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CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY

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Chapter 8

RESPECT FOR DIVERSITY

Chapter Eight Objectives

Nghi D. Thai and Ashlee Lien

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

Understand cultural humility as an approach to diversity Identify and define dimensions of diversity
Appreciate the complexity of identity
Identify important cultural considerations for working within diverse communities
Previous: Practice CompetenciesNext: Oppression and Power

“respect” by Davide Taviani is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0

Respect for diversity has been established as a core value for Community Psychology, as
indicated in Chapter 1 (Jason et al., 2019). Appreciating diversity in communities includes
understanding dimensions of diversity and how to work within diverse community contexts, but
also includes a consideration of how to work within systems of inequality. Community
psychologists must be mindful of diverse perspectives and experiences when conducting research
and designing interventions, as well as working to combat oppression and promote justice and
equality. By working within a framework of cultural humility, this chapter attempts to provide a
basic understanding of the dimensions of diversity that are most common in Community
Psychology research and practice. Further, we explore how these dimensions contribute to complex
identities and considerations for community practice.

CULTURAL HUMILITY
As our world becomes increasingly diverse and interconnected, understanding different cultures

Photo by stokpic is licensed under the P y L e

becomes crucial. Without a basic understanding of the beliefs and experiences of individuals,
professionals can unintentionally contribute to prejudice and discrimination or negatively impact
professional relationships and effectiveness of services. To understand cultural experiences, it is
important to consider the context of social identity, history, and individual and community experiences
with prejudice and discrimination. It is also important to acknowledge that our understanding of
cultural differences evolves through an ongoing learning process (Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998).

Cultural competence is gene rally defined as possessing the

skills and knowledge of a culture in order to effectively work
with individual members of the culture. This definition includes
an appreciation of cultural differences and the ability to
effectively work with individuals. The assumption that a ny
individual can gain enough knowledge or competenc e to
understand the experiences of members of any culture, however, is
problematic. Gaining expertise in cultural competence as
traditionally defined seems unattainable, as it involves the need for knowledge and mastery. Instead, true
cultural competence require s engaging in an ongoing process of learning about the experiences of other
cultures (Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998). Further reading on cultural compe tence by Stanley Sue ca n
be found here.

Cultural humility is the ability to remain open to learning a bout other cultures while acknowledging
one’s own lack of competence and recognizing power dynamics that impact the relationship. Within
cultural humility it is important to engage in continuous self-reflec tion, recognize the impact of power
dynamics on individuals and c ommunities, embrace “not knowing”, and commit to lifelong learning. This
approach to diversity encourages a curious spirit and the ability to openly engage with others in the
process of learning about a different c ulture. As a result, it is important to address power imbalances and
develop meaningful relationships with community members in order to create positive change. A guide to
cultural humility is offe red by Cultur ally Connected.

DIMENSIONS OF DIVERSITY
The recognition and appreciation of diversity is a core principle for the field of Community

“Harmony Day (5475651018)” by DIAC images is licensed under CC BY 2.0

Psychology. Although it is impossible to discuss all of the dimensions of human diversity in this
section, we present some common dimensions examined in Community Psychology research and
action and point toward where our field could place more emphasis. We also acknowledge the
importance of intersectionality, which will be touched upon throughout this chapter, and the
process of cultural humility in understanding diversity.

Culture

Culture is an importa nt dimension of diversity for community

psychologists to e xamine. In general, culture has been
challenging to define, with mode rn definitions viewing culture
as a dynamic concept that changes both individuals and societies
together over time. Further, culture in today’s society refers to
more than just cultural and ethnic groups but also includes racial
groups, religious groups, sexual minority groups,
lice nse d under CC0 1.0
socioeconomic groups, nation-states, and c orporations. While
numerous definitions for culture are available, there are key defining components, such as shared
meanings and shared experiences by individuals in a group that are passed down over time with each
generation. That is, cultures have shared beliefs, values, practices, de finitions, and other elements that
are expressed through family socialization, formal schooling, shared language, social roles, and norms
for fe eling, thinking, and acting (Cohen, 2009).

