sky black at night? or “Why is air invisible?”

2. Data Collection and Hypothesis: The next step involved in the scientific method is to
collect all related data and formulate a hypothesis based on the observation. The
hypothesis could be the cause of the phenomena, its effect, or its relation to any other
phenomena.

3. Testing the hypothesis: After the hypothesis is made, it needs to be tested scientifically.
Scientists do this by conducting experiments. The aim of these experiments is to
determine whether the hypothesis agrees with or contradicts the observations made in the
real world. The confidence in the hypothesis increases or decreases based on the result of
the experiments.

4. Analysis and Conclusion: This step involves the use of proper mathematical and other
scientific procedures to determine the results of the experiment. Based on the analysis,
 the future course of action can be determined. If the data found in the analysis is
consistent with the hypothesis, it is accepted. If not, then it is rejected or modified and
analyzed again.

It must be remembered that a hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved by doing one

experiment. It needs to be done repeatedly until there are no discrepancies in the data and the
result. When there are no discrepancies and the hypothesis is proved beyond any doubt, it is
accepted as a ‘theory’.

Scientific Method Examples

Following is an example of the scientific method:

Growing bean plants:

1. What is the purpose: The main purpose of this experiment is to know where the bean
plant should be kept inside or outside to check the growth rate and also setting the time
frame as four weeks?
2. Construction of hypothesis: The hypothesis used is that the bean plant can grow
anywhere if the scientific methods are used.
3. Executing the hypothesis and collecting the data: Four bean plants are planted in
identical pots using the same soil. Two are placed inside and the other two are placed
outside. Parameters like the amount of exposure to sunlight, amount of water all are the
same. After completion of four weeks, all the four plant sizes are measured.
4. Analyze the data: While analyzing the data, the average height of plants should be taken
into account from both the places to determine which environment is more suitable for
growing the bean plants.
5. Conclusion: The conclusion is drawn after analyzing the data.
6. Results: Results can be reported in the form of a tabular form.
References

https://byjus.com/physics/scientific-methods/

https://tophat.com/marketplace/social-science/education/course-notes/oer-sources-of-knowledge-
dr-rafeedalie/1193/
Q. 2 Describe different types of research categorized on the basis of methods used and
the purpose of research?

Answer No 2

What is Research: Definition, Methods, Types & Examples

What is Research?

Definition: Research is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern

or problem using scientific methods. According to the American Sociologist Earl Robert Babbie,
“research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive research methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the
observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and deductive
methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

 Identify potential and new customers

 Understand existing customers
 Set pragmatic goals
 Develop productive market strategies
 Address business challenges
 Put together a business expansion plan
 Identify new business opportunities

Types of Research

How do we know something exists? There are a numbers of ways of knowing…

 -Sensory Experience
 -Agreement with others
 -Expert Opinion
 -Logic
 -Scientific Method (we’re using this one)

The Scientific Process (replicable)

1. Identify a problem
2. Clarify the problem
3. Determine what data would help solve the problem
 4. Organize the data
5. Interpret the results

General Types of Educational Research

 Descriptive — survey, historical, content analysis, qualitative (ethnographic, narrative,

phenomenological, grounded theory, and case study)
 Associational — correlational, causal-comparative
 Intervention — experimental, quasi-experimental, action research (sort of)

Researchers Sometimes Have a Category Called Group Comparison

 Ex Post Facto (Causal-Comparative): GROUPS ARE ALREADY FORMED

 Experimental: RANDOM ASSIGNMENT OF INDIVIDUALS
  Quasi-Experimental: RANDOM ASSIGNMENT OF GROUPS (oversimplified, but fine
for now)

General Format of a Research Publication

 Background of the Problem (ending with a problem statement) — Why is this important
to study? What is the problem being investigated?
 Review of Literature — What do we already know about this problem or situation?
 Methodology (participants, instruments, procedures) — How was the study conducted?
Who were the participants? What data were collected and how?
 Analysis — What are the results? What did the data indicate?
 Results — What are the implications of these results? How do they agree or disagree with
previous research? What do we still need to learn? What are the limitations of this study?

What are the characteristics of research?

1. Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to
practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
3. Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated
with it.
5. It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research
opportunities.
6. It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate and
correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy
is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the
experiment’s final result.
8.
 What is the purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:

1. Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore a

group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived
problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before. This
exploratory process lays the foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.
2. Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data
collection. Descriptive studies describe the behavior of a sample population. Only one
variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are
describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if
top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a
considerable sum of money from the company profit.
3. Explanatory: Causal or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of
specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular
form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on
customer loyalty.
Here is a comparative analysis for better understanding:

Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Explanatory Research

Approach used Unstructured Structured Highly structured

Conducted
Asking questions Asking questions By using hypotheses.
through

Early stages of decision Later stages of decision Later stages of decision

Time
making making making
Research begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate
the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or
observations to draw reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better the
analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by thoroughly
collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires. You can use this data to make
smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

To be able to make sense of your research and get insights faster, it helps to use a research
repository as a single source of truth in your organization and to manage your research data in
one centralized repository.

Types of research methods and example

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative.

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.

Qualitative methods

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-
ended questions. The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a
researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

1. One-to-one Interview
2. Focus Groups
3. Ethnographic studies
4. Text Analysis
5. Case Study

Quantitative methods

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of
investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable
variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

1. Survey research
2. Descriptive research
3. Correlational research
Remember, research is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Incorrect
results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.
It is essential to ensure that your data is:

 Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.

 Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
 Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.
 Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
 Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

8 tips for conducting accurate research

1. Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe. Write a
sentence describing each one.
2. Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
3. Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
4. Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats that have been
identified in a SWOT analysis.
5. Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
6. Act on your strategies
7. Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
8. Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and dissect results for
interpretation.

Review your goals before making any conclusions about your research. Keep in mind how the
process you have completed and the data you have gathered help answer your questions. Ask
yourself if what your analysis revealed facilitates the identification of your conclusions and
recommendations.

Reference https://www.questionpro.com/blog/what-is-research/
Q. 3 Define casual comparative (Ex-Post Factor) research and discuss it in detail with
example.

Answer no 3

aural-comparative research is an attempt to identify a causative relationship between an

independent variable and a dependent variable. The relationship between the independent
variable and dependent variable is usually a suggested relationship (not proven) because you (the
researcher) do not have complete control over the independent variable.

The Causal Comparative method seeks to establish causal relationships between events and
circumstances. In other words, it finds out the causes of certain occurrences or non-occurrences.
This is achieved by comparing the circumstances associated with observed effects and by
noting the factors present in the instances where a given effect occurs and where it does not
occur. This method is based on Miill’s canon of agreement and disagreement which states that
causes of given observed effect may be ascertained by noting elements which are invariably
present when the result is present and which are invariably absent when the result is absent.

Causal-comparative research scrutinizes the relationship among variables in studies in which the
independent variable has already occurred, thus making the study descriptive rather than
experimental in nature. Because the independent variable (the variable for which the researcher
wants to suggest causation) has already been completed (e.g., two reading methods used by a
school), the researcher has no control over it. That is, the researcher cannot assign subjects or
teachers or determine the means of implementation or even verify proper implementation.

Sometimes the variable either cannot be manipulated (e.g., gender) or should not be manipulated
(e.g., who smokes cigarettes or how many they smoke). Still, the relationship of the independent
variable on one or more dependent variables is measured and implications of possible causation
are used to draw conclusions about the results.

Also known as “ex post facto” research. (Latin for “after the fact”) since both the effect and the
alleged cause have already occurred and must be studied in retrospect. In this type of research
investigators attempt to determine the cause or consequences of differences that already exist
between or among groups of individuals.

Used, particularly in the behavioral sciences. In education, because it is impossible,

impracticable, or unthinkable to manipulate such variables as aptitude, intelligence, personality
traits, cultural deprivation, teacher competence, and some variables that might present an
unacceptable threat to human beings, this method will continue to be used.

Causal-Comparative Research Facts

 Causal-Comparative Research is not manipulated by the researcher.
 -Does not establish cause-effect relationships.
 -Generally includes more than two groups and at least one dependent variable.
 -Independent variable is causal-comparative studies is often referred to as the grouping
variable.
 -The independent variable has occurred or is already formed.
The Nature of Causal-Comparative Research
A common design in educational research studies, Causal-comparative research, seeks to identify
associations among variables. Relationships can be identified in causal-comparative study, but
causation cannot be fully established.

Attempts to determine cause and effect. It is not as powerful as experimental designs Causal-
comparative research attempts to determine the cause or consequences of differences that already
exist between or among groups of individuals.

