21-Apr-22

Design for Additive Manufacturing

Dr. Radha Raman Mishra

BITS Pilani Mechanical Engineering Department

Pilani Campus

Need of DfAM

Hydraulic Manifold (Part A): Subtractive (CNC) process Vs AM Process –

• More material,
• Higher build time
• Support removal
• pre-/post-processing costs

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Need of DfAM

Develop the below part via PFB process

Cost of PBF-AM depends upon –

• material,
• build time
• machine cost and
• pre-/post-processing costs

(Source: Laser Zentrum Nord GmbH and iLAS—Technische Universitat Hamburg-Harburg) BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Need of DfAM

https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/the-value-of-design-for-additive-manufacturing-dfam(2) BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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How to implement DfAM

Using the Unique features of AM –

• Internal structures, such as lattice-filled solid objects
• Topology optimization, such as complex geometric shapes
• Multi-material design
• Part consolidation
• Mass customization

(Source: Laser Zentrum Nord GmbH and iLAS—Technische Universitat Hamburg-Harburg)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Introduction

• DfAM: when designers seek to create a product design

that takes advantage of the unique capabilities of AM to –
 Improve part functionality
 Reduction in weight and material
 the consolidation of several parts into one

• DfAM also respects the specific process constraints of the

AM technology that will be used to produce the product

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Introduction

Designing for AM includes three areas –

• Knowledge of AM processes and materials

• An understanding of DfAM tools (mostly software)

• Adopting a DfAM mindset

• An appreciation for the design problems and

opportunities suited to AM

From lecture of Prof. John Hart, MIT’s Additive and Digital Manufacturing Center

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Introduction

AM in direct part replacement, adapt for AM, and design for AM

Original part Changes in Form Redesign to

replication of part for easy maximize the
manufacturing AM benefit

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Introduction

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General Guidelines for DfAM

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The #1 Rule

It Depends!
• Many design parameters depend on other design
parameters and printing conditions

• Precise numbers that work in every case are hard to find.

• As an AM engineer or designer gains a deeper

understanding and experience of the intricacies of AM
processes

• Gradually become better equipped to design parts that

will print perfectly the first time.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

The #1 Rule

Example of the variability of design guidelines

• The minimum hole or slot size through a powder bed fusion
part depends on the thickness of the part.

• As the part grows in thickness, unfused powder in narrow

holes gets partially fused in the holes, so becomes
impossible to remove.

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The #1 Rule

• Different powder bed fusion machines produce parts of

different qualities as
 Run at different temperatures
 Layer thicknesses, and
 Laser scan parameters

• So the minimum hole or slot size is directly related –

 thickness of the part,
 layer thickness,
 print orientation, as well as
 the machine it is made on

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

The #1 Rule

Clearances between moving parts

• Larger the surface area of the parts that are in close

contact, the larger the gap between the moving parts must
be

• Because of the larger surface areas retaining heat for

longer

• Causing powder between the moving parts to fuse

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The #2 Rule

Should you be using AM in the first place?

• AM should not be used to produce parts, when the part could be
produced much better, cheaper, and faster using a number of other
technologies

Simple parts:
• laser cutting, More complex parts:
• waterjet cutting, • hard to manufacture
• punching, conventionally
• CNC machining, etc. • Ideal for AM

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

The #3 Rule

It doesn’t cost any more to make things beautiful!

• The design freedom characteristics of AM allow you to
make almost any shape you can imagine.

• Use this to give your product a unique aesthetic.

• Add useful cosmetic details, logos, instructions, part

numbers, etc. onto your parts

• This can help make assembly easier, help to identify

your product brand, and keep track of stock more easily.

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The #4 Rule

Fillet all corners

• Fillet (round) all sharp edges as it

serves dual purpose

1. Product becomes –
 more ergonomic and
 comfortable to hold and use

2. Reduces the stress concentrations

(sharp corners and transitions)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

The #4 Rule

• Internal corners:
 stress concentration occurs
 there is no reason not to, should always be filleted

• External corners:
• No more costs to print sharp external corners than
rounded external corners (in fact, it costs a bit less as
they require less material to be melted)
• it is also good practice to fillet external corners

• Fillet: a good rule of thumb is ¼ of the thickness

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The #5 Rule

Always think about print orientation

• The quality (strength, material properties, surface
quality, amount of support, etc.) of every part, with every
AM process, is directly related to print orientation.

• Print orientation determines the direction of the

anisotropy, which will always be in the Z direction, or
vertical print direction.

• Features requiring maximum strength need to be printed

horizontally.

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The #5 Rule

• Holes:
 best printed in the vertical orientation
 Horizontal printing suffers from the stair-step effect and
will also be slightly elliptical.

• Total height of the build determines number of layers of

material required, and therefore how long it will take to print

• The best print orientation: if there is no other critical

condition, that minimizes the total height of the build

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The #5 Rule

Some of the effects of printing a part in two different orientations

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The #6 Rule

Design to minimize large masses of material

• Unnecessary material: any feature that breaks the
‘even-thickness rule’ for no good reason
• Large masses of material in a part –
 cause a lot of residual stress
 add little engineering value
 requires more support material
 higher heat treatment
 adds to the print time
 cost a lot
should therefore be avoided
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The #7 Rule

Design to minimize support material

• Print orientation (rule #6) determines where support
material will be required for –
 overhangs, and
 heat transfer
• Support material location is, therefore, ALWAYS a key
design consideration.

Support material = Labour = Cost

Support material = Part quality

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

The #7 Rule

• Most AM technologies require the use of support

material

• Both part design, and print orientation affect the amount,

and position of support material.

• Placement and amount of support material greatly affect

part quality and post-processing cost

• Support material placed in the wrong areas can be very

difficult and time-consuming to remove

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Summary of DfAM Rules

Rule Description
Rule 1 Understanding of process and parameters
Rule 2 Use of AM/Conventional process
Rule 3 Aesthetics of product (free in AM)
Rule 4 Elimination of sharp corners
Rule 5 Decision on Print orientation
Rule 6 Design for mass minimization of parts
Rule 7 Design for minimize support material

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Let us apply DfAM Rules

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Design to Avoid Anisotropy

• Anisotropy: difference in mechanical properties of a

part in the vertical direction

• can be the Achilles heel of additive manufacturing

• DfAM rule #5: making decisions about print

orientation

• One of the chief reasons for this is because of

anisotropy.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Design to Avoid Anisotropy

Right bracket:
Left bracket: substantially
weak in the stronger
direction of because of the
the force print orientation

When designing your component, it is good to have an

understanding of the orientation that it will be built in

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Design to Avoid Anisotropy

Affect of Technology

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Economics of Additive Manufacturing

• Hype about AM: lower-cost part production (true in some cases)

• In general, an expensive and slow technology (used if adds value)

• Misunderstanding: for
conventional manufacturing,
costs decrease as quantities
increase, whereas with AM,
costs remain relatively
constant.

• In fact, it is quite rarely the

case

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Economics of Additive Manufacturing

• Industrial view: AM can replace conventional manufacturing

without re-designing components
• Ex. a component that was designed for 3-axis CNC machining;
more expensive to manufacture with AM (surface finish)
• Agreement: for AM to add maximum value, the parts must be
designed for additive manufacturing
• Why is designing for AM so important?
 Taking advantage of the functional and aesthetic value that
“complexity for free”
 The most compelling reason, however, is simple economics.