Using a Community Psychology approach, culture can be examined at multiple ecological levels to
understand its impact. This means that culture can influence the norms and practices of individuals,
families, organizations, local communities, and the broader society. For example, cultural influences
can have an impact on how members function and interact with one another. Further, culture should
be understood within a broader context of power relationships, and how power is used and
distributed (Trickett, 2011).

Race

While physical diffe rences often are used to define race, in

general, there is no consensus for this term. Typically, race has
been defined using observable physical or biological criteria,
such as skin color, hair color or texture, facial features, etc.
However, these biological assumptions of race have been
determined to be inaccurate and harmful by biologists,
anthropologists, psychologists, and other scientists. Research
has proven no biological foundations to race and that
human
racial groups are more alike than different; in fa ct, most genetic variation exists within racial groups
rather than between groups. Therefore, racial diffe rences in areas such as academics or intelligence are
not based on biological differenc es but are instead related to economic, historical, and social factors
Photo by ge ralt is licensed under the Pixabay License
(Betancourt & Lopez, 1993).

Instead, race has been socially constructed and has different social and psychological meanings in many
societies (Betancourt & Lopez , 1993). In the US, people of color e xperience more racial prejudice and
discrimination than white people . The meanings and definitions of ra ce have also cha nged over time and
are often driven by policies and laws (e.g., one drop rule or la ws).

Case Study 8.1

Is Race a Selected Identity?

Rachel Dolezal, also known as Nkechi Amare Diallo, was born to white parents with no known African ancestry. As a young adult, she became inv
continued to insist that she strongly identifies as a black woman. Photo by johnhain is licensed under the Pixabay License
Read more here.

Ethnicity

Ethnicity refers to one’s social identity based on the culture of

origin, ancestry, or affilia tion with a c ultural group
(Pinderhughes, 1989). Ethnicity is not the same as n ationality,
which is a person’s status of belonging to a specific nation by
birth or citizenship (e.g., an individual can be of Japanese
ethnicity but British nationa lity bec ause they were born in the
United Kingdom). Ethnicity is defined by aspects of subjective “ Eld erly Japanese Women” by Teo Romer a is
licensed und er
CC BY-SA 2 .0
culture su ch as customs, language, an d social ties (Resnicow et
al., 1999).

While ethnic groups are combined into broad categories for research or demographic purposes in the US,
“ hing th e.” by E nge s is
there are many ethnicities among the ones you may be familiar with. Latina/o/x or Hispanic may refer to
persons of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuba n, Spanish, Dominican, or many other ancestries. Asian
Americans have roots from over 20 countries in Asia and India, with the six large st Asian ethnic
subgroups in the US being the Chinese, Asian Indians, Filipinos, Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese
(read more here).

Gender

Gender refers to the socially constructed perceptions of what it

means to be male or female in our society and how those
genders may be reflected and interpreted by society. Gender is
different from sex, which is a biological descriptor involving
chromosomes and internal/external reproductive organs. As a
socially constructed concept, gender has magnified the
perceived difference s between females and males leading to limita tions in attitudes, roles, and how
social institutions are organize d. For example, how do gender norms influence types of jobs viewed as
appropriate or not appropriate for women or men? How are household or parenting responsibilities
divided between men and women?

Gender is not just a demographic category but also influences gender norms, the distribution of
power and resources, access to opportunities, and other important processes (Bond, 1999). For
those who live outside of these traditional expectations for gender, the experience can be
challenging. In general, the binary categories for sex, gender, gender identity, and so forth have
received the most attention from both society and the research community, with only more
attention to other gender identities (e.g., gender-neutral, transgender, nonbinary, and
GenderQueer) in recent years (Kosciw et al., 2015).

But the attention to other gender identities is increasing, both academically and publicly. One example is
the case of Nicole Maines challenging her elementary school’s restroom policy, which resulte d in a
victory when the Maine Supreme Judicial Court ruled that she had been excluded from the restroom
because of her transgender ide ntity. While community psychologists are making efforts to conduct more
research on the various gender identities on the gender spectrum, more resea rch needs to c ontinue in this
area.