Alleged cause and effect have already occurred and are being examined after the fact. The basic
causal-comparative approach is to begin with a noted difference between two groups and then to
look for possible causes for, or consequences of, this difference.
Used when independent variables cannot or should not be examined using controlled
experiments. When an experiment would take a considerable length of time and be quite costly
to conduct, a causal-comparative study is sometimes used as an alternative.

Main purpose of causal-comparative research:

 Exploration of Effects
 Exploration of Causes
 Exploration of Consequences
Basic Characteristics of Causal-comparative research
In short it the basic Characteristics of Causal-comparative research can be concluded:

 -Causal comparative research attempts to determine reasons, or causes, for the existing
condition
 Causal comparative studies are also called ex post facto because the investigator has no
control over the exogenous variable. Whatever happened occurred before the researcher
arrived.
 -Causal-comparative research is sometimes treated as a type of descriptive research since it
describes conditions that already exist.
 -Causal-comparative studies attempt to identify cause-effect relationships; correlational
studies do not
 -Causal-comparative studies involve comparison, correlational studies involve relationship.
 -Causal-comparative studies typically involve two (or more) groups and one independent
variable, whereas correlational studies typically involve two or more variables and one group
 -Causal-comparative studies typically involve two (or more) groups and one independent
variable, whereas correlational studies typically involve two or more variables and one group
 -In causal-comparative the researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for
preexisting differences in groups of individual.
 Involves comparison of two or more groups on a single endogenous variable.
 -Retrospective causal-comparative studies are far more common in educational research
 -The basic approach is sometimes referred to as retrospective causal-comparative research
(since it starts with effects and investigates causes)
 -The basic approach is sometimes referred to as retrospective causal-comparative research
(since it starts with effects and investigates causes)
 -The basic causal-comparative approach involves starting with an effect and seeking possible
causes.
 The characteristic that differentiates these groups is the exogenous variable.
 -The variation as prospective causal-comparative research (since it starts with causes and
investigates effects)
 We can never know with certainty that the two groups were exactly equal before the
difference occurred.

What is an example of causal comparative research?

In causal-comparative research, the researcher investigates the effect of an independent variable

on a dependent variable by comparing two or more groups of individuals. For example, an
educational researcher may want to determine whether a computer-based ACT program has a
positive effect on ACT test scores.

What is the importance of causal comparative research?

A causal-comparative design is a research design that seeks to find relationships between

independent and dependent variables after an action or event has already occurred. It seeks to
establish a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.

What are the features of causal comparative research design?

In short it the basic Characteristics of Causal-comparative research can be concluded: -Causal

comparative research attempts to determine reasons, or causes, for the existing condition. Causal
comparative studies are also called ex post facto because the investigator has no control over the
exogenous variable.
What is the difference between causal and correlational research?

Correlational research attempts to determine how related two or more variables are. Causal-
comparative research attempts to identify a cause-effect relationship between two or more
groups.

What do you think is a significant difference between correlational research to causal

comparative research?

“An important difference between causal-comparative and correlational research is that causal-
comparative studies involve two or more groups and one independent variable, while
correlational studies involve two or more variables and one group.” (Gay & Airasian, 2000, 364).

What research method is best for investigating causal relationships?

One of the main strengths of experimental research is that it can often determine a cause and
effect relationship between two variables. By systematically manipulating and isolating the
independent variable, the researcher can determine with confidence the independent variable’s
causal effect on the dependent variable.

What events share causal relationships?

Answer: The correct answer is: You can talk about a causal relationship between two events if
the occurrence of the first causes the other. In this case the first event is called cause and the
second event is called the effect. The correlation between two variables does not necessarily
imply causality.

What are the three criteria for establishing a causal relationship?

The three criteria for establishing cause and effect – association, time ordering (or temporal
precedence), and non-spuriousness – are familiar to most researchers from courses in research
methods or statistics.
What do you need to make a causal claim?

Causal claims must satisfy 3 criteria.

1. It must establish that the two variables (the cause variable and he outcome variable) are
correlated; the relationship cannot be zero.
2. The claim must show that the causal variable came first and the outcome variable came later.

References

https://www.mvorganizing.org/
Q,4 What is an experiment and how you will conduct and experimental research? What
will be the threats to internal and external validity and how you will minimize these
threats?

Answer No 4

Experimental research

Definition:

Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of
variables. The first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the second
set. Quantitative research methods, for example, are experimental.