DfAM a necessity rather than a luxury

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Economics of Additive Manufacturing

Machine hourly running costs =

(Machine purchase cost + interest)/(payback period × % running time × yearly hours)

• One of the other costs associated with AM part production is the raw
material cost.

• About 10% material wastage (including both support material, and

partially sintered powder particles)

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Economics of Additive Manufacturing

• Post-processing costs: 70% of part cost can be spent on pre- and

post-processing.
In the 2018, Wohlers Report,

• Conservative estimate: 45% of the part costs is in pre- and post

processing the cost for the above 100 h part jumps up to $12,000.

• Part designing for minimum print time, and post-processing time

suddenly takes on increased significance!

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Time factors that are not affected by design

• In metal AM part production, some factors take time, and

therefore cost, but are not affected by the part design
• Recoater time (used in spreading a layer of powder
before the laser can start to scan)
• Typical recoater times: around 4–15 s per layer (based
on machine)
• Average recoater time 8 s, for a 100 mm tall part with
layer thickness is 50 μs (2000 layers)
• Total recoater time = 16,000 s (about 4.5 h) which,
• Average machine hourly price = above of $65/h
• Total recoating cost = about $290
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Time factors that are not affected by design

The table shows

the various steps
involved in metal
AM, and the steps
for which the total
print times are
affected by the
design of the part.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Design to Minimize Print Time

• Amount of powder to be
melted or deposited:
controllable through design,
affects printing time

• Material melted: ‘serial’ fashion

by energy beam that ‘draws’
each slice of the model

• In AM: know as contour lines and

hatch patterns.

• More surface area there is to fill, the longer the distance the energy
beam has to travel, and the longer time it takes to create each slice of
the model

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Design to Minimize Print Time

Let us take the hydraulic manifold shown below as an

example. It is designed to be manufactured with CNC
machining

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Design to Minimize Print Time

• For, manifold measures 100 mm × 100 mm, and the hatch spacing
is set to, say, 0.1 mm,

• Each square will require approximately 100 m of scanning to cover

both the contour lines and hatching.

• If the laser is travelling at 330 mm/s, it will take 300 s, or 5 min, to

hatch that slice of the model, or $5.41 of machine time per slice,
using our average $65/h machine cost.

• $5.41 per slice may not sound too bad but, if the layer thickness is,
say, 50 μs, then 2000 layers will be required to make the part. So
just laser scanning time for the part is $10,820

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Design to Minimize Print Time

Shelling can be used to reduce print time as the material that needs to
be melted is
Shelling: bulk of the material is removed from inside the part, leaving
only a specified wall thickness),

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Design to Minimize Post-processing

• One important goals in designing for AM is to reduce the
amount of support material used when printing the part.

• Support material with metal AM is used to anchor the

component, to help support overhanging features

• It is important to avoid support material in any internal

features, for example, inside the channels in the manifold
described above, as this can be difficult, or impossible, to
remove.

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Design to Minimize Post-processing

AM part redesigning approaches :

1. Reduce part to only those features that serve a functionality.

2. Decide how those features can be joined together.

3. Now consider the most appropriate print orientation depending on

what is important to you.

4. Run it through support generation software to see results.

• Consider replacing temporary supports with permanent walls.
• Consider changing the angles of features requiring support.

5. Reiterate.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Design to Minimize Post-processing

Simplified ‘block’
design manifold with
only the required in
and out channels

Manifold design
after shell
operation on block
design

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Design to Minimize Post-processing

Support material required by

shelled-block design in 2
different print orientations

Support material required

by optimised for metal AM
design

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Design to Minimize Post-processing

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Design to Minimize Post-processing

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Take Advantage of Design Complexity

• It doesn’t cost anything more to add cosmetic details

• Use shells, ribs, gussets, trusses, topology optimisation,

etc., to make the product as light as possible.

• Fillet all sharp edges.

• This aids both in making the product more comfortable to

hold and handle, as well as reducing stress
concentrations that can be induced by sharp corners.

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Take Advantage of Design Complexity

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Take Advantage of Design Complexity

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Take Advantage of Design Complexity

Support material required for distillery print

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Function First, Materials Second

• Engineers have a tendency to focus on a material that a similar part

has historically been made of, and often insist that an AM part must be
made of the same material.

• Because of the new way in which AM lets you design, it is often best to
first think of the function the part must perform and design around that.

• Once the design is complete, one can then look at available AM

materials to see if one of them is suitable for the function, and the
mechanical properties, that must be achieved.

• Because a component that has been designed for AM often requires

substantially less material than a conventionally designed part, it may
be possible to manufacture the part using a higher-specification, more
expensive, material without it costing any more than if the
conventional design were made with a lower-specification material.
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Use Topology Optimisation or Lattice Structures

• Topology optimisation (TO) is a numerical methodology
that optimises material layout within a given design space
and for given boundary conditions such that the resulting
layout meets a prescribed set of performance targets.

• With traditional manufacturing technologies, designs from

a topology optimisation, although optimal in terms of the
design criteria, may be expensive or infeasible to
manufacture.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Use Topology Optimisation or Lattice Structures

Bottle opener
General work process flow of topology optimisation weight reduction
through topology
optimisation
1. Simplify the model

2. Apply a suitable material to

the model

3. Divide the model

4. Setup different scenarios

5. Perform the topology

optimization

6. Convert to smooth model

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Use Topology Optimisation or Lattice Structures

Specialized topology optimisation software:

• Altair Optistruct and solid Thinking Inspire
• Tosca
• Top3D (MatLab)
• Paramatters
• LiveParts.

Most high-end FEA products:

• Abaqus
• Nastran, etc.

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Use Topology Optimisation or Lattice Structures

A good understanding of the true forces and constraints acting on the

part is essential for topology optimisation

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Use Topology Optimisation or Lattice Structures

Topology optimisation produces a ‘rough’ model that

must then be smoothed, courtesy of Renishaw

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Design for Additive
Manufacturing
(Merged DEZG544/DMZG521)(S2 21)

Jayakrishnan J
Guest faculty
Why lightweighting?
• Saving material cost
• Manufacturing lead time
• Sustainable benefits
 Structural optimization
Classification of structural optimization
1. Size optimization
2. Shape optimization
3. Topology optimization

Size

Shape

Topology
Lightweighting strategies
• Generative Design
• Topology Optimization
• Lattice Optimization
Topology Optimization

• Optimizes material layout within a given design space, for

a given set of loads, boundary conditions and constraints.
Difference between TO and Generative design

Topology Optimization Generative design

• Requires “expert” user to invest • Explorative methodology that has
time in fully confining the a goal driven approach
problem • All viable outcomes are presented
• Typically a light-weighting goal to the user
• Only represents one solution, • User can do tradeoffs for
totally dependent on accuracy performance (go beyond light
of confinement weighting)
• Typically is not • Manufacturability is taken into
manufacturing-aware account during ideation
Application of TO

Source: https://3dincredible.com/topology-optimization-for-additive-manufacturing/
 Topology Optimization methods
Classification of TO methods
1. Homogenization methods