Age
Photo by OpenClipart-Vectors is licensed under the Pixabay License

Community Psychology’s emphasis on context has also included

aging, or the developmental changes and transitions that come
with being a child, adolescent, or adult. Power dynamics,
relationships, physical and psychological health concerns,
community participation, life satisfaction, and so forth can all
vary for these different age groups (Cheng & Heller, 2009).
Although the field has started to include aging issues in
research, Cheng and Heller (2009) searched for publications on older adults in major Community
Psychology journals and found that this segment of the population has been neglected. Although the
skills, values, and training of community psychologists would likely make a difference in the lives of
older adults, the attitudes within our profession and society are current barriers.

Social Class

Like the other components of diversity, s ocial class is socially

constructed and can affect our choices and opportunities. This
dimension can include a person’s income or material wealth,
educational status, and/or occupational status. It can include
assumptions about where a person belongs in society and
indicate differences in power, privilege, economic opportunities
and resources, and social capital. Social class and culture can
“Homeless” by born1945 is licensed under CC B Y 2.0
also shape a person’s worldview or understanding of the
world;
influencing how they feel, act, and fit in; and impacting the types of schools they attend, access to
health care, or jobs they work at throughout life. The differences in norms, values, and pra ctices
between lower and upper social classes can also have impacts on well-being and health outcomes
(Cohen, 2009). Social cla ss and its intersection with other components of one’s identity are important
for community psychologists to understand. Unnatural Causes: Is Inequality Making Us Sic k? is a
seven- part documentary that focuses on the connection between social class, racism, and health.

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation refers to a person’s emotional, romantic,

erotic, and spiritual attractions toward another in relation to
their own sex or gender. The definition focuses on feelings
rather than behaviors since individuals who identify with a
Photo by OpenClipart-Vectors is licensed under the Pixabay License
minority sexual orientation experience significant stigma and
oppression in our society (Flanders et al., 2016). Sexual “SCO TUS APRI L 2 01 5 LGBTQ 54663” by Ted Eytan
is licensed under
CC BY-SA 2 .0
orientation exists on a continuum or multiple continuums and
crosses all dimensions of diversity (e.g., race, ethnicity, social class, ability, religion, etc.). Sexual
orientation is different from g ender identity or g ender expressi on. Over time, gay, lesbian,
asexual, and bisexual identities have extended to other sexual orientations such as pansexual,
polysexual, and fluid, and increasingly more research is being conducted on these populations
within the field of Community Psychology (Kosciw et al., 2015). As a historically marginalized and
oppressed group with inadequate representation in the literature, sexual minority groups face a
variety of problems and issues that necessitate further research. The empowering and participatory
approaches and methods used in Community Psychology can be beneficial for research with sexual
minority groups.

Ability/Disability

Disabilities refer to visible or hidden and temporary or

permanent conditions that provide barriers or challenges, and
impact individuals of every age and social group. Traditional
views of disability follow a medical model, primarily explaining
diagnoses and treatment models from a pathologic al perspective
(Goodley & Lawthom, 2010). In this traditional
approach, individuals diagnosed with a disability are often
“20 18 06 11 _Special Olympics_0 1687” by Sp ecial
discussed as objects of study instead of complex individuals Oly mpics nationale
S er spiele 2 18 is licensed und er CC0 1.0
impacted by their environment. Community Psychology, however, follows a social model of ability in
which diagnoses are viewed from a social and environmental perspective and consider multiple
ecological levels. The experiences of individuals are strongly valued, and
community-based participatory resear ch is a va luable way to explore experiences while empowering
members of a community with varying levels of ability/disability. Le arn more by watching the
Employment Choice for People with Severe Physical Disabilities video
.

Culture must be considered when viewing ability from a social perspective (Goodley & Lawthom,
2000), and may impact whether or not certain behaviors are considered sufficient for inclusion in a
Photo by Op s is licensed under the Pix ay se
diagnosis. For example, cultural differences in the assessment of “typical” development have
impacted the
diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders in different countries. Further, diagnoses or symptoms can be
culturally-specific, and culture may influence how symptoms a re communicated. The experience of
culture can significantly impact lived experience for individuals diagnosed with a disability.