If you don’t have enough data to support your decisions, you must first determine the facts.
Experimental research gathers the data necessary to help you make better decisions.

Any research conducted under scientifically acceptable conditions uses experimental methods.
The success of experimental studies hinges on researchers confirming the change of a variable is
based solely on the manipulation of the constant variable. The research should establish a notable
cause and effect.

You can conduct experimental research in the following situations:

 Time is a vital factor in establishing a relationship between cause and effect.

 Invariable behavior between cause and effect.
 You wish to understand the importance of the cause and effect.
Learn about: Quantitative Market Research

Types of experimental research design

The classic experimental design definition is, “The methods used to collect data in experimental
studies.”

There are three primary types of experimental design:

 Pre-experimental research design

 True experimental research design
 Quasi-experimental research design
The way you classify research subjects, based on conditions or groups, determines the type of
design.

1. Pre-experimental research design: A group, or various groups, are kept under observation
after implementing factors of cause and effect. You’ll conduct this research to understand
whether further investigation is necessary for these particular groups.

You can break down pre-experimental research further in three types:

 One-shot Case Study Research Design

 One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
 Static-group Comparison
2. True experimental research design: True experimental research relies on statistical analysis
to prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it the most accurate form of research. Of the types of
experimental design, only true design can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group. In
a true experiment, three factors need to be satisfied:

 There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to changes, and an Experimental Group,
which will experience the changed variables.
 A variable which can be manipulated by the researcher
 Random distribution
This experimental research method commonly occurs in the physical sciences.
3. Quasi-experimental research design: The word “Quasi” indicates similarity. A quasi-
experimental design is similar to experimental, but it is not the same. The difference between the
two is the assignment of a control group. In this research, an independent variable is
manipulated, but the participants of a group are not randomly assigned. Quasi-research is used in
field settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required.

Advantages of experimental research

It’s vital to test new ideas or theories. Why put time, effort, and funding into something that may
not work?

Experimental research allows you to test your idea in a controlled environment before taking it to
market. It also provides the best method to test your theory, thanks to the following advantages:
 Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.
 The subject or industry does not impact the effectiveness of experimental research. Any
industry can implement it for research purposes.
 The results are specific.
 After analyzing the results, you can apply your findings to similar ideas or situations.
 You can identify the cause and effect of a hypothesis. Researchers can further analyze this
relationship to determine more in-depth ideas.
 Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The data you collect is a foundation on
which to build more ideas and conduct more research.
Whether you want to know how the public will react to a new product or if a certain food
increases the chance of disease, experimental research is the best place to start.

Validity types and to Minimize the threads (With Example)

CLINICAL SCENARIO

In a multicenter study in France, investigators conducted a randomized controlled trial to test the
effect of prone vs. supine positioning ventilation on mortality among patients with early, severe
ARDS. They showed that prolonged prone-positioning ventilation decreased 28-day mortality
[hazard ratio (HR) = 0.39; 95% CI: 0.25-0.63]. 1

STUDY VALIDITY

The validity of a research study refers to how well the results among the study participants
represent true findings among similar individuals outside the study. This concept of validity
applies to all types of clinical studies, including those about prevalence, associations,
interventions, and diagnosis. The validity of a research study includes two domains: internal and
external validity.

Internal validity is defined as the extent to which the observed results represent the truth in the
population we are studying and, thus, are not due to methodological errors. In our example, if the
authors can support that the study has internal validity, they can conclude that prone positioning
reduces mortality among patients with severe ARDS. The internal validity of a study can be
threatened by many factors, including errors in measurement or in the selection of participants in
the study, and researchers should think about and avoid these errors.

Once the internal validity of the study is established, the researcher can proceed to make a
judgment regarding its external validity by asking whether the study results apply to similar
patients in a different setting or not (Figure 1). In the example, we would want to evaluate if the
results of the clinical trial apply to ARDS patients in other ICUs. If the patients have early,
severe ARDS, probably yes, but the study results may not apply to patients with mild ARDS.
External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable to patients
in our daily practice, especially for the population that the sample is thought to represent.

Figure 1

Internal and external validity.

