Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 22(3), 196–201


C 2007 The Division for Learning Disabilities of the Council for Exceptional Children

Educating Children with Learning Disabilities in Africa

The increase in the number of slow learners and children with learning disabilities in schools
in Africa has become a major issue and concern. The situation is reflected in various school-
leaving examinations, where an average of 30 percent of the results are below average or
failures each year. Although there are no statistical records available in most African countries
on the number of children and youth with learning disabilities, it is believed that about 8
percent of the students in school are experiencing learning difficulties in the classroom. Diverse
factors contribute to the large number of school difficulties, including overcrowded classrooms,
poverty, health issues, shortages of experienced teachers, traditional beliefs, lack of teaching
materials, school expectations, and motivational issues. I examine the state of education for
students with learning difficulties in Africa, focusing especially on Botswana but also including
information from other countries, and consider the concept, prevalence, causes, provision of
services, and difficulties in providing effective services for children with learning disabilities.

Special education was introduced in Africa by church or- admission into tertiary institutions or get employed in decent
ganizations, missionary bodies, and nongovernmental orga- jobs. The 1991 census data showed that the number of adults
nizations (NGOs). Their efforts concentrated on what one (i.e., aged 15 and up) who had standard 4 or less schooling
may describe as providing education and support for chil- was 108,208 or 14.3 percent, and the number who had only
dren with major and more visible disabilities such as visual standard 5–7 schooling was 211,386 or 27.8 percent. It was
impairments, hearing impairments, and mental retardation. estimated that nearly three quarters of the adult population
For example, separate special schools were created for chil- have not successfully completed the basic levels of school-
dren with physical and sensory disabilities. ing, which poses a major challenge to the education system
The education of children with learning difficulties or and society.
other disabilities was not considered an issue or recognized The question that has often been asked is why do some chil-
at that time. The general school system was established on dren fail and others pass in school-related activities? Until the
the foundation of “survival of the fittest.” Only students who elusive answer to this question is found and a solution given,
passed the exams stood a chance of making progress in the our educational system will be pursuing a shadow of itself.
school system. The assessment of schoolwork was based on The emergence of the concept of learning disabilities in the
whether the student passed or failed, with failure being at- 1960s, however, created a new dimension in the educational
tributed to poor intelligence. The child was squarely blamed system in general and in special education in particular. This
for not performing well in the class. article will highlight the problem of learning disabilities, and
Difficulties with school performance are extensive in what is being done or could be done to assist children with
African schools. In 1995 and 1996, for example, Botswana learning disabilities, in Botswana in particular and Africa as
had 28–29 percent below-average passes in its Primary a whole.
School Examination results; the outcomes were similar in
2004 and 2005 (Ministry of Education, 1997–2005). In the
same period, Junior School Examination results stood at 24– THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING
25 percent below-average passes. The Ordinary Level Exam- DISABILITIES IN AFRICA
ination results were similar. The below-average passes for the
Ordinary Level Examination results for 1995 and 1996 were The concept of learning disabilities originated from America
between 34 and 36 percent (Ministry of Education, 1997– in the 1960s and since then the definition has undergone vari-
2005). Quite often, head teachers have shown so much hap- ations. The National Joint Committee for Learning Disabili-
piness in announcing their school results when they have ties (NJCLD) defined learning disabilities as a generic term
had 80–90 percent success in the exams. In the process, the referring to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested
plight of 10–20 percent of the students who could not pass by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listen-
and do very well are forgotten, because they could not gain ing, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical
abilities (Heward, 2000). These disorders, it goes on to say,
are intrinsic in the individual and presumed to be due to cen-
Requests for reprints should be sent to Okey Abosi, University of tral nervous system dysfunction. The committee maintained
Botswana, P. O. Box 70050, Gaborone, Botswana. Electronic inquiries may that even though a learning disability may occur concomi-
be sent to ABOSICO@mopipi.ub.bw. tantly with other disability conditions, for example, sensory
 ABOSI: EDUCATING CHILDREN WITH LD IN AFRICA 197

impairment, mental retardation, and/or social and emotional ing special needs services in Botswana, although a report by
disturbance, or with environmental influences such as cul- Kisanji (1994) indicated the figure should be over 60,000.