It is important to consider how intersectionality impacts the experience of disability. For example,
students of color and other underserved groups have a higher rate of diagnosis of learning
disabilities, emotional and behavioral disabilities, and intellectual disabilities (Artiles et al., 2010),
which may be due to economic, historical, and social factors. Diagnosis must be considered as
disabled youth are at a disadvantage in a number of indicators of educational performance, leading
to more substantial disparities later in life.

How one identifies individuals with a particular label indicating their race, gender or sexuality is rather
complicated, and unless investigators are careful in their definitions of these terms, many problems can
be encountered, as has been re viewed above. Identifying who has a disability or health condition can also
be a challenge and can have real, ta ngible consequences for an affected group. As an example, if
prevalence rese arch suggests that a particular disability or health condition is relatively rare, it is possible
that few federal and state resources will be devoted to those individuals. But if the methodology for
selecting individuals is flawed, then the prevalence rates will be inaccurate and potentially biased. This is
what occurre d with the health condition known as chronic fatigue syndrome, now also known as myalgic
encephalomyelitis, as indicated in Case Study 8.2.

Case Study 8.2

How Flawed Research Can Le ad to More Stigma

When the Centers for Disease Control tried to estimate

the prevalence of those with this illness, they concluded
that only about 20,000 people had this condition in the
US, and most with this illness tended to be white, middle-
class women, which is what led to the stigmatizing label
“Yuppie Flu disease.” However, the way the investigators
conducted this research was flawed; they asked health
care personnel to identify individuals with this illness, A dapted from Photo by Pixaline is licensed under the Pixabay
L icense
but as many health
care professionals did not believe that this was a real or legitimate, they tended to refer few
individuals to the study. In addition, as many individuals with a chronic health condition do not
have access to the healthcare system, many individuals with this illness were not able to be
brought into the prevalence study. However, when a group of community psychologists used
better research methods that involved deriving their sample from randomly contacting people in
the community, without depending on referrals from physicians, they estimated that about a
million individuals had ME/CFS. In addition, those identified tended to be from lower
socioeconomic status groups and communities of color (just the opposite of what led to the
characterization of Yuppie Flu) (Jason et al., 1999). The findings from this study were widely
disseminated and led to reductions in some of the bias and stigmatization that has been directed
to those with this illness.

The impact of disability on identity and intersection with other social identities is important for
community psychologists to understand. Community Psychology’s unique perspective has contributed to
applied research conducted among communities and individuals with disabilities. The need for
understanding, empowerment, and advocacy through participatory action research continues to
exist for individuals with disabilities.

Religion & Spirituality

There are many definitions of religion, most of which

typically include shared systems of beliefs and values,
symbols, feelings, actions, experiences, and a source of
community unity (Cohen, 2009). Religion emphasizes beliefs
and practices, relationships with the divine, and faith, all of
which differentiate it from common definitions of culture.
Further, religion is an important predictor for well-being,
satisfaction, and other life outcomes (Tarakeshwar et al.,
2003). While religion has been neglected in psychological
research, it has been included in Community Psychology’s
conceptualization of diversity since the beginning of the field. Photo by J is licensed under the Pix ay se

Religion and spirituality were formerly considered a joint concept but have been differentiated in the
past century. Definitions of spirituality typically focus on relationships with a higher power and a
quest

for meaning. The differentiation between religion and spirituality has become more relevant
recently as many individuals consider themselves more spiritual than they are religious. Community
Psychology has long considered religion as a dimension of diversity, but the importance of
spirituality in our understanding of community has been a more recent development.

The importance of religion and spirituality to physical and emotional well-being and a strong sense
of community merits the inclusion of both, in research and practice (Tarakeshwar et al., 2003).
Community psychologists understand the importance of working in natural settings, which
frequently include religious and spiritual settings. Collaboration with religious organizations and
embedding interventions into these settings may have positive impacts on individuals in the community
and may also help religious organizations reach goals.