2. Density methods

3. Evolutionary methods

4. Discrete methods

5. Boundary variation methods

 Density based method
● A microstructure material property contribution to the whole
structure depends on this density design variable which can
take any value between 0 and 1.
● Moreover, density methods involve penalization parameters,
which penalize intermediate densities to obtain
manufacturable solid-void designs with clear material
boundaries
● SIMP (Solid Isotropic Material Penalization) is a famous method in
density methods
 Level set method

• A topological sensitivity parameter is established. This is a measure of

the change in any structural response,
• based on the insertion of a small hole into the structure.
• The small hole modifies the topology.
• A high sensitivity means that any material removed, and hence the
change in topology, will have a large effect on the response.
• On the other hand, low sensitivity means that there is little impact
from the change in topology.
• If compliance is used as the structural response, then analytic
definitions of the topology sensitivity can be established.
Level set method

The vertical axis represents the level of

relative sensitivity.
The 3D plot is clipped at a particular
level of relative sensitivity.
The purple contour regions are below
this threshold.
The right-hand diagram shows these
regions mapped onto the mesh and
elements within this region are deleted
in a contiguous manner.
• Autodesk Fusion 360
• Create an Autodesk account using the
below link
https://accounts.autodesk.com/
• Download the student version of
Fusion360
Optimize this design

• Constraints 500 N
Pin joint

Pin joint
GUI of Autodesk Fusion 360
Steps to Open TO
TO Interface
TO Process

Select the
Select the Apply the Apply the
preserve
materials Constraints loads
geometry

Select the
Symmetry

Verify the Select the

Solve
process mesh size
Results
TO in ANSYS

Model the Perform

geometry in the Structural Find out the Less
ANSYS interface analysis stress areas

Redesign the
model

Perform
Save as new
Optimized Part Structural
geometry
analysis again
Static Structural Analysis

• The static structural analysis is done to identify the stress distribution in the model due to the
application of the boundary conditions
By double clicking on geometry you will be
opening the space claim in ANSYS where
you can create the 3d model
By clicking on Model you can open the
mechanical module where you will give the
boundary conditions to identify the structural
simulation
Topology Optimization

• Topology Optimization tool is applied on the solution to the first static structural analysis solution
so that the first three data labels will be transferred to the TO module

You have to setup the topology

optimization steps here
1. Give topology optimization objectives
in the response constraints
2. Solve the topology optimization
Design Validation of TO results

• For verifying the topologically optimized results can satisfy the given loading condition in the
original design
Edit the topology optimized
shape here

Like the first structural

analysis apply the loading
conditions and solve it
Lattice Optimization

Lattice structures can be very beneficial because weight can be

substantially reduced compared to solid parts made using
traditional manufacturing methods.
Further, recent advances in additive manufacturing enable the
creation of lattice structures in ways that weren’t possible with
traditional manufacturing.
Final project schematic of lattice optimization
 Design for Additive
Fused Deposition Modeling: Experimental Approach
Manufacturing- Lab Session 4
(Merged DEZG544/DMZG521)(S2 21)

Jayakrishnan J
Guest faculty
 Modeling: This is carried out in any 3D modeling
application

Three stages Tessellation of 3D model: Once you have created

of 3D printing your model, it then needs to be exported as either an
STL, OBJ or 3MF file.

Slicing of Tessellated model: The STL or OBJ file

can then be imported into any software where it is
sliced and converted to machine readable G-Code.
 Part Orientation

Support Generation
AM
Process Slicing
Planning
Path Planning

Print the model

Post processing
 Part accuracy

Surface finish

Part
Orientation Build time

Part strength

Support structure
 Orientate cylindrical features
vertically for a smoother
surface finish.

Consider the direction of the

Rule of thumb loading when choosing part
orientation of a functional
part.

Part orientation is most

important for FDM and
SLA/DLP 3D printing
processes.
Part Orientation &
Support structures
Part orientation and Support structures
 Supported area

Parameters
Supported volume
considered for Outbox volume
optimum
orientation Height
Centre of gravity height
 Slicing
Strategy
Path Planning : Geometric Complexity factor

Raster Zig-Zag Hybrid

Spiral
Continuous Contour
 Vat Photopolymerization Processes

Powder Bed Fusion Processes

AM Material Extrusion
Technologies Material Jetting

Binder Jetting

Sheet Lamination

Direct Energy Deposition

Material Extrusion Process
➢ Direct Ink Writing or DIW
➢ Extrusion Freeform Fabrication or EFF
➢ Fused Deposition Modelling or FDM® (Stratasys Inc.)
➢ Fused Filament Fabrication or FFF
➢ Glass 3D Printing or G3DP
➢ Liquid Deposition Modelling or LDM
➢ Micro pen Writing
➢ Plastic Jet Printing or PJP (3D Systems Corporation)
➢ Robocasting or Robotic Deposition
Materials in ME
▪Polymers
▪Cement
▪Chocolate
▪Ceramics
▪Metal filled plastics (Composite filaments)
▪Blended food
▪Biocompatible cellular scaffolds
Key Features in ME
•Loading of material
•Liquification of the material
•Application of pressure to move the material through the nozzle
•Extrusion
•Plotting according to a predefined path and in a controlled manner
•Bonding of the material to itself or secondary build materials to form a
coherent solid structure
•Inclusion of support structures to enable complex geometrical features
Fused Deposition Modelling
Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)

•Developed by Stratasys
•Clean, simple-to-use and office-friendly
•Supported production-grade thermoplastics are mechanically and
environmentally stable
Types of FDM Printers

• Cartesian
• Polar
• Delta
• Arm
Cartesian and Delta Printers
Extruder and Hot end
FDM Overview
Materials
Thermoplastics (PLA, ABS, PETG, PC, PEI etc)
Dimensional accuracy
± 0.5% (lower limit ± 0.5 mm) - desktop± 0.15% (lower limit ± 0.2 mm) -
industrial
Typical build size
200 x 200 x 200 mm - desktop1000 x 1000 x 1000 mm - industrial
Common layer height
50 to 400 microns
Support
Not always required (dissolvable available)
Creality Ender 3

• Print volume: 220 x 220 x 250mm.

• Nozzle: Single 0.4mm.
• Filament: 1.75mm.
• Heated bed temperature: 110℃
• Max. print speed: 180 mm/s.
• Layer resolution: 0.1 – 0.4mm (100-400
microns)
 • Cura
• Slice3r
• Autodesk Netfabb
• Meshmixer
• Meshlab
3D slicing • MatterControl 2.0
software's • Autodesk Fusion360
• Simplify3D
 Ultimaker Cura
4.12.1
CURA HELPS US TO PREPARE 3D MODEL FOR PRINTING.
IT TAKES A 3D MODEL AND SLICES IT INTO LAYERS TO CREATE A FILE KNOWN AS
G-CODE
Ultimaker
Cura
4.12.1
User
Interface
 For
Zoom in Span
To Select the
and out around
part in the
The three options available in cura build platform the build
software is to prepare , preview and platform
monitor

Prepare
All settings for printing the part is done
here and slice the model

Preview
To see the layer wise details of 3D model
before printing

Monitor
Directly connect any 3D printer and
operate it through the system.
How to Add Printer??
 Just drag the model and put into the platform
• or