tural differences, insufficient instruction, and psychogenic There are also 5,000 children with other disabilities. Some
factors, it is not the direct result of those conditions or influ- disability counts reported for other African countries are over
ences. Heward (2000), operationalizing various definitions 20,000 children with special needs in Ethiopia, over 70,000
of learning disabilities, maintains that three criteria must be in Kenya, more than 2,000 students with specific disabilities
met in defining learning disabilities: (1) a severe discrep- in schools in Namibia, over 1,500 with specific disabilities
ancy between the student’s intellectual ability and academic (which is less than 0.1 percent of those expected to receive
achievement, (2) an exclusion criterion, and (3) a need for help) in Zambia, more than 4,000 with specific disabilities
special education services. in Tanzania, and more than 1 million children requiring spe-
In Africa, there is no particular definition that one can refer cial needs services in Nigeria (Uganda National Institute for
to as an African definition. African experts base their concept Special Education, 1995). As a rough estimate, children with
of learning disabilities on Western definitions. Nonetheless, learning difficulties make up 20 percent of any given class.
when the term learning disabilities is used among African These are children who are experiencing problems in spe-
special educators, it refers to children who experience learn- cific learning activities in the class and hence perform below
ing difficulties independent of obvious physical defects such average.
as sensory disorders. It is understood that such children have
the ability to learn but it takes them a longer time to compre-
hend than the average child. These children are generally and CAUSES OF LEARNING DIFFICULTIES
frequently referred to as slow learners or underachievers. IN AFRICAN SCHOOLS
The child with learning disabilities encounters many prob-
lems under the current educational systems in Africa. Most Besides the normal set of potential causes for learning disabil-
African countries, such as Nigeria, Botswana, Zambia, and ities that might apply, several aspects about education systems
South Africa, for instance, profess a philosophy of equal edu- and schools in Africa can also contribute to the creation of
cational opportunities for all their children. This means that, learning disabilities and difficulties, as discussed below.
under such a philosophy, every child is given an equal chance
to develop his or her potential as much as possible. The prob-
lem with this view is that it creates a contradictory environ-
ment between what is said and what is practiced. The prac- School Reforms, Class Sizes,
tice on the ground does not recognize slow learners within and the Progression of Students
the school system. For example, curricula or the schemes of Through School Systems
work that guide teachers are designed in such ways that every
child in the class is regarded as above average in intelligence. The need to briefly examine how children progress from one
class to another, or rather from one standard to another, in
Africa cannot be overstressed as a possible cause for learn-
THE PREVALENCE OF ing disabilities in school. The school systems in most African
LEARNING DISABILITIES countries are unplanned and in many cases are unstable or in-
consistent as a particular system hardly lasts for a reasonable
The various African governments have not considered it period of time. Some countries, such as Nigeria, Botswana,
worthwhile to invest in the area of carrying out censuses of the and Ghana, have at times adopted a new system of grade
number of persons with disabilities in their countries. There- arrangements and then changed it after a few years without
fore the unavailability of statistics on the number of children having given it a chance to stabilize in the name of reform.
with disabilities poses a major problem in planning for the These changes can reflect an uncertainty in and about the
general educational and social welfare of children with learn- school system. Such dramatic school reforms move many
ing disabilities. Africa sometimes, however, has relied on es- children above or below their potentials and can also con-
timates, such as the United Nations formula of considering tribute to increases in the dropout rates in school.
that 10 percent of the population of school-age children has Class sizes and conditions are also matters of concern in
disabilities. The World Health Organization maintains that 40 Africa. A typical class in African public schools could con-
percent of Africa’s school-going population has disabilities tain as much as 40 or even more pupils, usually made up of a
and may require, in their opinion, special needs services. mixture of abilities. In most African countries, there are still
Some concrete attempts to determine the prevalence of “under the tree” classes that are held outdoors. These situa-
childhood disabilities in African countries do exist, however, tions make it difficult for children with disabilities to receive
such as a study conducted in some of the districts of Botswana the extra help they need. Many teachers in the school system
more than two decades ago. The survey in Kweneng District have not received relevant training on how to identify chil-
analyzed a sample of 2,256 out of 27,869 children. A little dren with learning problems and hence are unable to provide
over eight percent (8.1%) of these children were found to remedial assistance to such children even under the best of
have serious learning difficulties. In another district of the conditions.