IMPACT OF IDENTITIES
“Black Lives Matter DC, Mar ch For Our Lives, Washington DC” b y Lorie Shaull is licensed under

CC BY-SA 2.0

While the various dimensions of diversity discussed above are a start to understanding human
diversity, they do not fully describe an individual, community, or population. Instead, we must
consider that these dimensions do not exist independently of each other and that the interaction of
these dimensions is referred to as intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1989). Intersectionality focuses on
how the dimensions can overlap and give rise to different experiences as well as multiple privileges
or inequities; for example,

racial/ethnic and sexual mino rity men will experience more health disparities than white and/or
heterosexual men. Community psychologists recognize the significance of intersectionality, but
published research in this area is still lacking compared to other disciplines. “The urgency of

intersectionality ” video can help you learn more about intersectionality.

Privilege, or the unearned advantages that individuals have based on membership in a dominant group
(e.g., race, gender, social class, sexual orientation, ability), contribute to the systems of oppression for
non-privileged individuals and groups. While privilege can come in multiple forms and individuals can
have multiple privileges, white privilege, or the advantages that white people have in society, are
important for psychologists to examine more extensively to understand how white people participate in
systems of oppression for racial minority groups in the US (Todd et al., 2014). For example, white
experiences and perspectives tend to be pervasive in curriculum, policy, pedagogy, and practices
(Suyemoto & Fox Tree, 2006) at the exclusion of work and research by people of color.

Janet Helms’ (1995) important work on the white racial identity model describes how white people move
from a racist identity to a non-racist identity as they become more aware, move beyond an effective
understanding of racial minorities to an experiential one, and understand their role in a racist society.
Other community psychologists have explored how to create organizational contexts that are more
inclusive and address white privilege (Bond, 1999) or have examined how white privilege influences
commitment and interest toward social justice (Todd et al., 2014). While community psychologists are
contributing to this research, more studies are needed to understand the relationship between identity,
privilege, and social justice and action in community contexts.

Diversity in Practice
Using a framework of cultural humility, community psychologists consider context. This provides the
ability to view various dimensions of diversity while considering the impacts of prejudice and
discrimination. It is also important to consider how cultural practices differ in all settings in which the
individual operates. Considering context expands the perspective of culture to include historical
context, intersectionality of identities, and the experience of prejudice and discrimination.

The Soc iety for Community Research and Action (SCRA) ha s identified sociocultural and cross-cultural
competence as one of the 18 foundational principles of Community Psychology practice, and
defines it as “the ability to value, integrate, and bridge multiple worldviews, cultures, and
identities.” SCRA expands upon the importance of recognizing multiple contexts to integrate
elements of cultural humility in practice settings. Prior to working in communities, it is important
to examine one’s own worldview and consider how it interacts with the community through culture
and power dynamics. It is important to recognize and articulate dynamics related to culture and
power differentials with the communities in which community psychologists work. Due to the
complexity of these dynamics, respecting diversity in practice may require the formation of
relationships with various members of a community who may be able to serve as a guide for
working with the community in culturally valid ways.

Diversity in Research

Adopting cultural humility is necessary for considering

diversity in research. In research, it is important to consider
how questions are asked or which samples are included in a
study. In addition, the importance of topics of research to
diverse communities must be considered, which may require
developing research topics and questions with the populations
that are being impacted. Participatory action research is a
valuable tool for developing topics in an inclusive way and is
a method
frequently used by community psychologists to find solutions in the social environment (Kidd & Kral,
2005).

Research must also consider the power dynamics between the researcher and the community as well
as the dynamics within the community. The use of culturally-anchored methodologies is important
for exploring research questions in the appropriate context. Marginalized groups are often compared
to a majority group, but these comparisons may not always acknowledge the implications of power
dynamics present in such comparisons. When developing the methodology, it is important for the
researcher to acknowledge one’s own cultural assumptions, experiences, and positions of power.
Recognition of these aspects of self will lead to a more careful framing of the research question
within context. Finally, it is important to consider where to disseminate research findings to reach
wide audiences.

DESIGNING CULTURALLY-SITUATED COMMUNITY

PROGRAMS
“ Su bmin imu m Wage Bill Sig ning” by S ea ttle City C ouncil is licensed under C C B Y 2.0

Designing programs in the community needs to start with an understanding of the diverse cultures
and communities in which they will be situated. To that end, collaborative and ecological systems
approaches used by community psychologists are incorporated throughout the design of
community prevention and intervention programs. Altogether, these approaches situate culture at
every level of planning a program from the conceptualization to the implementation. In Case Study
8.3, Trickett (2011) provides a cautionary example of what can happen when culture is not more
deeply considered in community interventions.