Lack of internal validity implies that the results of the study deviate from the truth, and,
therefore, we cannot draw any conclusions; hence, if the results of a trial are not internally valid,
external validity is irrelevant. 2 Lack of external validity implies that the results of the trial may
not apply to patients who differ from the study population and, consequently, could lead to low
adoption of the treatment tested in the trial by other clinicians.
INCREASING VALIDITY OF RESEARCH STUDIES

To increase internal validity, investigators should ensure careful study planning and adequate
quality control and implementation strategies-including adequate recruitment strategies, data
collection, data analysis, and sample size. External validity can be increased by using broad
inclusion criteria that result in a study population that more closely resembles real-life patients,
and, in the case of clinical trials, by choosing interventions that are feasible to apply.
Q. 5 Write notes on following:

a) Survey Studies b) Interrelationship Studies

A: Survey Research: Meaning and Nature

Survey studies are usually used to find the fact by collecting the data directly from population or
sample. It is the most commonly used descriptive method in educational researches. The
researcher collects the data to describe the nature of existing condition or look forward the
standards against existing condition or determine the relationships that exists between specific
events.
Many a time survey study intends to understand and explain the phenomena in a natural setting
or provide information to government / other organization or compare different demographic
groups or see the cause and effect relationship to make predictions. For this it requires responses
directly from respondents of large population in general. The kind of information requires
decides the coverage of geographical area for data collection and whether it is a extensive or
intensive one. Extensive survey carried out when researcher want to make generalization,
whereas intensive survey is done for making estimation. Survey researches demands various
tools to collect the data from samples. They are ranging from observation, interview to
questionnaire. So the kind of survey study needed for any study is based on its purpose, nature of
data and population and sample of the study.

TYPES OF SURVEY RESEARCH

The ability of the researcher lies in selecting the type of survey method suited to their study. The
selection is based on the purpose of the study, method of data collection and time frame. The
methods are given below.
CENSUS Vs SAMPLE SURVEYS

We already mentioned census survey is a kind of general survey. But the unique characteristic of
census survey is, it collects data from all the members of the population. Sample survey is just
opposite to census survey. Here the data is collected from few samples from the population. It
can be general or specific. Sample surveys saves time and money when compare to census
survey if the samples are truly representing the population.

REGULAR Vs AD HOC SURVEYS

Regular survey by name indicates that it conducted in regular interval of time, but Ad hoc
surveys are conducted once for all. Regular Surveys gives the longitudinal data / information
about the core issues as well as special issues which are taken for research work. Ad hoc surveys
limited to any one issue and deal it with a specific time point.

PRELIMINARY Vs FINAL SURVEYS

Preliminary Survey generally conducted before taking up a wide sample survey. By this, the tool
can be improved based on the responded data. Generally, in research work pilot study conducted
for this purpose. The data collected from the improvised tool based on preliminary survey is the
final survey.
 LONGITUDINAL SURVEY

In longitudinal survey the phenomena is observed or data collected in different period of time. In
this survey the changes in the phenomena at different point of time is also been observed. Here
the revisiting the population and posing similar kind of queries and getting data from the
population gives the transitory state of the data. For example, the health condition of the people
with respect to their environment of a particular place is observed over 2 to 3 year, the data
collected in different period of time. The change in health condition with respect to change in
environment over a period of time, help the researcher to see the casual relationship between
these two.

CROSS SECTIONAL SURVEYS

In cross sectional survey observation of sample done one point in time and the data is collected
provides the description of population feature. These studies focus the relationship between
different variables at a point in time. For instance, the relationship between income, locality, and
personal expenditure. The cross-sectional analysis relates to how variables affect each other at
the same time.

COMPARITIVE SURVEY STUDY

In this survey, the status of two variable or institution of same population is compared. For
example, two distance education study centers of the same region is compared with respect to its
enrolment, achievement and other variables.
EVALUATIVE SURVEY

Evaluative surveys are usually conducted to evaluate any program or any implementation of
scheme which is already done by the organization or government. For example, an accreditation
body allowed to start new institution throughout the nation, after a particular period, it intends to
know the impact of these new institutions with respect to the specific education, and the
effectiveness of these institutions with respect to the expected outcome. The outcomes of the
study help the accreditation body to formulate future policies for better output.

DOCUMENTATION SURVEY

In documentary survey variety of information resources are used to answer the research question.
These sources can be workshop material, books, official records, articles from the newspaper,
handouts, broachers, institutional reports, individual experiences etc. These surveys are used to
analyses the present events based on the records available to the researcher.