File 🡪 Open files 🡪 Select the model and Click open

How to load The file formats which supports in the Cura

a model?? STL

3MF

OBJ, AMF
 Edit the model

Orient the model

Preparing
the Part
Place the model

Print setting
Move
Scale
Rotate
Mirror
Per model
setting
Support block
Print setting
options
 Profile
Selection
Setting the
Quality
Shell Setting
Infill Setting
Material Setting
Retraction setting
Speed Setting
Speed Vs Quality
Travel
Setting
Cooling
Setting
Support Setting
Build Plate
Adhesion
Special Modes and Experimental Setup
Slicing the model
View the layers
Monitor the Machine
 •Thingiverse
•MyMiniFactory
•Cults
3d Model •YouImagine
Repositories •Free3D
•Repables
•Libre3D
 28-Apr-22

Additive Manufacturing Processes

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Basic Characteristics
VP
Material Processing mechanisms
SL PBF
Process parameters
AM
Processes Process variants
DED ME
Material handling

BJ MJ Benefits and limitations

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Vat Photopolymerization Processes

Photopolymerization processes

 Primary materials: liquid, radiation-curable resins, or photopolymers

 Radiation: ultraviolet (UV) range of wavelengths and visible light

systems

 Photopolymerization: materials undergo a chemical reaction to

become solid when irradiated

 Reactions: typically complex and involve many chemical participants

4
Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

2
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Vat photopolymerization
 VP: A general term that encompasses SL and related processes.

 SL will be used to refer specifically to macroscale, laser scan vat

photopolymerization

 Radiations used: including gamma rays, X-rays, electron beams, UV,

and visible light.

 Applications –
• Microelectronics industry: for irradiating photomask photopolymers
(UV and electron beams)
• Dentistry field: visible light predominantly
5
Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Configurations for photopolymerization processes

The configurations include:
 Vector scan, or point-
wise, approaches: typical
of commercial SL machines
 Mask projection or layer-
wise approaches: that
irradiate entire layers at one Digital Micro-mirror Device
time
 Two-photon approaches:
that are essentially high-
resolution point-by-point
approaches

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Configurations: comparison
 Vector scan and two-photon approaches need scanning laser beams

 Mask projection approach utilizes a large radiation beam that is patterned by

another device, in this case a Digital Micromirror Device™ (DMD).

 In the two-photon case, photopolymerization occurs at the intersection of two

scanning laser beams

 In other configurations, use a single laser and different photoinitiator chemistries.

 Vector scan and mask projection approaches need to recoat or apply a new layer
of resin

 Two-photon approach: the part is fabricated below the resin surface, making
recoating unnecessary. Thus, faster and less complicated.
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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Industrial resins
 Initially used SL resins were acrylates.
 Exhibit high photospeed (react quickly when
exposed to UV radiation)
R denotes a molecular group
 Have a number of disadvantages including –
o Significant shrinkage and
o A tendency to warp and curl.

 As a result, they are rarely used now without

epoxy or other photopolymer elements.

 The most common cationic photopolymers: epoxies

(although vinylethers are also commercially
available)
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Industrial resins

 Epoxy monomers have rings

 Ring opening: when reacted, provides sites for other chemical bonds

 Ring opening facilitates –

 Essentially identical number and types of chemical bonds before and after
reaction
 Impart minimal volume change

 As a result, epoxy SL resins typically have –

 Much smaller shrinkages and
 Much less tendency to warp and curl

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Industrial use of photopolymer

 Epoxy resins have disadvantages including –
 Slow photospeed
 Brittleness of the cured parts
 Sensitivity to humidity

 Some suitable acrylate addition is required to epoxy resins for –

 Reducing the brittleness
 Rapid building of the part
 Adequate strength for handling without distortion during fabrication.

 Hybrid Resign
 Epoxides with some acrylate content
 Offers advantages of both curing types
 Improvement in accuracy has given SL a tremendous boost
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Vector Scan VP Machines

Subsystems for SL technology

The ProJet® 6000 HD

from 3D Systems Working of SLA Machines
https://www.3dsystems.com/
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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Defects in printing
Residual stresses:
 Due to shrinkage associated with solidification of resins

 Similarly, in powder melts, cooling and freezing reduces the volume of material

 Shrinkage pulls on the previous layers causing stresses

 Results in curl/warpage/deformation of the part

Print-through errors
 Extra energy that extended below the current layer results in thicker part sections

 Extra thickness is called print-through error (in SL) and bonus Z (in laser sintering).

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Scan Patterns
 Need:
 Uncured resign leads to distortion in post-cured parts
 Shrinkage lags exposure

 Key idea:
 To separate the curing of the majority of a layer from the adherence of that
layer to the previous layer

 To prevent laser scan lines from interfering with one another while each is
shrinking,

 Parallel scans were separated from one another by more than a line width.

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WEAVE Scan Patterns

 The WEAVE style consists of two sets of
parallel laser scans:

 First, parallel to the x-axis, spaced 1 mil

(1 mil=0.001 in. = 0.0254 mm)
 Second, parallel to the y-axis, spaced 1
mil apart

 Eliminates curl and warpage

 Drawbacks:
 Corners were distorted on large flat surfaces
 Microfissures (on a flat plate with a hole)
 Macrofissure tangent to the hole would appear
 Significant internal stresses developed within parts during part building
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STAR-WEAVE Scan Patterns

 STAR-WEAVE gets its name from

the three main improvements
from WEAVE:
1. Staggered hatch
2. Alternating sequence
3. Retracted hatch

 Scan Pattern : border of a cross section is scanned first, then the hatch is scanned.
 As a result, x-axis vectors adhere to both the left and right border vectors.

 When they shrink, they pull on the borders, bending them towards one another,
causing internal stresses.
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Retracted Hatch Scan Patterns

 An improvement in the STAR-WEAVE

 Alternating hatch vectors are retracted from the

border

 Performed for both the x and y vectors.

 Eliminated – microfissures and stress concentrations in the regions between vectors

 Addressed all of the known deficiencies of WEAVE

 Worked very well with the resins available at the time

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ACES Scan Patterns

 ACES (Accurate, Clear, Epoxy, Solid)

 Represents a family of build styles Typical ACES process variables for the SLA-250

 To address the needs of epoxy-based

photopolymers

Scan
 Overcomes deficiencies in STAR-WEAVE –
 Adequate resin cure (98 %) than in STAR-
Weave (96 %)

Recoat
 Reduction in post-cure shrinkage and
 Elimination of internal stresses, curl, and
warpage

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

ACES Scan Patterns

Accomplished by overlapping hatch vectors

 As a result, each point in a layer is exposed to
laser radiation from multiple scans
 Multiple scans affects cure depth
 Passes: one parallel to the x-axis and one
parallel to the y-axis.

 Region of influence is proportional to beam spot size

 Number of scans depends upon the beam size and the hatch spacing.
 Drawback: more scan vectors are necessary compared with WEAVE and STAR-WEAVE

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Process Benefits and Drawbacks

 Advantages
 Part accuracy and
 Surface finish
 Flexibility: supporting many different machine configurations and size scales
 Mask projection VP technologies have an inherent speed advantage over laser
scan SL

 Drawback
 Usage of photopolymers: limited to acrylates and epoxies for commercial
materials
 Less impact strength and durability
 Known to age, resulting in degraded mechanical properties over time

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Processes

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Introduction
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) was the first commercialized and
developed at the University of Texas at Austin, USA.