North East, 11,648 schoolchildren were tested and 8.9 per- Despite these situations, little consideration is given at
cent of them had learning difficulties. However, over 37,000 the end of the school year in determining how children
children in primary and junior secondary schools are requir- progress from one class/standard to another. There are two
198 SPECIAL ISSUE: INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING DISABILITIES

basic patterns of progressing from one class to another in mental health, and a high degree of personal adjustment.
African school systems—promotion based on performance They went on to say that effective teachers remain calm in
or by automatic promotion—and each causes difficulties for crises, listen actively without becoming defensive, and main-
pupils with learning disabilities. In a situation where the pro- tain a problem-solving orientation rather than resorting to
motion of children is based on their performance on examina- withdrawal. In addition, Van Til (1994) pointed out that ef-
tions, repeated failure makes the child with learning difficul- fective teachers use audiovisual and other resources to make
ties feel frustrated, demoralized, and dejected. By repeating a lessons interesting by presenting subject matter in a vital and
class, he or she remains in the same class with younger chil- enthusiastic manner. This is the situation that is needed in
dren. This poses problems that can lead to dropping out of schools if children with learning difficulties are to benefit
school. In the other situation where promotion is automatic, from the education provided.
the child with learning disabilities finds himself or herself The situation in African schools today, however, does not
being promoted to higher classes without learning much in encourage effective teaching because teachers are not well
school because children with learning problems are usually paid, teaching resources are hardly available, and, as was
neglected. In Africa, the child is the family’s ego. Families described earlier, class conditions can be challenging. Chil-
are ashamed to send their children who are not competitive to dren are hardly given individualized attention in order to deal
school for fear of failure. These conflicting feelings and ex- with their specific problems. Many African countries, such
pectations result in what one may call mixed bags of children as Nigeria, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Kenya, have
in school. Many children with learning difficulties in schools included in their national policies on education requirements
are a result of these confusions in the school, created because that all schools will have intervention teams of special edu-
of conditions in the school system. cators who will assist in the identification of children with
learning difficulties. The intervention team is to offer diag-
nostic and intervention services. It is a move to offer quality
Poor Classroom Management teaching in schools. This recommendation has not been ef-
fectively implemented in any African country.
Classroom management and control, long recognized as a
complex matter, is fundamental to effective teaching and
learning. The setting up and running of a class of 30–40 stu-
dents is one of the most time-consuming and energy-draining Negative Attitudes Among Teachers
activities engaged in by teachers, even under the best of con-
ditions (Jacobsen, Eggen, & Kauchak, 1989), let alone those Africans in general are influenced by their beliefs, values,
presented in many African schools. A recent sociocultural and culture. An average African sees disabilities as a punish-
study carried out in Botswana showed that poor discipline ment for what one has done wrong. Mba (1987) observed that
among students was a major concern (Seboni, Dambe, & among the factors contributing to the general apathy and ne-
Abosi, 1996). The government was squarely blamed for the glect of children with disabilities in Africa are superstitions
rise of such poor discipline because of the restrictions put on that regard disability as a curse from the gods. In Africa, the
teachers and school authorities as to the level of punishment child is an extension of his or her parents’ ego and therefore
that could be given to offending students. families will regard a disability in a child as a stain in their
Successful classroom management also depends on strong social status. This accounts for why children with disabilities
school leadership. Johnson and Johnson (1975) related class- are sometimes hidden.