Case Study 8.3

Water Boiling in a Peruvian Town

In “Water Boiling in a Peruvian Town” by Ed Wellin

(1955; see Trickett, 2011), a three-year public health
intervention was implemented to decrease the water-related
health risks in Los Molinos, a rural Peruvian town. The
promotion of the evidence-based practice of boiling water
targeted women, with the assumption that increased
knowledge about the health benefits of boiling water would
Photo by Pxhere is licensed under CC BY 2.0
persuade the m to change. The intervention was delivered by
a health worker
who took up residence in Los Molinos and her goal was to have the women boil the ir water before
using it. The intervention turned out to be unsuccessful—the majority of women did not start this
practice, due to several factors steeped in cultura l beliefs and local customs or conditions. For
example, the cultural meanings of hot and c old in their culture meant that boiled water was used for
certain health issues, but it wa s not associated with germs or diseases. Over time, boiled water was
culturally linke d to illness and very much dislike d by the local people. The intervention’s impact
was also further affected by the women’s inability to boil because of their daily routines, social
ostracization for boiling because of the meanings of cold and hot water, and lack of interest in
women’s lives by the gendered town’s leadership.

This case study demonstrates the significant impact of culture on well-intentioned and scientifically-
based interventions meant to improve community health and well-being. For that reason, Trickett
provides recommendations about how Community Psychology can contribute more to the
understanding of culture in research and practice. Some of these recommendations include focusing on
communities more than programs, understanding that choice is more important than change, working
with local experts in the community, and using research designs and methods that are appropriate for
diverse cultures and populations.
Photo by ge ralt is licensed under the P ay L e

Another approach proposed by Resnicow and colleagues (1999) considers surface structure and deep
structure for designing culturally-anchored community programs. Surface structure includes aspects
of the program that are observable such as gender, race, and ethnicity of the staff members; setting;
language(s) used; and choices of cultural components, such as music or food. Deep structure
includes knowing the historical, social, and psychological aspects of the culture to understand core
cultural values, beliefs, and practices. However, attending to both surface and deep structures will
not guarantee the success of the program. Matching the race or ethnicity of the staff to program
participants is not always enough to establish trust or resolve all cultural differences. Similarly,
programs using deep structures may appeal differently to those with different acculturation statuses;
therefore, more research is necessary to determine the effectiveness of these culturally anchored
programs.

Overall, as our knowledge and work with diverse communities continues to expand, the culturally-
situated and anchored approaches used by community psychologists will continue to be very
important for designing programs. Central to this will be the evolving development of a cultural
Community Psychology which incorporates theories and methods from cross-cultural and cultural
psychology in research and practice (O’Donnell & Tharp, 2012).

SUMMING UP
This chapter presented the framework of cultural humility as an ongoing approach to working with

“Resp t” by T Haynie is licensed under CC BY 2.0

diverse communities. It is important to recognize various dimensions of diversity and how they
intersect to produce unique experiences of inequity or privilege. Community psychologists go beyond
traditional research and practice by working with members of marginalized groups to challenge
oppression through participatory action research and to provide tools for empowerment and self-
directed change.

Critical Thought Questions

How would you explain the differences between cultural humility and cultural competence? Why is cultural humility more beneficial for unde
How do race and ethnicity differ? How is race socially constructed?
What gender norms are present in today’s society? Would you say these gender norms are beneficial or not? Why?
Why is it important to focus more research on the spectrum of sexual identities?
Although disability involves a physical/biological reality, it is also a social construction. How is disability a social construction?
What is intersectionality and how does it impact a person’s experiences?
Why should the culture of a community be considered before designing community programs?

Take the Chapter 8 Quiz

View the Chapter 8 Lecture Slides

____________________________________________________________________

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Introduction to Community Psychology by Nghi D. Thai and Ashlee Lien is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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