• SLS processes were originally developed to produce plastic prototypes

using a point-wise laser scanning technique.

• This approach was subsequently extended to metal and ceramic powders

• Later, modified approaches were developed –

 To enhance machine productivity
 To process different materials
 To avoid specific patented features
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Basic characteristics of PBF processes

Includes –
• One or more thermal sources
(for inducing fusion between powder particles)

• A method for controlling powder

fusion to a prescribed region of each
layer and
• Mechanisms for adding and
smoothing powder layers
• Thermal sources:
 Lasers (the most common)
 EB, Plasma (non-laser thermal
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Basic characteristics of PBF processes

23
King et al. Applied Physics Reviews 2, 041304 (2015); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4937809

Basic characteristics of PBF processes

• Inert Gas: nitrogen gas is common

 to minimize oxidation and degradation of the powdered material
• Preheating:
 Powder: just below melting point and/or glass transition temperature
 Infrared heaters: placed above the build platform
 Resistive heaters: build platform is also heated by this
 To minimize the laser power requirements of the process and
 To prevent warping of the part (resulting in curling)

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Powder Fusion Mechanisms

• There are four different fusion mechanisms which are present in PBF
processes –
 Solid-state sintering,
 Chemically induced binding,
 Liquid-phase sintering (LPS), and
 Full melting

• Most commercial processes utilize primarily LPS and melting.

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Solid-State Sintering

• Indicates fusion of particles without

melting at elevated temperatures
• Temperature range: between half of the
absolute melting temperature to
melting temperature.
• Deriving force: minimization of total
free energy
• Mechanism of sintering:
Diffusion between powder particles

where, ϒs = surface energy per unit area for a particular material,

atmosphere, and temperature and SA = total particle surface area
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Chemically Induced Sintering

• Involves the use of thermally activated chemical reactions between –

 Two types of powders or
 Powders and atmospheric gases

• Binding: by-products of the chemical reaction

• Primarily utilized for ceramic materials

• Examples –
 SiC + oxygen, whereby SiO2 forms and binds
 ZrB2 + oxygen, whereby ZrO2 forms and binds
 Al + N2, whereby AlN forms and binds
SLS-produced investment casting shell for impeller wheel
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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Chemically Induced Sintering

• By adding chemical reaction energy to the laser energy, high-melting-temperature
structures can be created at relatively low laser energies.

• Common characteristic CIS: part porosity

• Higher densities are often needed to achieve properties that are useful for most
applications.

• Post-processing: infiltration or high-temperature furnace sintering

• Infiltration: may involve other reactive elements; forms new chemical compounds
after infiltration.

• Limitation: cost and time associated with post-processing have limited the adoption
of CIS in commercial machines.
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Liquid Phase Sintering (LPS) – Partial Melting

• The most versatile mechanism for PBF.
• A portion of constituents within a
collection of powder particles become
molten, while other portions remain
solid.
• Molten constituents: act as the glue
which binds the solid particles
together

• As a result, high temperature particles can be bound together without needing to melt
or sinter those particles directly.
• Traditional powder metallurgy example – cemented carbide cutting tools (Co, WC)
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Liquid Phase Sintering (LPS) – Partial Melting

Liquid phase sintering variations used in PBF:
a) Separate particles (different binder and structural grains)
b) Composite particles (both in a same grain)
c) Coated particles, and ( binder coating on structural material) Darker regions: lower-
melting-temperature
d) Indistinct mixtures (do not exhibit a clear distinction; distinguishable binder material.
in molten and non-molten material areas)
• Single phase, partially molten (heat supplied is insufficient) Lighter regions: high
• Fusing powder mixture (consisting of multiple phases) melting-temperature
structural material.

30
Kruth et. al. (2005). Binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting. Rapid prototyping journal, 11(1), 26-36.

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Full Melting

• Most commonly used for engineering metal alloys and semi-crystalline polymers

• Entire region of material subjected to impinging heat energy is melted to a depth

exceeding the layer thickness

• Thermal energy of subsequent scans of a laser or electron beam is typically sufficient

to re-melt a portion of the previously solidified solid structure

• This type of full melting is very effective at creating –

 well-bonded
 high-density structures

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Process Parameters

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Powder delivery systems

Characteristics of powder delivery system –

1. Acts as a powder reservoir

2. Delivers exact volume of powder from reservoir to build platform

3. Ensures formation of smooth, thin, repeatable layer of powder.

4. Powder spreading must avoid excessive shear forces that disturb the
previously processed layers

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Powder Handling Challenges

Must be able to deal with the following universal characteristics –

1. Powder flowability

2. Avoiding powder interaction with atmosphere

3. Minimizes the creation of airborne particles

4. Reducing the negative effects of the fine particles

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Powder Handling Systems

First approach: Earliest commercialized Another approach: Hopper-based powder delivery systems
LS powder delivery system

Use of Doctor blade:

• Non-fluidized powder bed in case of Doctor blade
• Higher shear on the previous layer (reduced by Ultrasonic vibrations)
• Fluidized powder bed
• Small shear on the previous layer
Multimaterial powders: effective method is to use multiple hoppers
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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Powder Recycling
• General approach: Mix a specific ratio of unused powder with used powders
(fraction-based mixture: 1/3 unused powder, 1/3 overflow/feed powder, and
1/3 build platform powder)

• Mixing inconsistencies: Due to different thermal history of the powders

• Melt Flow Index (MFI):

 Used powders (part-bed and overflow/feed materials) are mixed and tested.
 Unused powder is also tested.
 The MFI for both is determined.
 A well-blended mixture of unused and used powder is created
 Tested to achieve the target MFI

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Types of PBF Processes

• Laser Based
 SLS – Selective Laser Sintering
 DMLS – Direct Metal Laser Sintering
 SLM – Selective Laser Melting
 DMP – Direct Metal Printing (using melting)

• Electron beam based

 EBM – Electron Beam Melting

• Plasma based
 SHS – Selective Heat Sintering
37

Electron Beam Melting

• One of the most promising

aspects of EBM is the ability
to move the beam nearly
instantaneously.

• Residual stresses are less

Representative CoCrMo mLS microstructure (left, courtesy: EOS),

and Ti6Al4V EBM microstructure (right, courtesy: Arcam)
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EMB Vs MLS

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Extrusion-based Systems

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Introduction
• AM technologies that use extrusion to form parts

• Extrusion-based machine must be capable of –

 scanning in a horizontal plane as well as
 starting and stopping the flow of material while scanning

• Extrusion-based processes use two primary approaches –

 to use temperature as a way of controlling the material State
 to use a chemical change to cause solidification

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Approaches for Extrusion based AM

Gonzalez-Gutierrez, J., Cano, S., Schuschnigg, S., Kukla, C., Sapkota, J., & Holzer, C. (2018). Additive manufacturing of metallic and ceramic components by the material extrusion of 42
highly-filled polymers: A review and future perspectives. Materials, 11(5), 840.

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Basic Principles
Basic features are :
• Loading of material
• Liquification of the material
• Application of Pressure
• Extrusion
• Plotting (predefined path and controlled manner)
• Material bonding (itself or secondary build
materials)

• Support structures (complex geometrical features)

• Part finishing

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Bonding potential
• Minimum energy required to bond two roads.