STEPS OF CONDUCTING SURVEY RESEARCH

Even though each survey type varies with respect to the mode of data collection and tools used,
the steps involved in data collection is more or less similar form. The steps are

1. Selection of the problem and defining objective

2. Deciding the information needed

3. Research Design

4. Operationalization of concepts and construction of measuring indexes and scales

5. Sampling
 6. Construction of tools for collection of data and their pre – test

7. Field work and collection of data

8. Processing of data and tabulation

9. Analysis of data

10. Reporting

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SURVEY METHOD

ADVANTAGES

1. It gives the opportunity to researcher to see the reality more closely, inference is

not based on theory or dogma but it is based on facts.

2. It leads greater objectivity.

3. It leads to the introduction of new theory. For example, poverty was regarded as the

cause of crime for fairly long time but increasing crime in advanced countries has

falsified this theory.

4. It helps to know the social situation.

5. The important aspect of survey study is its versatility. It is the only practical way

to collect many types of information from individuals, such as personal

characteristics, socio-economic data, attitudes, opinions, experiences and expectations.

6. Facilitates to draw generalizations about population on the basis of data from

 representative sample.

7. It is flexible and allows various methods of collection of data.

8. It sensitizes the researcher to unanticipated or unknown problems.

9. It is useful in verifying theories.

DISADVANTAGES

1. It requires training for those who collect information, which demands more financial

source.

2. It is time consuming process, if the universe is large.

3. Its reliability and validity is based on the honesty and efficiency of the survey

workers.

4. Survey mostly based on samples, so always there is a possibility of sampling error.

5. As data is collected from primary sources, the feasibility is depending upon the

willingness and cooperation of the respondents.

6. There is a possibility of response error, due to respondents’ untrue / misleading

answers.
References

Cohen, L and Manion, L (1994) Research Methods in Education (Fourth

Edition),ROUTLEDGE, London
IGNOU (2007) Educational Research : Different Types of Studies in Educational
Research.Block 2, IGNOU. New Delhi
Krishnaswami, O.R (1993) Methodology of Research in Social Sciences. Himalaya Publishing
House; Bombay
Reddy, C.R (1987) Research Methodology in Social Sciences, Daya Publishing House, Delhi.

b) Interrelationship Studies
b. INTERRELATIONSHIP STUDIES

Educationists collect facts to obtain an accurate description of existing status as they make an effort
to trace interrelationship between facts that will provide a deeper insight into the phenomena.
According to Van Dalen, three types of studies are included in this type of descriptive research.
These are:

i) Case studies
ii) ii) Casual Comparative studies
iii) iii) Correlation Studies.

Given below is a detailed discussion on each of the three types of studies.

b.1 Case Study When the focus of attention is directed towards a single case or a limited number
of cases, the process is personalized and such researches are included in the Case Study method of
descriptive research. This study is extended to include any relatively detailed description and
analysis of a single person, event, institution or community. This type of study is said to be
'idiographic', that is, it attempts to understand the behavior or attitudes of the individuals without
attempting to generalize these findings to other persons or groups. Here the emphasis is not upon
the individual representing a type but upon the Jndivj4ual as a unique personality with his own
problems and needs.

The case studies in research can be undertaken for the following purposes: i. Uto provide the
investigator with hypotheses that might be difficult to study in other context. ii. a case study may
provide the investigator unique situation that can be used to test hypotheses: iii. the case study may
provide new insights, help modify pie existing beliefs and point out gaps in knowledge; iv. the
case study may be useful in demonstrating how a theoretical model can be exhibited in a concrete
model.

Case study data may come from various sources. The researcher may ask the subjects to recall the
past experience or to express present situation interviews and questionnaires. Personal documents
such as diaries, letters and various physical, psychological or sociological measurements may yield
valuable information.

A case study is similar to a survey but instead of gathering data concerning a few factors from a
large number of social units, an intensive study of a limited number of representative cases is
made. It is narrower in scope but more exhaustive in nature than a survey.

Let as discuss an example to clarify the concept of case study.

Suppose an EPM student was to determine if the programmers offered by EPM Department of the
Allama Iqbal Open University are really meeting the objectives of providing training to the
educational planners and managers in the country will carry out a case study of the EPM
Department. For this case study he gives a detailed background and history of the Department, its
aims and objectives the details of academic programmes offered. He also discusses the admission
procedures and the methods of student’s evaluation. Discussion is also made abiat the feeding
areas of the Department and the areas where EPM graduates can go to serve. The future
programmes are also critically analyzed and recommendations made by the researcher about the
overall functioning, of the department keeping in view the existing situation of the Department.