room climate to child achievement, stressing that organi- Because there is no doubt about the presence of chil-
zational patterns that result in students feeling capable, in- dren with disabilities in classes, teachers’ attitudes toward
cluded, and secure seem to produce students who achieve and management of these children is a major concern based
better. A review of how school heads are appointed in Africa on the fact that the teacher is part of his or her culture
could help. In many cases, heads of schools are appointed and often shares the same beliefs about disabilities. Barnartt
without serious consideration given to the effectiveness and and Kabzems (1992) asked 200 teachers whether children
capabilities of the individual managing the school. A good with a range of disabilities should be in regular classrooms
school head will be able to enforce discipline, make relevant and if they themselves would teach in that class. Most teach-
adjustments, monitor what goes on in the classrooms, and or- ers who were willing to accept the children with disabilities
ganize seminars for teachers on issues such as slow learners in their classes said that they would ignore them and go on
in the classroom. Unfortunately school head appointments in with their teaching. Setumbwe (1995) revealed that teachers’
Africa are often based on the number of years the individual ignorance about disability may contribute to their negative
has served and not on his or her efficiency and effectiveness. attitudes. Although Jackson and Abosi (2006) maintain that
the behavior and practices of almost all people in Africa have
been influenced by modernity to some degree, teachers seem
Lack of Effective Teachers in Schools to be highly conservative when it comes to association with
persons with disabilities. They would prefer to keep children
Effective teachers who can enhance teaching must pos- with disabilities at arm’s length and pay lip service to their
sess certain personal characteristics. Brophy and Putnam needs. Such attitudes have negative effects and contribute to
(1999) described an effective teacher as one possessing a the learning problems these children experience in African
cheerful disposition, friendliness, emotional security, good classrooms.
 ABOSI: EDUCATING CHILDREN WITH LD IN AFRICA 199

Lack of Student Motivation specialized services, could form the core of the school team,
and each team would have the responsibility for putting
Motivated students aim high, take challenges, ask questions, in place procedures for peer teaching and/or cooperative
develop self-confidence, worship success, and develop an am- teaching.
bition to achieve which, as a result, gives hope to a nation. The government of Botswana has also established a central
When students are motivated, the result is a lively classroom resource center in Tlokweng. The center, staffed with fully
environment that compels the teacher to be more creative and qualified professionals, is the only one in the country that
resourceful. On the other hand, learners who have a low self- offers referral and placement services. It offers, among other
concept or a lack of confidence are often not quite sure of services, stimulation services to children with learning diffi-
what they want to achieve and how to go about it. culties, psychological assessment, speech pathology services,
Some of the problems that contribute to the latter situa- Braille services, low-vision services, in-service training in
tion can be attributed to the kinds of conditions created by the form of workshops, and residential services for trainees.
poverty and poor health that are all too common in Africa. This resource will be an ideal for other African countries to
The high incidence of HIV/AIDS among schoolchildren in emulate.
Botswana and most other African countries, for instance, has
made it difficult for children to concentrate on their school-
work. Poverty in all African countries has left most pupils TEACHER PREPARATION AS PART
attending school unmotivated to learn and succeed, as their OF THE SOLUTION
classrooms lack varieties of learning materials and interesting
experiences. In addition, many children go to school without Teacher preparation is an important potential part of the solu-
food. In Botswana, children are served meals at school. The tion to these difficulties. As is true elsewhere, special educa-
Botswana experience in terms of school meals, however, is tion must function as a part of the general education system,
unique; most African countries cannot afford them. so teacher preparation should include some measure of work
on collaboration. However, specialized training is also clearly
important.
ADDRESSING THE PROBLEM OF LEARNING
DISABILITIES IN AFRICAN SCHOOLS Special Education as Part of General Teacher
Education in Africa
Baker and Zigmond (1995) expressed the view that special
education evolved as a means of providing specialized in- If, as some have pointed out (e.g., Baker & Zigmond, 1995;
terventions primarily through prescribed instruction based Fuchs & Fuchs, 1994; Katsiyannis, Conderman, & Franks,
on individual student progress on individualized objectives. 1995), increasing numbers of children with special needs are
A model oriented toward special education is appropriate being served in special education classrooms, it is because
for Africa in many ways. It provides an opportunity for children with learning difficulties often fail in general edu-
the classroom teacher or the peer specialized teacher to be cation settings. Schumm and Vaughn (1995) and Baker and
able to identify children who may have learning difficulties Zigmond (1995) have observed that there has been a rapid
in the classroom, determining why some of the children in and dramatic change in the way special education services
the class are not doing well and creating a situation for im- are being provided in schools. They stressed that this devel-
provement through assessment, referral, and the design of opment must be addressed in preservice teacher education
individualized instruction. The beauty of this model is that programs so that the next generation of educators will be
it tries to minimize failure before and after intervention. The well prepared to work effectively. Therefore, the importance
difficulties of children in these schools are identified and they of changing the traditional ways of teaching in regular class-
are given the opportunity to succeed at their own rates and in rooms cannot be overemphasized. Given the complex nature
their own ways. of classrooms and the increasing demands on teachers, who
In Botswana, there is a deliberate effort by the government often have little or no specialized training in working with
to ensure effective teaching in schools through special edu- exceptional students, structures should be set up to provide
cation. The Revised National Policy on Education of 1994 the necessary help and guidance for teachers to make changes
recommends: “All teachers should have some elements of in their instruction (Katsiyannis et al., 1995).