Tc - critical temperature
• above which a diffusive bonding process is activated and
• below which bonding is prohibited

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Fused Deposition Modeling

• The most common extrusion-based AM technology
• Produced and developed by Stratasys, USA

FDM technology to get things printed.

Typical Stratasys machine (Source: ALL3DP)

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Extrusion based AM of composites

Gonzalez-Gutierrez, J., Cano, S., Schuschnigg, S., Kukla, C., Sapkota, J., & Holzer, C. (2018). Additive manufacturing of metallic and ceramic components by the material extrusion of 46
highly-filled polymers: A review and future perspectives. Materials, 11(5), 840.

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Bio-extrusion
• Biocompatible and/or biodegradable components generation of frameworks
• Frameworks: Scaffolds (host to animal cells for the formation of tissue)
• Properties required – Porous (macro & micro), cell adhesion and space for cells growth

Gel Formation Bio-Extrusion Melt Extrusion

• Hydrogels (water insoluble) • Stronger scaffolds

• Extruded in a jelly-like form • Screw-feed systems preferred
• Natural hydrogels proffered • Properties –
• Properties –  Strong
 Very biocompatible  Biocompatibility (may fail)
 Conducive to cell growth  Bio-toxicity (may fail)
 Low toxicity levels • Significant post-processing
 Weak scaffolds 47
Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Other Systems

• Contour Crafting

• Nonplanar Systems https://www.contourcrafting.com/building-construction

• FDM of Ceramics

• Reprap and Fab@home

(a) tube-array; (b) bellows; (c) spiral; (d) curved

transducer; (e) telescoping; (f) radial actuator
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Direct Write Technologies

Introduction
DW includes technologies which can –
 Create 2D or 3D functional structures directly onto flat or conformal
surfaces

 capable of creating meso-, micro-, and nanoscale structures

 No tooling or mask

50

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Classification

Mortara, L., Hughes, J., Ramsundar, P. S., Livesey, F., & Probert, D. R. (2009). Proposed classification scheme for direct writing technologies. Rapid Prototyping Journal. 51

Additive and subtractive approaches

Mortara, L., Hughes, J., Ramsundar, P. S., Livesey, F., & Probert, D. R. (2009). Proposed classification scheme for direct writing technologies. Rapid Prototyping Journal. 52

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Ink-based DW
• Involves use of liquid inks which are deposited on a surface
• A significant number of ink types are available, including, among others:
 Colloidal inks Droplet jetting
 Nanoparticle-filled inks
 Fugitive organic inks
 Polyelectrolyte inks
 Sol–gel inksInk-based

Continuous filament writing Nozzle Dispensing Processes

Inkjet Printing Processes

Quill-Type Processes Aerosol DW

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Laser Transfer DW
• A focused high-energy laser beam is absorbed by a material, that material may be
heated, melted, ablated, or some combination thereof
• Ablation - a gas or plasma - expands rapidly (as further laser energy is added)
• Rapid expansion can create a shock wave within a material or can propel a material

Mechanism for laser transfer using a sacrificial transfer material Mechanism for laser transfer using thermal shock and spallation
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Thermal Spray DW
• A process that accelerates material to high velocities and deposits them on a
substrate

• Key characteristics of thermal spray DW

include:
• a high volumetric deposition rate,
• material flexibility,
• useful material properties in the as-
deposited state (without thermal
treatment or curing), and
• moderate thermal input during
processing, allowing for deposition
on a variety of substrates.
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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Beam Deposition DW
• Based upon vapor deposition technologies
using, primarily, thermal decomposition of
precursor gases.

• Vapor deposition technologies produce solid

material by condensation, chemical reaction,
or conversion of material from a vapor state.

• Methods include –
 Laser CVD
 Focused Ion Beam CVD
 Focused Electron Beam CVD

The LCVD system developed at Georgia Tech

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Liquid-Phase Direct Deposition

• Thermal or electrical energy can be used to convert liquid-phase materials into
solid materials.

• Techniques –
 Thermo-Chemical Liquid Deposition

 Electrochemical Liquid Deposition (ECLD)

Advantages –
• used to produce complex-geometry solids
• Useful for small length scales An electrochemical liquid deposition system
Disadvantages
• TCLD: need for a heated substrate and the use of chemical precursors
• ECLD: slow deposition rate and post-processing requirements
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Binder Jetting Process

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Introduction
• AM technologies in which a
binder material is printed on
a powder bed

• Originally named ‘Three-

dimensional printing
technique’
• Early uses: fabrication of
sand moulds and cores

• Presently, attracted attention

due to its high productivity
and the relative simplicity

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BJ: processing steps

60
Ziaee, M., & Crane, N. B. (2019). Binder jetting: A review of process, materials, and methods. Additive Manufacturing, 28, 781-801.

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BJ: binder interaction with powder

Binder: A temporary glue to join the powder particles into the desired shape
and holding the particle in that shape until initial stage of sintering

The binder deposition is controlled by –

• Droplet volume
• Spacing between binder droplets 61

BJ: process parameters

Feedstock Properties
• Binder: binding ability and evaporation
• Powder
 Shape: Particle size distribution (PSD) – Bimodal powder size
 Size (0.2 – 200 µm): Affects flowability, reactivity with binder, wettability,
surface roughness and resolution of the part

Inconel powder

 Physical properties: flowability and bulk density

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BJ: process parameters

Printing Parameters
• Layer Thickness (2r, 3r or >r largest provides good flow and spreadability)

• Printing Saturation (The percentage of air volume which is occupied by the binder)

“PR” is packing rate (50-70%)

Schematic of
printing saturation

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BJ: process parameters

Printing Parameters
• Heater Power Ratio (ratio of current heater power to the maximum heater power)
 Determines heating speed and temperature
 Too low power ratio cannot dry the binder
 Too high power ratio consumes more power, energy and may increase deformation and
shrinkage rate during printing

• Drying Time (duration of drying the

binder under the heater after printing
each layer)

 Short drying time results in print head

blockage
 Significantly impacts part surface
quality
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BJ: post-processing

• Binder curing

• Depowdering (brushing, blow air, vibration, vacuum, if binder is not soluble ultrasonicating,
microwave-induced boiling, and CO2 bubble generation)

• Debinding

• Sintering (essential process)

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BJ: machines
Ex-One S-Max system

Voxeljet VXC800

Mirzababaei, S., & Pasebani, S. (2019). A review on binder jet additive manufacturing of 316L
stainless steel. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 3(3), 82.

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Advantages of BJS
• Faster

• Parts with material combinations

• Better quality parts

• Color printing

Disadvantages of BJS
• Shrinkage

• Poor accuracy and surface finish

• Infiltration is required
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Material Jetting Process

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Introduction
• Part material is dispensed from a print head
• Liquid droplets of build material are selectively deposited and become
solid via –
 Cooling (e.g., by crystallization or vitrification),
 Chemical changes (e.g., cross-linking of a polymer), or
 Solvent evaporation

• Initially used for printing parts out of wax and polymers

• Most appropriate for concept modeling and investment casting

patterns
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MJ Process

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Material Processing Fundamentals

• Phase changes in existing printing technologies are –

 Solidification of a melted material (e.g., wax, solder),
 Evaporation of the liquid portion of a solution (e.g., some ceramic approaches)
 Curing of a photopolymer (e.g., Objet, ProJet machines)
 Other chemical reactions

• Phase change must occur either during droplet flight or soon after impact

• The time and place of this conversion will also affect –

 Droplet’s interaction with the substrate and
 Final deposition created

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Material Processing Fundamentals

Considering energy conservation during droplet generation mechanisms for printing –

losses due to Energy needed kinetic energy

the viscosity of to form the free required to propel
the fluid surface the liquid

In printing situations, wall friction dominates the forces required to print, hence, second
and third terms can be ignored.