This case study may provide new insights and would be helpful in modifying the existing
programmes in the Department. It may point out the weaknesses or drawbacks in the functioning
of the Department. Thus it can help in diagnosing the weaknesses or strengths of the Department
so that it is better able to fulfill the aim of giving training to educational planners and managers in
the country:

Though a case study does not aim at generalization, it may provide insight into a phenomenon and
help in the formulation of some hypothesis. The existence lip of a particular condition in a unique
case may suggest a factor to look for in other cases. An in – depth case study of the Mohammad
brothers (Hanif, Mushtaq, etc.) and the Khan family of squash (Roshan, Jahahgir, etc.,) may
indicate presence of some condition in the family environment that helps raising of sportsmen.
Similarly there are families in Pakistan which have produced many outstanding civil servants,
army officers, businessmen or professional. Case studies of these individuals/families could also
be fruitful.

b.2 Causal Comparative Studies Some researchers, while carrying out descriptive research not
only try to discover what a phenomenon is, but also how and why it occurs. They try to determine
what factors, or circumstances, certain events or practices accompany the occurrence of the
phenomenon. In social sciences, where it is difficult to control various variables, causal
comparative method is employed instead of experimental research. It is not always possible for an
educational planner to select, control and manipulate the factors necessary to study cause and effect
relationship. So this method enables a researcher to analyses what happens in a natural rather than
laboratory situation. In an experiment, the researcher may hypothesize; ‘If observed’. He then
manipulates independent variable and exposes an experimental group to experience A, while
withholding the experience from a control group and observers the result In a causal' comparative
study, the researcher observes phenomena B and searches back through a rnultimplicity of possible
causes for the factors-independent variables-that are related to or contributed to the occurrence of
the phenomena B.

For example, a researcher wants to determine the causes of riots in an, educational institution. He
cannot set up a control group to test whether certain factors will cause a

riot. He will compare the institutions where riots occurred with other institutions which had no
riots. He will study the likeness and difference between the two situations and will determine the
factors that appear to account for the riots in one instance and for its lack in the other.

This type of research has some limitations. Lack of control is the greatest weakness of this method.
Suppose a researcher observes phenomenon B and hypothesizes that A caused B. The data may
show that A is related to B but without controlling A, he cannot be certain that some other factor
a C, D or did not cause the occurrence of B. So we can that causal comparative studies do not
produce precise reliable knowledge that an experimental study can do. But they provide a way to
probe problems that cannot be probed in a laboratory situation.

b.3 Correlation Studies Descriptions of phenomena are sometimes made by employing

correlation technique, which help in ascertaining the extent to which two variables are related or
the extent to which variations in one factors correspond with variations in another factor. The
investigator in these types of studies does not manipulate the independent variable but he merely
makes observations of both the 'independent' as well as the 'dependent' variable as these occur in
natural setting.

For example, a researcher studying the relationship between I.Q. and achievement, randomly
selects some group and measures both the I.Q and the achievement through some tests. The two
variables in this type of research maybe closely related, moderately related or completely
unrelated. Generally, the magnitude of the correlation depends upon the extent to which an increase
or decrease in one variable is accompanied by an increase or decrease in the other variable whether
in the same direction or opposite direction. For example, a high positive correlation exists if a high
rank in one set is accompanied by a high rank in the other (high I.Q. High achievement test score)
and a low rank in one set is accompanied by a low rank in the other. A high negative correlation
exists of in general a high rank in one set of scores corresponds with a low rank in the other (high
I.Q, low achievement test score). No or little correlation exists If a high score in one set is just as
likely to correspond with a low as with a high score in the other set Correlations, therefore, range
over a scale which extend from a perfect negative correlation, to no correlation and to perfect
positive correlation. *

The correlation technique is a valuable research tool but a coefficient of correlation merely
quantifies the extent to which two variables are related and it does not imply that cause-effect
relationship necessarily exists. The meaning of the relationship is interpreted by logical analysis
rather than statistical computations. This Interpretation has all the limitations to which causal-
comparative studies are subjected.

* The concept of correlation and the method of computation of the coefficient of correlation shall
be discussed in unit.

With some ingenuity, correlational method can also be used in studying problems in the field of
planning and management. For example, the relationship between teacher commitment and drop-
out rate, distance of school from home and female participation rate, etc. can be studied with the
help of this method.