special education in their pre-service training. Those who The national policies on education in most African coun-
have not received such training during their pre-service train- tries address the matter of whether general education teachers
ing should receive it during their in-service training.” This in training should take course work in special education as
recommendation should be vigorously pursued so that the av- part of their requirements. In some countries, this is treated
erage teacher in schools will be able to identify children with as optional in some cases while in other instances, course
learning difficulties in his or her classroom, make a referral, work is required but adequate time is not given to it to allow
and also have the ability to provide some assistance to the for in-depth coverage. In Botswana, special education is a
pupil. requirement for all students studying education at the Uni-
The policy also recommends the establishment of Inter- versity of Botswana and the country’s colleges of education.
vention Teams in all schools. It would greatly improve the The University of Botswana has even gone one step further
teaching and learning environment in Botswana’s classrooms by making the first course in special education one of the
if this recommendation were fully implemented. A cadre General Education Courses available to all students at the
of specially trained teachers, besides being able to provide university.
200 SPECIAL ISSUE: INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING DISABILITIES

Training Special Educators in Africa and writing and sign language, respectively. Students spe-
cializing in learning disabilities are acquainted with skills in
The need for the development of opportunities in develop- diagnostic teaching in basic skills and remediation techniques
ing countries for the preparation of teachers of children with in school subjects, among other courses.
special needs is critical. Teacher-training programs in Africa The distribution of students to the various specialization
and developing countries have not been given proper atten- areas is based most of the time on the estimated number of
tion. The need to train teachers for special needs children students in each disability category. So, over 50 percent of
locally cannot be stressed enough. Training in one’s country the students are encouraged to specialize in the area of learn-
will reflect the culture and the local needs. In most cases, ing disabilities because this category constitutes the largest
training outside one’s culture and environment does not take group of children with disabilities in schools in Botswana.
into account the shortfalls and the difficulties that exist in a This means that, of the nearly 350 specialist teachers who
given country. have been trained at the University of Botswana since 1995
A number of African countries have recently made posi- when the program started, over 150 of them have specialized
tive efforts in developing relevant teacher-training provision in the area of learning difficulties. The need for more teachers
for special educators. In Ethiopia, for instance, the Ministry to be trained to deal with the needs of children with learning
of Education and Addis Ababa University, in collaboration difficulties in schools is obvious considering that there are
with the special education department of the University of over 400 primary and secondary schools in Botswana that
Joensuu in Finland, are running two programs in special ed- require the services of trained teachers in this area. Also,
ucation. The Kenyan government has established a number educational policy recommends the establishment of Inter-
of teacher-training colleges including the Kenya Institute of vention Teams comprising three to five specialist teachers to
Special Education. In Uganda, the Ugandan National Institute offer special needs services in each school. This indicates a
for Special Education has been established. Zimbabwe runs need for nearly 2,000 teachers with special education training
two programs at the United College of Education and the Uni- if the requirement of the policy is to be met.