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Printing indicator
ME F416

In printing situations, wall friction dominates the forces required to print, hence, second
and third terms can be ignored.
Steady, incompressible, laminar flow through a straight circular tube of constant cross
section, the first term can be written as –

where Q = the flow rate and r = the tube radius

• Indicates the potential of a fluid to be

printed successfully

• A combination of the Reynolds and Weber

numbers are used to predict
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Droplet Formation Technologies

Can be categorized based on the possible modes of expulsion:

• Advantages: High • Advantages:

throughput rate  Smaller drop size
 High accuracy of
• Application: such as drops placement
food and • Application: such as
pharmaceutical PCB board printing
labeling
• Constraints: • Constraints:
 Materials must be  Time
able to carry a consumption is
charge high
 Efficient waste  Control over drop
management formation
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Droplet Formation Technologies (CS)

• A steady pressure is applied to
the fluid reservoir

• Pressurized column of fluid gets

ejected from the nozzle

• Post-exit to nozzle, stream

breaks into droplets due to
Rayleigh instability.

• Consistent breakup: vibration, perturbation, modulation

• Synchronization for uniform ejection: a fixed frequency

close to the spontaneous droplet formation rate (process
synchronizes with the forced vibration)
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Droplet Formation Technologies (DOD)

• Individual droplets are produced directly from the
nozzle
• Droplets are formed only when individual pressure
pulses in the nozzle cause the fluid to be expelled

• Pressure pulse generation: at specific times by

actuators – Thermal, Electrostatic, Piezoelectric,
Acoustic, or other actuators

Piezoelectric DOD is more widely

applicable than Thermal one
Thermal (top) and piezoelectric (bottom) DOD ejection
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Droplet Formation Technologies (Other techniques)

• Liquid spark jetting

• Electro-hydrodynamic jetting

• Electro-rheological fluid jetting

• Ultrasound droplet ejectors

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Material Jetting Machines

Companies: Solidscape, 3D Systems, and Stratasys

Stratasys Polyjet build process

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Material Jetting Vs SLA

Poly-jet MJP SLA

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Advantages of MJ

• Low cost

• High speed

• Scalability

• Ease of building parts in multiple materials

• Capability of printing colors

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Technical challenges in MJ
• Formulation of the liquid material
• Droplet formation
• Control of the deposition of droplets –
 Droplet flight path
 Impact
 Substrate wetting or interaction
 Droplet velocity and size
• Control of the deposition of droplets on top of previously deposited layers

• Challenges in process planning (Nozzle clogging and droplet existing etc.)

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Sheet Lamination Process

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Introduction
• AM technologies in which sheets are used to form a 3D object

• Also known as Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

• Initially, process was developed to produce layer-by-layer lamination of paper

material sheets

• A CO2 laser was used to cut the outer contours of the parts are cut

• The sheets can be either cut and then stacked or stacked and then cut

• Each sheet represents one cross-sectional layer of the CAD model of the part

• Further, techniques were developed to process sheets of different materials

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Generic LOM process

Schematic of the LOM process

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Classification of Sheet Lamination Processes (SLP)

Based on the mechanism employed to achieve bonding between the layers –

Gluing
/Adhesive
Bonding

Thermal
Ultrasonic
welding SLP Bonding

Clamping

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Gluing or Adhesive Bonding

• Use of a polymer-based adhesive
• Requirement:
 sheet material that can be precisely cut using a laser/mechanical cutter
 It can be bonded

• Types: based on the order of steps –

Bond-then-Form processes Form-then-Bond processes

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Bond-then-Form processes
Advantages –
• Little shrinkage, residual stresses, and distortion
• Paper feedstock: amenable to common finishing operations
• Large parts can be fabricated rapidly
• A variety of build materials can be used
• Nontoxic, stable, and easy-to-handle feedstock

Disadvantages –
• Parts need coating to prevent moisture absorption and excessive wear
• Difficult to control of the parts’ accuracy in the Z-dimension
• Inhomogeneous mechanical and thermal properties of parts
• Small part feature detail is difficult to maintain
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Popular for construction of parts

Form-then-Bond processes in metallic or ceramic materials

Offset Fabbing (glue-based) system CAM-LEM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing of

Stratoconception approach
Laminated Engineering Materials): Ceramics

Advantages – Disadvantages –
• Construction of parts with internal • External support with specific
features and channels properties is required
• Avoids cutting into the previous layers • Bond strength is low as
compared to other processes
• Decubing step is eliminated
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Thermal Bonding
• An effective method for forming complex metal parts and tools, particularly those
which have internal cavities and/or cooling channels
Commercial utilization is limited
due to –
• Bond-then-form processes
require extensive post-
processing
• Form-then-bond processes are
difficult to automate for
arbitrary, complex geometries.
Commercial interest is limited to –
the area of inexpensive, full-color paper parts and large tooling, where internal, conformal
cooling channels can provide significant benefits over traditional cooling strategies.
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Zak, G., & Wang, W. X. (2002). Adhesive Bonding of Sheet for Laminated Metal Tooling 502. In 2002 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium.

Sheet Metal Clamping

• Used in the case of assembling rigid metal laminates into simple shapes
• Clamp the sheets together using bolts and/or a clamping mechanism rather than
using an adhesive or thermal bonding method
Advantages –
• Clamping is quick and inexpensive
• Modification is possible
• Easy recycling of the materials
• Acts as a reference point to register each laminate with
respect to one another Profiled edge laminate

Disadvantages-
• Separation of laminates
• Damage at bolted areas 90
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Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing

• A hybrid sheet lamination process

• Combines ultrasonic metal seam welding
and CNC milling
• Also known as Ultrasonic Consolidation (UC)
• UAM is a bond-then-form process

t = 100–150 μm

f = 20 kHz frequency
Schematic of ultrasonic consolidation
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Mechanism of bonding

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UAM Bond Quality

Bonding develops due to the presence of one/a combination below listed mechanisms –
1. Mechanical interlocking
2. Melting of interface materials
3. Diffusion bonding; and
4. Atomic forces across nascent metal surfaces (e.g., solid-state metallurgical bonding)

A UAM part made from four layers of Al 3003 foils SEM microstructures of Al 3003/SS mesh: (a) SS mesh embedded between Al 3003 layers
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UAM Process Parameters

• Oscillation amplitude (Generally the higher the oscillation amplitude, the greater the
ultrasonic energy delivered; consequently, more elastic/plastic deformation occurs; optimum value)

• Normal force (to establish metallurgical bonds across the interface; optimum value)

• Travel speed (determines exposure time of ultrasonic energy; optimum value)

• Preheat temperature (reduces flow stress of sheet; optimum value)

• Metal foil thickness (~150 μm)

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Defects in UAM parts

• The most common defects in UAM-made parts are voids.
• Depending upon defect origin, they can be classified as –
• Type-1 defects: typically have a flat upper surface and a rounded lower surface
• Type-2 defects: voids where the interface has been torn apart after bonding
• Type-3 defects: physical gaps between adjacent metal foils

Type-1 defect Type-3 defect

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UAM Applications

• Internal Features

• Material Flexibility

• Fiber Embedment

• Smart Structures

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Directed Energy Deposition Process

Introduction
• DED Process enable the creation of parts by melting material while depositing

• NOT used to melt a material that is pre-laid in a powder bed (like PBF).

• Although this basic approach can work for polymers, ceramics, and metal matrix
composites

• Predominantly used for metal powders.

• Often referred to as “metal deposition” technology

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Classification

1 2

1 Coaxial feeding: a higher capture efficiency of

powder, and protect the melt pool from
oxidation

Single nozzle feeding: apparatus simplicity,

economical, and ability to deposit material
into tight locations; however, melt pool
geometry is direction specific
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Dass, A., & Moridi, A. (2019). State of the art in directed energy deposition: From additive manufacturing to materials design. Coatings, 9(7), 418.

Basic Principles
Process Parameters:
• Track scan spacing
• Powder feed rate
• Beam traverse speed
• Beam power and
• Beam spot size
• Feedstock material
properties
Dilution (D) = d/ (h+d)

Schematic illustrating laser optics and energy density

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Generic DED process

Complex 3-D geometry: requires either support material or
a multi-axis deposition head.

LENS-deposited Ti/TiC metal matrix composite structure

Laser-Based Metal
Deposition (LBMD)
is more popular

Schematic of a typical laser powder DED process DED of CoCrMo

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Electron Beam-Based DED

• Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication (EBF3) was developed by NASA Langley, USA,

• To fabricate and/or repair aerospace structures both terrestrially and in future

space-based systems

• Uses wire feeder

• Advantages
 More efficient in converting electrical energy into a beam than most lasers
 Work effectively in a vacuum but not in the presence of inert gases
 Well suited for the space environment
 Wire feeding is preferred for low-gravity environments

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Benefits and drawbacks

• Benefits
 Fully dense parts with unparalleled control of microstructure
 Effectively repairing and refurbishing defective and service damaged parts
 Producing of in-situ generated composite and heterogeneous material parts

• Drawbacks
 Poor resolution and
 Surface finish (> 25 μm)
 Poor accuracy (> 0.25 mm)
 Slower build speed

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Micro- and Nano-Additive Manufacturing

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Micro-Additive Manufacturing
Definition: the commercially scalable and economically sustainable mass production
of microscale materials and devices built up by depositing materials layer-by-layer
fabrication techniques

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Micro-Additive Manufacturing Techniques

Laser Induced Forward Transfer (LIFT)

Dynamic Release Layer (DRL)

Matrix-Assisted Pulsed Laser

Evaporation-Direct Write
(MAPLE-DW) technique
3

Micro-Additive Manufacturing Techniques

Laser Induced Forward Transfer (LIFT)

Time-resolved images of the hydrogel transfer

on the collector slide (bare glass slide) via LIFT.
Jet front velocity is 66 2 m/s at 1.6 J/cm2. Black
horizontal lines appear due to destructive
interference of the coherent probe illumination 4

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Micro-Additive Manufacturing Techniques

Two-photon polymerization at micro scale
For fabrication of structures bigger than the
working distance of the objective lens,

Principle of Dip-In Laser Lithography (DiLL)

Principle of 2P polymerization 5

Micro-Additive Manufacturing Techniques

Other processes Hybrid micro-stereo-lithography

Stimulated Emission Depletion (STED)

reduces manufacturable feature sizes by single photon
influencing the chemical reaction within a 2PP polymerization and
process. aerosol jet printing
technology

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Nano-Additive Manufacturing
Definition
the commercially scalable and economically sustainable mass production of
nanoscale materials and devices built up by depositing materials layer-by-layer
fabrication techniques

Nano Vs Micro:
• In microscale additive manufacturing, the micro-particles have to be melted or
sintered together to achieve the required mechanical strength.
• In contrast, gravity is negligible for nanoparticles, therefore, nanoparticles can be
easily attached together through electrostatic or van der Waals forces.
• In addition, the laser-nanoparticle interaction can be tailored for additive nano-
manufacturing by designing the size and shape of the nanoparticles.

Zhao, Chenglong, Piyush J. Shah, and Luke J. Bissell. "Laser additive nano-manufacturing under ambient conditions." Nanoscale 11.35 (2019): 16187-16199. 7

Nano-Additive Manufacturing Techniques

Additive Nano-manufacturing in liquid environment

Optical printing Shrink-and-fit Method

Zhao, Chenglong, Piyush J. Shah, and Luke J. Bissell. "Laser additive nano-manufacturing under ambient conditions." Nanoscale 11.35 (2019): 16187-16199.
8

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Nano-Additive Manufacturing Techniques

Additive Nano-manufacturing in liquid environment

Laser printed nanoparticles

Photopolymerization method

Optothermally generated surface bubble method

Zhao, Chenglong, Piyush J. Shah, and Luke J. Bissell. "Laser additive nano-manufacturing under ambient conditions." Nanoscale 11.35 (2019): 16187-16199. 9

Nano-Additive Manufacturing Techniques

Additive Nano-manufacturing in gaseous environment – to avoid
• Sample contaminations and
• Low-temperature processing

Destructive transfer - laser-induced-forward-transfer (LIFT)

Non-destructive transfer method
Zhao, Chenglong, Piyush J. Shah, and Luke J. Bissell. "Laser additive nano-manufacturing under ambient conditions." Nanoscale 11.35 (2019): 16187-16199.
10

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Nano-Additive Manufacturing Techniques

Additive nano-manufacturing based on laser sintering

laser sintering nanoparticles Direct laser writing

Zhao, Chenglong, Piyush J. Shah, and Luke J. Bissell. "Laser additive nano-manufacturing under ambient conditions." Nanoscale 11.35 (2019): 16187-16199.
11

Process capability

Two-photon lithography (TPL)

12

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Thank you

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Module#5

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Selection of AM Processes

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Software Issues

Problems with STL Files

Unit changing:
This is not strictly a result of a bad STL file. Since US machines still commonly
use imperial measurements and most of the rest of the world uses metric, some
files can appear scaled because there is no explicit mention of the units

Vertex to vertex rule:

Each triangle must share two of

its vertices with each of the
triangles adjacent to it. This
means that a vertex cannot
intersect the side of another

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Problems with STL Files

Leaking STL files:

STL data files should construct one or more manifold entities according to Euler’s Rule
for solids:
No: of faces – No: of edges + No: of vertices = 2 No: of bodies
Leaks can be generated by facets crossing each other in 3D space

Problems with STL Files

Degenerated facets:
• These facets normally result from numerical truncation.

• A triangle may be so small that all three points virtually coincide with each other.

• After truncation, these points lay on top of each other causing a triangle with no
area.

• This can also occur when a truncated triangle returns no height and all three vertices
of the triangle lie on a single straight line.

• While the resulting slicing algorithm will not cause incorrect slices, there may be
some difficulties with any checking algorithms and so such triangles should really be
removed from the STL file.
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Thank you