versity of Zimbabwe. A number of universities in Nigeria and Apart from training teachers, the Special Education pro-
Ghana offer programs in special education. The shape of the gram at the University of Botswana offers additional services
special education teacher-training program in each country to the community by using its two diagnostic laboratories. The
depends on the needs of the specific country. In most African diagnostic laboratory for children with learning difficulties
countries, services are provided in four main areas of special attends to children brought in from schools for psychologi-
needs—mental retardation, learning disabilities/difficulties, cal assessments to ascertain their areas of learning deficien-
visual impairments, and hearing impairments—and this af- cies. Student teachers then offer remedial services to these
fects teacher training in the country. It is regrettable to note children as part of their training and service. The audiomet-
though, that despite efforts such as these, many Africans ric assessment laboratory is fully equipped with state-of-the-
still prefer to train or send teachers for training in developed art audiometers, speech trainers, and hearing aids. Children
countries. are brought in from schools for comprehensive audiomet-
ric assessments. At the end of the assessment, parents and
their children are offered advice in the areas of speech cor-
The University of Botswana Teacher-Training Model rection, use of hearing aids, and other services available in
the unit. These services supplement the services offered by
The University of Botswana runs three programs in Special the National Central Resource Center in Tlokweng run by the
Education: Ministry of Education. The University of Ibadan in Nigeria
offers similar training and services.
a. A 2-year in-service diploma program in special educa- Finally, the University of Botswana runs a disability sup-
tion for teachers, port center for its university students with learning difficul-
b A 4-year preservice degree program in special educa- ties. The center provides individualized support for students
tion for undergraduates, and who have different learning problems. Supports include pro-
c. A 3-year in-service program in special education for viding students with learning materials, providing teach-
holders of a diploma or its equivalent from the Univer- ing materials to lecturers, follow-up services, and generally
sity of Botswana or one of the colleges of education in bridging the gap between the students’ learning difficulties
Botswana. and their lecturers. The center ensures that students with
learning difficulties are allowed more time for assignments
The program is a double major, which means that students and during examinations depending on the nature of their
take special education along with a general education teach- problems. The center, in conjunction with the university’s
ing subject. counseling and career center, offers career guidance to stu-
The University of Botswana offers specializations in four dents with disabilities in the university.
areas: mental retardation, learning disabilities, visual impair-
ments, and hearing impairments. During the training, stu-
dents take foundational classes in the areas of identification, CONCLUSION
diagnosis, remediation, and the preparation of individualized
educational programs. Students specializing in visual impair- The concept of learning disabilities is relatively new in Africa,
ments or hearing impairments are exposed to Braille reading although the phenomena of children with learning difficulties
 ABOSI: EDUCATING CHILDREN WITH LD IN AFRICA 201

or those described as “slow learners” is not. A number of fac- Brophy, J., & Putnam. (1997). Classroom management in the elementary
tors have been attributed to the causes of learning disabilities grades. In D. Duke (Ed.), Classroom management (pp. 274–289).
among schoolchildren in Africa that are related to the con- Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. (1994). Inclusive school movement and the radicaliza-
ditions on this continent. These factors include, among other tion of special education reform. Exceptional Children, 60, 294–309.
things, methods of class progression, class sizes, inadequate Heward, W. (2002). Exceptional children: An introduction to special educa-
classroom management, lack of effective teachers in schools, tion. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
an absence of motivation about school, and negative attitudes Jackson, K., & Abosi, O. (2006). South of the desert: A teacher guide
to child development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Pretoria, South Africa:
among some teachers toward children with disabilities and UNISA.
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ditions and culture. skills approach. London: Merill.
The various governments in Africa in general, and in Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1975). Learning together and alone. Englewood
Botswana in particular, have created policies and opportu- Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Katsiyannis, A., Conderman, G., & Franks, D. J. (1995). State practices
nities that will help children with learning disabilities in on inclusion: A national review. Remedial and Special Education, 16,
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About the Author

Okey Abosi is Associate Professor in the Department of Educational Foundations, University of Botswana. He holds a B.Phil.Ed.
degree from the University of Birmingham, England and M.Ed.M.Phil and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Ibadan. He
also holds a Diploma of Education and Advanced Diploma from the University of Birmingham and the University of London,
respectively. His areas of specialization and research interests include special education and counseling psychology, diversity,
and inclusive education. He is currently a visiting professor at the University of Brunei.